",isbn:"978-1-83969-234-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-233-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-235-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a5f5277a1c0616ce6b35f4b44a4cac7a",bookSignature:"Dr. Basel I. Ismail",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10013.jpg",keywords:"Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer Analyses, Geothermal Power Generation, Economics, Geothermal Systems, Geothermal Heat Pump, Green Energy Buildings, Exploration Methods, Geologic Fundamentals, Geotechnical, Geothermal System Materials, Sustainability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Leading research investigator in a collaborative project (2007-2010) with Goldcorp-Musselwhite Canada Ltd. and Engineering of Lakehead University, owner of a Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada and postdoctoral researcher (2004 to 2005) at McMaster University.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel",middleName:"I.",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-ismail",fullName:"Basel Ismail",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62122/images/system/62122.jpg",biography:"Dr. B. Ismail is currently an Associate Professor and Chairman of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. In 2004, Prof. Ismail earned his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. From 2004 to 2005, he worked as a Postdoctoral researcher at McMaster University. His specialty is in engineering heat transfer, engineering thermodynamics, and energy conversion and storage engineering. Dr. Ismail’s research activities are theoretical and applied in nature. Currently, his research areas of interest are focused on green engineering technologies related to alternative and renewable energy systems for power generation, heating and cooling. Dr. Ismail was the leading research investigator in a collaborative project (2007-2010) with Goldcorp-Musselwhite Canada Ltd. and Engineering of Lakehead University. 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1. Introduction
Nitrogen (N) cycling in terrestrial ecosystems is a global environmental concern. The N cycle is a complex interplay where biotic and abiotic processes interact to transform and transfer N in an ecosystem. In general, one can simplify by classifying terrestrial N cycles all over the world in two groups: ‘tight’ N cycles and ‘open’ N cycles. The ‘tight’ N cycle is characterized by its high efficiency in producing bioavailable N and retaining it in the plant-soil system. The ‘open’ N cycle, on the other hand, is then considered to be less efficient, showing significant loss of N towards aquatic ecosystems and the atmosphere. The latter losses might lead to adverse effects on stream water and air quality, contributing as such to ‘global change’ [1].
The movement of nutrients between ecosystems is called geochemical cycling or external cycling. Two important input processes to forests are atmospheric deposition and mineral weathering [2]. The atmospheric input to forests consists of dry, and wet deposition. Aerosol and gases can by deposited directly from the air to plant and soil surfaces during rainless periods by dry deposition. Wet deposition is defined as the input of atmospheric compounds to the earth´s surface by rain, hail, snow and/or occult deposition that occurs via fogs and clouds, which can be important in mountainous regions [3]. During rain events, dry deposition is washed off from plant parts and, together with wet deposition, reaches the forest floor as throughfall and stem flow. A second input process is the weathering of soil minerals as a result of chemical dissolution. In combination with atmospheric deposition, mineral weathering is the only long-term source of base cations for terrestrial ecosystems [2].
The temperate climate region of southern Chile still reflects undisturbed, pre-industrial environmental conditions [4]. This is in strong contrast with land use, which has been altered significantly over the last decades and centuries. Only fragments of the original forest vegetation remain unaltered, and are located in the Coastal and Andes mountain ranges (CMR and AMR, respectively). Exotic tree plantations and agricultural areas dominate the central valley of southern Chile [5]. These characteristics make this region an ideal study area to investigate human impacts on biogeochemical nutrient cycling. Temperate forests in Chile are not yet affected by elevated N deposition, as is the case for forests in Europe or northeastern North America [6]. However, anthropogenic activities such as transport, industry and agriculture have been increasing in central and southern Chile. These activities can substantially alter the atmospheric N load and enhance N input on forest ecosystems in Chile [5].
Several biogeochemical studies have been carried out most in humid temperate forest ecosystems between 40° and 43° S in southern Chile [i.e. 7; 8; 9]. The annual mean temperature is 5 to 12° C and precipitation ranges from 2000 to 7000 mm in the AMR [3]. Data from [5] reported that mean annual N composition of the rainwater in the CMR and AMR ranges (41°-43° S), varied between < 30 – 43 NO3--N µg L-1 and 9.8 – 26.2 NO3--N µg L-1. Similarly, NH4+-N concentrations were < 50 NH4+-N µg L-1 and between 39.5 – 45.4 NH4+-N µg L-1 for CMR and AMR, respectively. Forests in the CMR, are located immediately near the ocean and are unique in this sense that external input of major elements are almost exclusively due to marine aerosols. Since trees canopy act as efficient filters, forests can capture large amounts of atmospheric deposition, especially occult deposition (i.e: fog and cloud). Normally, mountain forest ecosystems are very efficient in trapping nutrients, especially N and cations from clouds and fogs [10; 11; 4].
Stream nutrient loads are heavily dependent on catchment vegetation. Alteration of canopies and the soil under it, have a significant impact on nitrogen (NO3--N; NH4+-N; DON and TDN) and phosphorus (PO43+-P and TDP) reaching the stream. Human disturbances have a direct impact on biological communities and may lead to land degradation, causing a change in ecosystem services and livelihood support. Temperate rain forest ecosystems of southern Chile have efficient mechanisms of retention for essential nutrients, especially NH4+and NO3-[7, 3). [6] described that the dominant form of N leaching was dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) for unpolluted forests of southern Chile. Other studies in the area had reported that conversion from native forests to exotic fast-growing plantations is likely to decrease N retention on catchments [12].
1.1. Native temperate rainforests of southern Chile
Native temperate rainforests of southern Chile represent an important global reserve of temperate forest with an extraordinary genetic, phytogeographic and ecological significance [13] with a worldwide high conservation priority [14]. These forests cover an area of 13.5 million ha. and are isolated by physical and climatic barriers, resulting in high endemism in plants and animals: 28 of 82 genera of woody plants (34%) are endemic to the region, along with 50% of vines, 53% of hemiparasites and 45% of vertebrates [15]. Some taxa are derived from ancient elements in southern Gondwana. Some relict tree species of conifers have the longest recorded lifespan, reaching an age of up to 3,600 years, constituting an excellent historical document for studies in reconstruction of climatic variability [16]. Most of the Valdivian eco-region is also considered as part of the world’s 25 hotspots for biodiversity conservation and some of its forest types are included among the last frontier forests in the planet. These forests support fundamental ecological functions, which provide a range of ecosystem services and goods such as conservation of biological diversity, maintenance of soil fertility, and timber and non-timber products [17]. Also they contribute to maintain fresh water supply, which in turn supports the availability of drinkable water for cities [18].
Native forests in the Valdivian eco-region (36° S through 48° S) have suffered anthropical disturbances due to inadequate logging practices, and to agricultural land or exotic fast growing plantations conversion. Rapid conversion to forest plantations between 1975 and 2000 resulted in deforestation rates of 4.5% per year within an area of 578,000 ha in the Maule region (38° S), facilitated through afforestation incentives [19]. Another important cause of deforestation has been human-set fires, with an annual average of 13,000 ha burned in the period 1995–2005 and a high interannual variability associated to rainfall variation [20]. Anthropogenic land cover change in the central depression of southern Chile (40°-42° S) is the most evident process of deforestation and agricultural expansion. A large fraction of the Nothofagus forests in that region has been cleared for agriculture during the last century [21]. Patches of second-growth forest cover vast areas of the regional landscape, leaving only scattered stands as a result from intensified agriculture activity. Direct effects of past land use may occur via long-term (> 50 yr) physical alteration of the rhizosphere caused by historic practices. Soil compaction is an enduring consequence of cultivation, grazing, and logging that can cause increased bulk density and reduced pore space [1]. These changes may affect the abundance of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms and subsequently reduce the cycling of several elements, including N.
1.2. Eucalyptus plantation forests
In south-central Chile (35-40° S), the native vegetation has been converted to agricultural uses, primarily plantation forestry, which has resulted in a landscape dominated by industrial forestry plantations. The amount of land in the region classified as plantation forestry has increased by 55 % between 1998 and 2008 (116–179 thousands ha; [22]. As in other parts of Chile, over 20,000 ha of those new plantations have replaced native forests in the region [19, 23], mainly located in the CMR. The growth of exotic species in non-native environments has uncertain ecohydrological consequences [24]. Therefore, there is much concern about their water consumption. Several authors have concluded that the consequences of exotic fast growing plantations are: (i) the decrease of discharge due to higher evapotranspiration [25, 26]; and (ii) changes in the soil hydrological properties, such as infiltration rates [27] and soil hydrophobicity [28].
2. Objectives
In small headwater catchments located at the Costal mountain range (CMR), in southern Chile (40° S), concentrations and fluxes of NO3--N, NH4+-N, DON, TDN, TDP and base cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+and K+) in bulk precipitation, throughfall and catchment discharge water were measured. The main objective of this study was to compare how hydrological variability affects catchment nutrient load responses with different land cover of native forests and exotic plantation of Eucalyptus spp., in order to evaluate possible effects of land use
3. Material and methods
3.1. Description of the study sites
We selected five catchments with different land cover: (a) one with old-growth native evergreen rainforest (ONE), (b) one with native deciduous Nothofagus obliqua forest (ND), (c) one with secondary native evergreen forest (NE), (d) one covered with exotic fast growing Eucalyptus nitens (FEP) and (e) one with fast-growing exotic cover of Eucalyptus\n\t\t\t\t\tglobulus (EG), located at CMR (40°S), near the city of Valdivia, Chile. All five catchments are located inland from the Pacific coast. The ONE catchment has an area of 2.8 ha at 336 m a.s.l. and is 20 km from the coast. The ND catchment has an area of 10.1 ha at 71-125 m a.s.l., and is 23.0 km from the coast. The NE catchment has an area of 3.1 ha at 227-275 m a.s.l. and is 2.0 km from the coast. The FEP catchment has an area of 54.8 ha and is 18 km from the coast, and the EG catchment has an area of 5.6 ha at 250-297 m a.s.l., and is 2.6 km from the coast.
3.2. Forest cover
In the catchment covered by old-growth native evergreen rainforest (ONE) the main canopy species are Eucryphia cordifolia Cav., Aextoxicon punctatum Ruiz et Pav. and Laureliopsis philippiana (Looser) Schodde. This last shows the highest density (718 tree ha-1) and basal area (37.2 m2 ha-1) (Figure 1). The understorey is dominated by Amormyrtus luma, Amomyrtus meli, Drimys winteri and Myrceugenia planipes. The attributes of the old-growth native rainforests in the study area includes: increase in the proportion of successional species, the promotion of better growth rates to reach large diameters, the development of a rich understory and new regeneration cohorts, the increase of vertical structure, the development of increased wildlife habitat, and the presence of dead wood in the system (snags, and coarse woody debris) [29].
The main canopy species in the mixed ND catchment is the deciduous species Nothofagus obliqua (Mirb.) Oerst. reaching heights of 35 m, which covers 63.3 % of the catchment. Also, 13.8 and 7.9 percent is covered by native secondary forests of Gevuina avellana and Astrocedrus chilensis planted in 1983 and 1982, respectively, and 15.0 percent is covered by the fast-growing Eucalyptus sp. plantation. Understorey trees include Luma apiculata, Podocarpus salignus, Aextoxicon punctatum, Amomyrtus meli, Gevuina avellana and the exotic tree Acacia melanoxylon. Shrubs that reach heights over 3 m are mainly Chusquea quila Kunth with a 95% canopy cover.
In the NE catchment, the vegetation cover is characterized as a second growth native evergreen forest, dominated by Myrtaceae spp., Amomyrus luma (Mol.) Legr. et. Kaus (29%), Amomyrtus meli (Phil.) Legr. et. Kaus (25%), Laureliopsis phillipiana (Mol.) Mol. (14%), Myrceugenia planipes (Hook. et Arn.) Berg. (13%), Dyasaphillum diacanthoides (Less.) Cabrera (7%), Gevuina avellana (Molina) Molina (6%), Lomatia ferrugina (Cav.) R. Br., Persea lingue (Ruiz et Pav.) Nees ex Koop. and Myrceugenia exucca (DC.) Berg. (2% each) and Aextoxicon punctatum (1%). This catchment is also used as a source of wood by local residents and as an occasional grazing ground for animals during the winter.
The FEP catchment is covered with Eucalyptus nitens of 4 and 14 yr-old. However, this catchment has had already 5 E. nitens rotations; density of 2911 tree ha-1 and the basal area is 131.9 m2 ha-1. In FEP, the highest density was observed in the diameter 20-25 and 25-30 cm (Figure 2). The total density ranges between 2911-2733 tree ha-1 in the sites. Basal area ranges between 131.9 and 144.4 m2 ha-1, and the mean height of the trees was 25.4 m. The riparian vegetation of the catchment with Eucalyptus nitens plantation has a large proportion of small trees and shrubs with a diameter distribution between 5-10 cm (Figure 3). The main tree species is Luma apiculata with 2180 tree ha-1 and the shrub Aristotelia chilensis with 815 tree ha-1 (Figure 3).
In EG catchment, the vegetation cover is composed of 80% exotic plantation of Eucalyptus globulus and 20% native evergreen remnant as a buffer zone. This is composed of Berberis darwini (Hooker) and Ovidia pillopillo (Gray) Hohen ex Meissn. (both with 29% cover), Eucriphya cordifolia Cav. (25.8%), Lomatia ferruguinea (Cav.) R. Br. (9.7%), Dasyphyllum diacanthoides (Less.) Cabrera and Raphitamnus spinosus (Juss.) Mold. (both with 3.2%). Originally this catchment was a native evergreen forest. However it was cleared (35 years ago) with fire to open areas for grazing animals, and in some areas, for the extraction of wood. Recently (9 years ago) the grassland was replaced by exotic trees (Eucalyptus globulus). Local residents use the forest as a source of wood and also allow animals to graze on the grass as well as on tree shoots.
Figure 1.
Diameter distributions by species (AL=Amomyrtus luma, AM=Amomyrtus meli, AP=Aextoxicon punctatum, EC=Eucryphia cordifolia, GA=Gevuina avellana, LP=Laureliopsis philippiana, OE=other species) in the catchment with native old-growth evergreen rainforests.
Figure 2.
Diametric classes of species found on FEP and EG catchments.
Figure 3.
Diametric classes and density of trees for ONE and ND. Note that since ONE had the oldest trees, the last two classes comprise trees within 45 to 100, and 100 to 190 cm diameter at breast high.
3.3. Soils and climate
Climate in the area of study, is rainy temperate. In the meteorological station Isla Teja (25 m a.s.l.), 10 to 20 km from the study sites, the mean annual temperature is 12.0 °C (January mean is 17 °C and July mean is 7.6 °C) and the mean annual precipitation is 2,280 mm. Rainfall is concentrated during winter (May–August, 62 %) and decreases strongly in the summer (January–March, 9 %). Soils in the study area are red clayish derivatives from ancient volcanic ashes, deposited over a metamorphic geological substratum, dominated by micaceous schist and quartz lenses. The soils are shallow (< 1.0 m depth) in EG and NE catchments, and predominantly deep (> 1.0 m) in ND catchment. Soils in the EG catchment are characterized by poor infiltration rates, and in the NE and ND catchments by high infiltration rates [27].
Soils at ONE and FEP catchments have approximately the same texture in the bottom of the 1 meter depth soil profile, however the top layers (0 to 15; and 15 to 30) have consistently 10% more clay, and 1% less sand in FEP compared to ONE soil profiles. In the FEP catchment, clay content ranges between 37.2 – 45.1 %, organic matter content ranges between 1.8 – 17.1%, inorganic-N (NO3--N and NH4+-N) ranges between 9.8 – 21.0 mg kg-1, Ca2+between 0.19 – 0.23 cmol kg-1 and Mg2+ranges between 0.09 – 0.16 cmol kg-1. While, ONE soil clay content ranges between 31.1 – 37.3 % and organic matter content ranges between 5.9 – 17.8 %, inorganic-N ranges between 11.2 – 57.4 mg kg-1, Ca2+ranges between 0.23 – 1.32 cmol kg-1 and Mg2+ranges between 0.10 – 0.71 cmol kg-1.
4. Methods
Bulk precipitation was sampled using four plastic rain collectors attached to a 2.5-liter bottle. Bulk precipitation collectors (surface area 200 cm2,) were installed in open areas (no trees were within 20 m of the sampling point), located between a distance of 100 – 500 m. Throughfall water was collected, using 2-4 collectors (surface area 254 cm2) were installed inside each type forest. All collectors were installed 1.2 m above the forest floor and installed inside opaque tubes in order to avoid light penetration that could promote algae growth. Throughfall collectors had a thin mesh at the beginning of the neck of the funnel, in order to prevent insects and leaves entering the collection bottles, and designed with a plastic ring in order to exclude bird droppings [30]. Soil water was sampled at two different depths (0.3, 0.6 m) with low-tension porous-cup lysimeters (max 60 kPa of tension was applied) (Soil Moisture equipment corp.).
Discharge from each catchment was constantly measured by a pressure transducer paired with a baro diver (Schlumberger Water Services). Water samples were taken directly from the streams with an ISCO-6712 automatic sampler in each catchment. Stream samples were composed by two 250 mL aliquots taken each 30 minutes (1 h compound sample per bottle). Samples were filtered through a borosilicate glass filter (Whatman) of 0.45 µm. NO3--N (NO3--N+NO2--N) was determined by the cadmium reduction method, where NO2--N was always below detection limits. NH4+-N was determined with the phenate method (blue indophenol), detection limit (DL) was < 2 μg L-1, for nitrite, nitrate and ammonia. Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN) was calculated as follows: DIN=NO3--N+NO2--N+NH4+-N. Total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) was determined by the sodium hydroxide and persulfate digestion method (DL < 15 μg L-1). Organic nitrogen (DON) was calculated by subtracting (DON=TDN-DIN) concentration from TDN. Total dissolved phosphorous (TDP) was measured by the sodium hydroxide and persulfate digestion method (DL < 3 μg L-1) at LIMNOLAB (Limnology Laboratory, Universidad Austral de Chile). Ca2+and Mg2+(± 0.05 mg L-1) were analyzed by AAS, while Na+and K+(± 0.05 mg L-1) by AES in the Forestry Nutrition and Soil Laboratory, Universidad Austral de Chile.
Canopy enrichment factors were calculated as the ratio between throughfall and bulk precipitation from different forest covers (throughfall / bulk precipitation). Fluxes were calculated using discharge and rainfall volumes. While nutrient retention (R) was calculated as follows:
Canopy enrichment factors are presented in Figure 4. ND and ONE forests showed the highest enrichment and variability, whereas the EG plantation showed the lowest. The nutrient which presented the lowest annual enrichment in all throughfall samples was NO3--N ranging from-0.8 for EG, through 1.5 for FEP. The highest enrichment was DON (10.3 times) for ONE and TDP (10.7 times) for ND forests. This enrichment is due to two processes: the washing off of the unquantified N input by dry deposition, on the one hand, and the N uptake from wet, dry particulate and gaseous deposition by leaves, twigs, stem surfaces, and lichens, on the other hand [31]. The old-growth evergreen forests (like ONE catchment) are multi-stratified and have an understory of high diversity, resulting in a complex and diverse structure and species composition. Also, [32] reported that DIN and DON concentrations were higher in throughfall than in bulk precipitation, particularly for nitrate, in a native Nothofagus obliqua forest and a Pinus radiata plantation, located near of the study sites. [8] observed 3.7 times throughfall enrichment for NO3--N, in an evergreen Nothofagus betuloides forest (9.8 μg L-1 and 36.5 μg L-1 for bulk precipitation and throughfall, respectively) and a 1.7 throughfall enrichment under a deciduous Nothofagus\n\t\t\t\t\tpumilio forest (26.2 μg L-1 and 43.5 μg L-1 for bulk precipitation and throughfall, respectively) at cordillera de los Andes (40° S, 1120 m a.s.l.). However, NH4+-N was retained by canopies. Data from forested sites in the USA and Europe [33] showed that net canopy exchange of N (throughfall plus stemflow minus bulk precipitation) was negative for NH4+and NO3-at all sites, indicating that canopies were clearly sinks for inorganic N.
5.2. Annual nutrient fluxes
TDN annual retention and net annual fluxes (in kg N ha-1 yr-1) was 0.58 (1.43); 0.90 (9.31) and-4.79 (-7.14) for NE, ND and EG forests, respectively. TDP annual retention and net annual fluxes (in kg P ha-1 yr-1) were 0.70 (0.08); 0.96 (0.06) and-1.44 (0.4) for NE, ND and EG, respectively (Figure 4). Studies in watersheds in the United States [34] reported that thin or porous soils and high infiltration rates have less capacity to retain N. However, in our study, catchments with high infiltration rates, such as NE and ND showed greater N retention than soils with very low infiltration rates, such as EG. In our study, the differences in DIN retention were evident between native forests and Eucalyptus plantation, as also has been described previously by [12]. However, [35] observed using land cover, watershed area and precipitation as predictors for water quality (nitrate, ammonia, DON, TDP and electric conductivity) for local models explained 79.5% of the variance.
Figure 4.
Throughfall enrichment factors for the five catchments (left) and annual nutrient fluxes for three catchments (right). EG=Eucalyptus globulus plantation, NE=native secondary evergreen ND=native deciduous, ONE=native old-growth evergreen, FEP=Eucalyptus nitens plantation.
5.3. Nutrient concentration in stream water
Nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations in stream water are variable in forest ecosystems of southern Chile (see Table 1). In general, the highest values of TDN and TDP concentrations are in Fitzroya cuppressoides forest (176.5 µg N L-1) located in Coastal mountain range and in Nothofagus pumilio forest (67.3 µg P L-1) located in Andean mountain range. The lowest values were found in an evergreen forest (36.8 µg N L-1), located in Coastal mountain range and in Fitzroya cuppresoides forest (4.6 µg P L-1), and located in the Coastal mountain range. Concentrations of inorganic N were smaller in the evergreen forest (33.2 µg L-1) and in E. nitens plantation (33.6 µg L-1) compared to organic N (94.4 and 67.0 µg L-1, respectively), in agreement with previous research in southern Chile [6; 3] demonstrating that dissolved organic nitrogen is responsible for the majority of nitrogen losses from unpolluted forest ecosystems.
Mean concentrations (µg L-1) of TDN and TDP in stream water for different forest ecosystems under a low-deposition climate, southern Chile. At the end of the table 1, is the average for each location: Andean mountain range (AMR) and Coastal mountain range (CMR).
5.4. Relationships between discharge and nutrient concentrations
Nutrient exportation is related to hydrology, since water transports chemical compounds and particles. The relations of TDN and TDP with catchment discharge were positive for all nutrients except DIN, which showed a negative relation with discharge, during wet season (Figure 5). This negative relation is due to the dilution of nitrate with rainfall water which has higher concentrations of NH4+-N.
For dry season, the fitted models showed relatively high adjusted r2 values for the E. nitens covered catchment for TDN and TDP (0,952 and 0,826, respectively; both with p < 0.05). However, the old growth covered catchment showed much lower values for TDN and TDP (0.317 and 0.519, respectively). Nevertheless, only TDP was significant. Dry season event DIN exportation was best fitted with a linear model. However, the fit was poor and not significant for both catchments. During wet season, the adjusted r2 values were higher for E. nitens covered catchment than the old growth covered catchments (Table 2). On figure 5, is clearly seen that during dry season TDN, TDP and DIN increase rapidly as discharge increases in E. nitens covered catchment (FEP). However this is not observed for the old growth covered catchment (ONE). However, during wet season TDP shows greater increase in concentrations in ONE, rather than FEP. TDN and DIN shows the same behaviour in both catchments.
Figure 5.
Total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), Total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) and Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentrations during one dry and wet season events (for the period March – November 2013), for the catchments covered with old growth native evergreen (ONE, in dark red circles) and catchment covered with Eucalyptus nitens (FEP, inverted orange triangles).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDry season event\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tWet season event\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Catchment
\n\t\t\t
TDN
\n\t\t\t
TDP
\n\t\t\t
DIN
\n\t\t\t
TDN
\n\t\t\t
TDP
\n\t\t\t
DIN
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ONE
\n\t\t\t
0,317 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,519 (3EG)
\n\t\t\t
0,170 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,331 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,331 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,05 (L)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
FEP
\n\t\t\t
0,952 (1EG)
\n\t\t\t
0,826 (2EG)
\n\t\t\t
0,04 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,728 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,765 (2EG)
\n\t\t\t
0,388 (L)
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Adjusted r2 values after fitting linear (L, f=y0+a x); single parameter exponential growth (1EG, f=e(a x)); 2 parameter exponential growth (2EG, f=a e(b x)) and 3 parameter exponential growth (3EG, f=y0+a e(b*x)) models.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDry season event\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tWet season event\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Catchment
\n\t\t\t
Ca2+\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mg2+\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ca2+\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mg2+\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ONE
\n\t\t\t
nd
\n\t\t\t
nd
\n\t\t\t
0,554 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,184 (L)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
FEP
\n\t\t\t
nd
\n\t\t\t
nd
\n\t\t\t
0,026 (L)
\n\t\t\t
0,857 (ED)
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Ca2+and Mg2+vs. discharge during events for each catchment. Adjusted r2 values after fitting linear (L, f=y0+a x) and exponential decay (ED, f=a e(-b x)) models.
Figure 6.
Ca2+and Mg2+concentrations vs discharge for the wet season event. Dark red dots and continuous line stands for old growth evergreen covered catchment (ONE), while inverted orange triangles and segmented line stand for Eucalyptus nitens covered catchment (FEP).
Typically, products of mineral weathering (e.g. Ca2+and Mg2+) decline in concentration when the discharge increases caused by rainfall (stream water dilutes). This was observed during wet season event, and only in FEP, for both cations. ONE showed an increase in concentration for Ca2+and a slightly reduced concentration for Mg2+.
We observed negative correlations between stream discharge and base cations concentrations (Figure 6). Typically, products of mineral weathering (e.g. Ca2+and Mg2+) decline in concentration when the discharge increases caused by rainfall (stream water dilutes). [36] reported inverse relationship between stream discharge and concentrations of Ca2+and Mg2+. However, [37] reported that during storms, both positive and negative relationships were observed between stream discharge and Ca2+and Mg2+concentrations and in some storms an initial increase in concentration was followed by dilution. On the other hand, [38] reported in an undisturbed old-growth Chilean forest that Ca2+concentration demonstrated dilution when stream discharge increase and enhanced hydrological access occurred only for H+. According to [39], mica schists, present in the geological substrate at the coastal mountain range, are rich in micas and minerals and contain high levels or iron and magnesium. Hence, concentration levels of magnesium in stream water probably are influenced by the geological substrate. However, the dilution and increase in concentration (on FEP and ONE, respectively) is mostly due to the dilution of stream water discharge with throughfall.
6. Conclusions
We conclude that the mixed-deciduous (ND) and old-growth evergreen (ONE) forests show the highest canopy enrichment for throughfall, while the Eucalyptus plantations (FEP and EG) showed the minimum enrichment. The highest enrichment was DON (10.3 times) for ONE; and TDP (10.7 times) for ND catchment. In general, the differences in enrichment are attributed to high LAI (Leaf Area Index) values in both native forests: the old-growth evergreen forests are multi-stratified and have an understory of high diversity, and particularly in the mixed-deciduous forest the presence of a thick layer of bamboo (Chusquea quila), which covered the soil. Our results differing from forested sites in North America and Europe which indicates that the canopies are generally acting as sinks for inorganic-N [33]. Also [40] have reported that NO3–-N concentrations decreased in stemflow and throughfall relative to precipitation in old-growth forest in North America. However, in a data compilation from 126 European sites with high deposition climate in Scandinavia, Netherlands and Germany, [41] reported that inputs are enhanced by up to 3-5 times in throughfall through addition of dry deposition. On the other hand, our results show that the highest canopy enrichment was DON (dissolved organic nitrogen) especially in both native evergreen and deciduous forests. Also, DON was the most important nutrient fluxes in the native forested catchments, according to the literature [6] that reported that the dominant form of N leaching is dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) in unpolluted forests of southern Chile.
Annual retention of TDN in native deciduous and evergreen forests was 0.90 and 0.58, and TDP retention was 0.96 and 0.70, respectively. While the exotic Eucalyptus plantation there was a net release or loss of 4.79 and 1.44 for TDN and TDP, respectively. Studies in watersheds in the United States [34, 42] reported that thin or porous soils and high infiltration rates have less capacity to retain N. However, in our study, catchments with high infiltration rates, such as evergreen and deciduous forests showed greater N retention than soils with very low infiltration rates, such as Eucalyptus globulus plantation. Our results suggests that in native forests, rainfall water was infiltrating and percolating (subsurface flow) exporting less N in contrast to Eucalyptus plantation in which as soil has less porosity and infiltration rates due to land use history. The Eucalyptus plantation catchment was cleared (35 years ago) with fire to open areas for grazing animals, and in some areas, for the extraction of wood, and recently (9 years ago) the grassland was replaced by exotic trees (Eucalyptus globulus).
Nutrients (TDN and TDP) shows the same behavior in both catchments, their concentration tends to increase as catchment discharge increases. DIN however, showed a different behavior for dry and wet season events. In the native old growth evergreen forest (ONE), DIN lower its concentrations as discharge increased, however in E. nitens covered catchment (FEP) increased its concentration. The latter is mostly due to the dilution or the increase of NO3—N in stream discharge. However, during wet season both catchments showed the same DIN exportation behavior, though FEP had twice as much DIN when compared to ONE.
We are aware that modelling help to unravel and understanding hydrological processes and therefore nutrient exportation occurring within soil catchments. However there are many things to take in to account for, like biota (trees and microorganisms). However, discharge appeared to be a good predictor for TDN and TDP, for both events shown here. This was only seen in FEP, and not in ONE. DIN on the other hand showed poor model fitting. This means that there is still one or several unknowns on the control of DIN exportation during events.
The studies of events provide us with a much detailed perspective of what’s happening within the catchment as an ecosystem, either pristine or heavily intervened. The reality is that ecosystems are going to keep “developing”, each time with more and more relation to rural and city population. These pristine environments are in great danger and have to be protected from the inhabitants and other anthropic pressures, mostly cattle and land cover change to agricultural lands and exotic species.
Pristine study sites are recognized by being scarce and require a lot of efforts (monetary, time and struggle). In Chile, we have the luxury to have such areas near by some cities, nevertheless it will require more effort to keep it as pristine as possible. The prize for keeping this areas are many, from biodiversity hotspots to be able to unravel some of the black boxes that still exists regarding nutrient exportation and what are the effects of land cover change.
We would like also to address that soil use/cover change history, also plays an important role in N and P retention. Therefore before planting or doing forestry and agricultural activities, soil should be treated in order to enhance nutrient and water retention capabilities.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Fondecyt Project 1120188 (Fondo Nacional de Ciencias). We would like to thank the different owners of the research sites, Mr. Armin Alba, CEFOR (Universidad Austral de Chile), Forestal ANCHILE and Llancahue community for providing the facilities and for collaborating in the monitoring and field work.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/47599.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/47599.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47599",totalDownloads:1222,totalViews:132,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"April 16th 2014",dateReviewed:"August 25th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 17th 2015",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/47599",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/47599",book:{slug:"biodiversity-in-ecosystems-linking-structure-and-function"},signatures:"Carlos E Oyarzún and Pedro Hervé-Fernandez",authors:[{id:"171093",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Oyarzun",fullName:"Carlos Oyarzun",slug:"carlos-oyarzun",email:"coyarzun@uach.cl",position:null,institution:{name:"Austral University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"172999",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pedro",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hervé-Fernández",fullName:"Pedro Hervé-Fernández",slug:"pedro-herve-fernandez",email:"pedroherve@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Native temperate rainforests of southern Chile",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Eucalyptus plantation forests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Objectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Description of the study sites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Forest cover",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Soils and climate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1. Throughfall enrichment factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.2. Annual nutrient fluxes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.3. Nutrient concentration in stream water",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.4. Relationships between discharge and nutrient concentrations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. 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Journal of Hydrology 2001; 253: 69-80.'},{id:"B39",body:'Uyttendaele GYP, Iroume A. The solute budget of a forest catchment and solute fluxes within a Pinus radiata and a secondary native forest site, southern Chile. Hydrological Processes 2002; 16: 2521-2536.'},{id:"B40",body:'Edmonds R, Thomas T, Blew R. Biogeochemistry of an old-growth forested watershed, Olympic National Park, Washington. Water Resources Bulletin 1995; 31: 409–419.'},{id:"B41",body:'Dise NB, Matzner E, Gundersen P. Synthesis of nitrogen pools and fluxes from European forest ecosystems. Water, Air & Soil Pollution 1998; 105: 143–154.'},{id:"B42",body:'Campbell JL, Hornbeck JW, Mitchell MJ, Adams MB, Castro MS, Driscoll CT, Kahl JS, Kochenderfer JN, Likens GE, Lynch JA, Murdoch PS, Nelson SJ, Shanley JB. Input-Output budgets of inorganic nitrogen for 24 forest watersheds in the northeastern United States: A review. Water, Air & Soil Pollution 2004; 151: 373–396.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Carlos E Oyarzún",address:"coyarzun@uach.cl",affiliation:'
Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
Laboratory of Hydrology and Water Management, Faculty Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Belgium
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Itämies, Reima Leinonen and V. Benno Meyer-Rochow",authors:[{id:"60506",title:"Dr.",name:"Benno",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer-Rochow",fullName:"Benno Meyer-Rochow",slug:"benno-meyer-rochow"},{id:"60742",title:"Dr.",name:"Juhani",middleName:null,surname:"Itämies",fullName:"Juhani Itämies",slug:"juhani-itamies"},{id:"60743",title:"Dr.",name:"Reima",middleName:null,surname:"Leinonen",fullName:"Reima Leinonen",slug:"reima-leinonen"}]},{id:"19847",title:"Effects and Consequences of Global Climate Change in the Carpathian Basin",slug:"effects-and-consequences-of-global-climate-change-in-the-carpathian-basin",signatures:"János Rakonczai",authors:[{id:"58870",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Rakonczai",fullName:"János Rakonczai",slug:"janos-rakonczai"}]},{id:"19848",title:"Climate Change Impact on Quiver Trees in Arid Namibia and South Africa",slug:"climate-change-impact-on-quiver-trees-in-arid-namibia-and-south-africa",signatures:"Danni Guo, Renkuan Guo, Yanhong Cui, Guy F. Midgley, Res Altwegg and Christien Thiart",authors:[{id:"29391",title:"Dr.",name:"Danni",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Danni Guo",slug:"danni-guo"},{id:"41826",title:"Prof.",name:"Christien",middleName:null,surname:"Thiart",fullName:"Christien Thiart",slug:"christien-thiart"},{id:"54850",title:"Prof.",name:"Renkuan",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Renkuan Guo",slug:"renkuan-guo"},{id:"84247",title:"Mr.",name:"Yanhong",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",fullName:"Yanhong Cui",slug:"yanhong-cui"},{id:"106355",title:"Dr.",name:"Guy F.",middleName:null,surname:"Midgley",fullName:"Guy F. Midgley",slug:"guy-f.-midgley"},{id:"106360",title:"Dr.",name:"Res",middleName:null,surname:"Altwegg",fullName:"Res Altwegg",slug:"res-altwegg"}]},{id:"19849",title:"Changes in the Composition of a Theoretical Freshwater Ecosystem Under Disturbances",slug:"changes-in-the-composition-of-a-theoretical-freshwater-ecosystem-under-disturbances",signatures:"Ágota Drégelyi-Kiss and Levente Hufnagel",authors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",middleName:null,surname:"Hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel"},{id:"50135",title:"PhD.",name:"Agota",middleName:null,surname:"Dregelyi-Kiss",fullName:"Agota Dregelyi-Kiss",slug:"agota-dregelyi-kiss"}]},{id:"19850",title:"The Use and Misuse of Climatic Gradients for Evaluating Climate Impact on Dryland Ecosystems - an Example for the Solution of Conceptual Problems",slug:"the-use-and-misuse-of-climatic-gradients-for-evaluating-climate-impact-on-dryland-ecosystems-an-exam",signatures:"Marcelo Sternberg, Claus Holzapfel, Katja Tielbörger, Pariente Sarah, Jaime Kigel, Hanoch Lavee, Aliza Fleischer, Florian Jeltsch and Martin Köchy",authors:[{id:"50610",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Sternberg",fullName:"Marcelo Sternberg",slug:"marcelo-sternberg"}]},{id:"19851",title:"Climate-Driven Change of the Stand Age Structure in the Polar Ural Mountains",slug:"climate-driven-change-of-the-stand-age-structure-in-the-polar-ural-mountains",signatures:"Valeriy Mazepa, Stepan Shiyatov and Nadezhda Devi",authors:[{id:"61313",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeriy",middleName:null,surname:"Mazepa",fullName:"Valeriy Mazepa",slug:"valeriy-mazepa"},{id:"61314",title:"Prof.",name:"Stepan",middleName:null,surname:"Shiyatov",fullName:"Stepan Shiyatov",slug:"stepan-shiyatov"},{id:"61315",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:"Mikhailovna",surname:"Devi",fullName:"Nadezhda Devi",slug:"nadezhda-devi"}]},{id:"19852",title:"Mountains Under Climate and Global Change Conditions – Research Results in the Alps",slug:"mountains-under-climate-and-global-change-conditions-research-results-in-the-alps",signatures:"Oliver Bender, Axel Borsdorf, Andrea Fischer and Johann Stötter",authors:[{id:"58222",title:"Prof.",name:"Axel",middleName:null,surname:"Borsdorf",fullName:"Axel Borsdorf",slug:"axel-borsdorf"},{id:"61016",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",fullName:"Andrea Fischer",slug:"andrea-fischer"},{id:"61017",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Bender",fullName:"Oliver Bender",slug:"oliver-bender"},{id:"61018",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann",middleName:null,surname:"Stötter",fullName:"Johann Stötter",slug:"johann-stotter"}]},{id:"19853",title:"Are Debris Floods and Debris Avalanches Responding Univocally to Recent Climatic Change – A Case Study in the French Alps",slug:"are-debris-floods-and-debris-avalanches-responding-univocally-to-recent-climatic-change-a-case-study",signatures:"V. Jomelli, I. Pavlova, M. Utasse, M. Chenet, D. Grancher, D. Brunstein and F. Leone",authors:[{id:"54409",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Jomelli",fullName:"Vincent Jomelli",slug:"vincent-jomelli"},{id:"55563",title:"Mrs.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Pavlova",fullName:"Irina Pavlova",slug:"irina-pavlova"},{id:"55564",title:"Mrs.",name:"Delphine",middleName:null,surname:"Grancher",fullName:"Delphine Grancher",slug:"delphine-grancher"},{id:"55565",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Brunstein",fullName:"Daniel Brunstein",slug:"daniel-brunstein"},{id:"92700",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Utasse",fullName:"Marina Utasse",slug:"marina-utasse"},{id:"92701",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie",middleName:null,surname:"Chenet",fullName:"Marie Chenet",slug:"marie-chenet"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone",slug:"frederic-leone"}]},{id:"19854",title:"Glaciers Shrinking in Nepal Himalaya",slug:"glaciers-shrinking-in-nepal-himalaya",signatures:"Samjwal R. Bajracharya, Sudan B. Maharjan and Finu Shrestha",authors:[{id:"62372",title:"MSc.",name:"Samjwal",middleName:null,surname:"Bajracharya",fullName:"Samjwal Bajracharya",slug:"samjwal-bajracharya"},{id:"62373",title:"MSc",name:"Sudan",middleName:null,surname:"Maharjan",fullName:"Sudan Maharjan",slug:"sudan-maharjan"},{id:"136280",title:"Dr.",name:"Finu",middleName:null,surname:"Shrestha",fullName:"Finu Shrestha",slug:"finu-shrestha"}]},{id:"19855",title:"Subglacial and Proglacial Ecosystem Responses to Climate Change",slug:"subglacial-and-proglacial-ecosystem-responses-to-climate-change",signatures:"Jacob C. Yde, Teresa G. Bárcena and Kai W. Finster",authors:[{id:"56255",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:"C.",surname:"Yde",fullName:"Jacob Yde",slug:"jacob-yde"},{id:"61613",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai W.",middleName:null,surname:"Finster",fullName:"Kai W. Finster",slug:"kai-w.-finster"},{id:"61614",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa G.",middleName:null,surname:"Bárcena",fullName:"Teresa G. Bárcena",slug:"teresa-g.-barcena"}]},{id:"19856",title:"Why Do We Expect Glacier Melting to Increase Under Global Warming?",slug:"why-do-we-expect-glacier-melting-to-increase-under-global-warming-",signatures:"Roger J. Braithwaite",authors:[{id:"62829",title:"Dr",name:"Roger",middleName:"James",surname:"Braithwaite",fullName:"Roger Braithwaite",slug:"roger-braithwaite"}]},{id:"19857",title:"Estimation of the Sea Level Rise by 2100 Resulting from Changes in the Surface Mass Balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet",slug:"estimation-of-the-sea-level-rise-by-2100-resulting-from-changes-in-the-surface-mass-balance-of-the-g",signatures:"Xavier Fettweis, Alexandre Belleflamme, Michel Erpicum, Bruno Franco and Samuel Nicolay",authors:[{id:"11546",title:"Prof.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Nicolay",fullName:"Samuel Nicolay",slug:"samuel-nicolay"},{id:"12687",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Fettweis",fullName:"Xavier Fettweis",slug:"xavier-fettweis"},{id:"12688",title:"Prof.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Erpicum",fullName:"Michel Erpicum",slug:"michel-erpicum"},{id:"61470",title:"MSc",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Belleflamme",fullName:"Alexandre Belleflamme",slug:"alexandre-belleflamme"},{id:"61471",title:"Mr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",fullName:"Bruno Franco",slug:"bruno-franco"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66340",title:"Biological Degradation of Polymers in the Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85124",slug:"biological-degradation-of-polymers-in-the-environment",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
In 1869, the first synthetic polymer was invented in response to a commercial $10,000 prize to provide a suitable replacement to ivory. A continuous string of discoveries and inventions contributed new polymers to meet the various requirements of society. Polymers are constructed of long chains of atoms, organized in repeating components or units often exceeding those found in nature. Plastic can refer to matter that is pliable and easily shaped. Recent usage finds it to be a name for materials called polymers. High molecular weight organic polymers derived from various hydrocarbon and petroleum materials are now referred to as plastics [1].
\n
Synthetic polymers are constructed of long chains of smaller molecules connected by strong chemical bonds and arranged in repeating units which provide desirable properties. The chain length of the polymers and patterns of polymeric assembly provide properties such as strength, flexibility, and a lightweight feature that identify them as plastics. The properties have demonstrated the general utility of polymers and their manipulation for construction of a multitude of widely useful items leading to a world saturation and recognition of their unattractive properties too. A major trend of ever increasing consumption of plastics has been seen in the areas of industrial and domestic applications. Much of this polymer production is composed of plastic materials that are generally non-biodegradable. This widespread use of plastics raises a significant threat to the environment due to the lack of proper waste management and a until recently cavalier community behavior to maintain proper control of this waste stream. Response to these conditions has elicited an effort to devise innovative strategies for plastic waste management, invention of biodegradable polymers, and education to promote proper disposal. Technologies available for current polymer degradation strategies are chemical, thermal, photo, and biological techniques [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The physical properties displayed in Table 1 show little differences in density but remarkable differences in crystallinity and lifespan. Crystallinity has been shown to play a very directing role in certain biodegradation processes on select polymers.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Polymer
\n
Abbreviation
\n
Density (23/4°C)
\n
Crystallinity (%)
\n
Lifespan (year)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Polyethylene
\n
PE
\n
0.91–0.925
\n
50
\n
10–600
\n
\n
\n
Polypropylene
\n
PP
\n
0.94–0.97
\n
50
\n
10–600
\n
\n
\n
Polystyrene
\n
PS
\n
0.902–0.909
\n
0
\n
50–80
\n
\n
\n
Polyethylene glycol terephthalate
\n
PET
\n
1.03–1.09
\n
0–50
\n
450
\n
\n
\n
Polyvinyl chloride
\n
PVC
\n
1.35–1.45
\n
0
\n
50–100+
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Selected features of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [7].
\n
Polymers are generally carbon-based commercialized polymeric materials that have been found to have desirable physical and chemical properties in a wide range of applications. A recent assessment attests to the broad range of commercial materials that entered to global economy since 1950 as plastics. The mass production of virgin polymers has been assessed to be 8300 million metric tons for the period of 1950 through 2015 [8]. Globally consumed at a pace of some 311 million tons per year with 90% having a petroleum origin, plastic materials have become a major worldwide solid waste problem. Plastic composition of solid waste has increased for less than 1% in 1960 to greater than 10% in 2005 which was attributed largely to packaging. Packaging plastics are recycled in remarkably low quantities. Should current production and waste management trends continue, landfill plastic waste and that in the natural environment could exceed 12,000 Mt of plastic waste by 2050 [9].
\n
\n
\n
2. Polymer structures and features
\n
A polymer is easily recognized as a valuable chemical made of many repeating units [10]. The basic repeating unit of a polymer is referred to as the “-mer” with “poly-mer” denoting a chemical composed of many repeating units. Polymers can be chemically synthesized in a variety of ways depending on the chemical characteristics of the monomers thus forming a desired product. Nature affords many examples of polymers which can be used directly or transformed to form materials required by society serving specific needs. The polymers of concern are generally composed of carbon and hydrogen with extension to oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine functionalities (see Figure 1 for examples). Chemical resistance, thermal and electrical insulation, strong and light-weight, and myriad applications where no alternative exists are polymer characteristics that continue to make polymers attractive. Significant polymer application can be found in the automotive, building and construction, and packaging industries [12].
\n
Figure 1.
Structures of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [11].
\n
The environmental behavior of polymers can be only discerned through an understanding of the interaction between polymers and environment under ambient conditions. This interaction can be observed from surface properties changes that lead to new chemical functionality formation in the polymer matrix. New functional groups contribute to continued deterioration of the polymeric structure in conditions such as weathering. Discoloration and mechanical stiffness of the polymeric mass are often hallmarks of the degradative cycle in which heat, mechanical energy, radiation, and ozone are contributing factors [13].
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Polyolefins (PO) are the front-runners of the global industrial polymer market where a broad range of commercial products contribute to our daily lives in the form o packaging, bottles, automobile parts and piping. The PO class family is comprised of saturated hydrocarbon polymers such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), propylene and higher terminal olefins or monomer combinations as copolymers. The sources of these polymers are low-cost petrochemicals and natural gas with monomers production dependent on cracking or refining of petroleum. This class of polymers has a unique advantage derived from their basic composition of carbon and hydrogen in contrast to other available polymers such as polyurethanes, poly(vinyl chloride) and polyamides [14].
\n
The copolymers of ethylene and propylene are produced in quantities that exceed 40% of plastics produced per annum with no production leveling in sight. This continuous increase suggests that as material use broadens yearly, the amount of waste will also increase and present waste disposal problems. Polyolefin biological and chemical inertness continues to be recognized as an advantage. However, this remarkable stability found at many environmental conditions and the degradation resistance leads to environmental accumulation and an obvious increase to visible pollution and ancillary contributing problems. Desired environmental properties impact the polyolefin market on the production side as well as product recyclability [15].
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3. Biological degradation
\n
Biodegradation utilizes the functions of microbial species to convert organic substrates (polymers) to small molecular weight fragments that can be further degraded to carbon dioxide and water [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The physical and chemical properties of a polymer are important to biodegradation. Biodegradation efficiency achieved by the microorganisms is directly related to the key properties such as molecular weight and crystallinity of the polymers. Enzymes engaged in polymer degradation initially are outside the cell and are referred to as exo-enzymes having a wide reactivity ranging from oxidative to hydrolytic functionality. Their action on the polymer can be generally described as depolymerization. The exo-enzymes generally degrade complex polymer structure to smaller, simple units that can take in the microbial cell to complete the process of degradation.
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3.1 Requirements to assay polymer biodegradation
\n
Polymer degradation proceeds to form new products during the degradation path leading to mineralization which results in the formation of process end-products such as, e.g., CO2, H2O or CH4 [22]. Oxygen is the required terminal electron acceptor for the aerobic degradation process. Aerobic conditions lead to the formation of CO2 and H2O in addition to the cellular biomass of microorganisms during the degradation of the plastic forms. Where sulfidogenic conditions are found, polymer biodegradation leads to the formation of CO2 and H2O. Polymer degradation accomplished under anaerobic conditions produces organic acids, H2O, CO2, and CH4. Contrasting aerobic degradation with anaerobic conditions, the aerobic process is found to be more efficient. When considering energy production the anaerobic process produces less energy due to the absence of O2, serving the electron acceptor which is more efficient in comparison to CO2 and SO4−2 [23].
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As solid materials, plastics encounter the effects of biodegradation at the exposed surface. In the unweathered polymeric structure, the surface is affected by biodegradation whereas the inner part is generally unavailable to the effects of biodegradation. Weathering may mechanically affect the structural integrity of the plastic to permit intrusion of bacteria or fungal hyphae to initiate biodegradation at inner loci of the plastic. The rate of biodegradation is functionally dependent on the surface area of the plastic. As the microbial-colonized surface area increases, a faster biodegradation rate will be observed assuming all other environmental conditions to be equal [24].
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Microorganisms can break organic chemicals into simpler chemical forms through biochemical transformation. Polymer biodegradation is a process in which any change in the polymer structure occurs as a result of polymer properties alteration resulting from the transformative action of microbial enzymes, molecular weight reduction, and changes to mechanical strength and surface properties attributable to microbial action. The biodegradation reaction for a carbon-based polymer under aerobic conditions can be formulated as follows:
\n
\n
\n\n\n\n\nE1
\n
Assimilation of the carbon comprising the polymer (Cpolymer) by microorganisms results in conversion to CO2 and H2O with production of more microbial biomass (Cbiomass). In turn, Cbiomass is mineralized across time by the microbial community or held in reserve as storage polymers [25].
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The following set of equations is a more complete description of the aerobic plastic biodegradation process:
\n
\n
\n\n\n\n\nE2
\n
where Cpolymer and newly formed oligomers are converted into Cbiomass but Cbiomass converts to CO2 under a different kinetics scheme. The conversion to CO2 is referred to as microbial mineralization. Each oligomeric fragment is expected to proceed through of sequential steps in which the chemical and physical properties are altered leading to the desired benign result. A technology for monitoring aerobic biodegradation has been developed and optimized for small organic pollutants using oxygen respirometry where the pollutant degrades at a sufficiently rapid rate for respirometry to provide expected rates of biodegradation. When polymers are considered, a variety of analytical approaches relating to physical and chemical changes are employed such as differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry, and atomic force microscopy [26].
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Since most polymer disposal occurs in our oxygen atmosphere, it is important to recognize that aerobic biodegradation will be our focus but environmental anaerobic conditions do exist that may be useful to polymer degradation. The distinction between aerobic and anaerobic degradation is quite important since it has been observed that anaerobic conditions support slower biodegradation kinetics. Anaerobic biodegradation can occur in the environment in a variety of situations. Burial of polymeric materials initiates a complex series of chemical and biological reactions. Oxygen entrained in the buried materials is initially depleted by aerobic bacteria. The following oxygen depleted conditions provide conditions for the initiation of anaerobic biodegradation. The buried strata are generally covered by 3-m-thick layers which prevent oxygen replenishment. The alternate electron acceptors such as nitrate, sulfate, or methanogenic conditions enable the initiation of anaerobic biodegradation. Any introduction of oxygen will halt an established anaerobic degradation process.
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3.2 Formulation of newer biodegradation schema
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This formulation for the aerobic biodegradation of polymers can be improved due to the complexity of the processes involved in polymer biodegradation [27]. Biodegradation, defined as a decomposition of substances by the action of microorganisms, leading to mineralization and the formation of new biomass is not conveniently summarized. A new analysis is necessary to assist the formulation of comparative protocols to estimate biodegradability. In this context, polymer biodegradation is defined as a complex process composed of the stages of biodeterioration, biofragmentation, and assimilation [28].
\n
The biological activity inferred in the term biodegradation is predominantly composed of, biological effects but within nature biotic and abiotic features act synergistically in the organic matter degradation process. Degradation modifying mechanical, physical and chemical properties of a material is generally referred to as deterioration. Abiotic and biotic effects combine to exert changes to these properties. This biological action occurs from the growth of microorganisms on the polymer surface or inside polymer material. Mechanical, chemical, and enzymatic means are exerted by microorganisms, thereby modifying the gross polymer material properties. Environmental conditions such as atmospheric pollutants, humidity, and weather strongly contribute to the overall process. The adsorbed pollutants can assist the material colonization by microbial species. A diverse collection of bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi are expected participants involved in biodeterioration. The development of different biota can increase biodeterioration by facilitating the production of simple molecules.
\n
Fragmentation is a material breaking phenomenon required to meet the constraints for the subsequent event called assimilation. Polymeric material has a high molecular weight which is restricted by its size in its transit across the cell wall or cytoplasmic membrane. Reduction of polymeric molecule size is indispensable to this process. Changes to molecular size can occur through the involvement of abiotic and biotic processes which are expected to reduce molecular weight and size. The utility of enzymes derived from the microbial biomass could provide the required molecular weight reductions. Mixtures of oligomers and/or monomers are the expected products of the biological fragmentation.
\n
Assimilation describes the integration of atoms from fragments of polymeric materials inside microbial cells. The microorganisms benefit from the input of energy, electrons and elements (i.e., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and so forth) required for the cell growth. Assimilated substrates are expected to be derived from biodeterioration and biofragmentation effects. Non-assimilated materials, impermeable to cellular membranes, are subject to biotransformation reactions yielding products that may be assimilated. Molecules transported across the cell membrane can be oxidized through catabolic pathways for energy storage and structural cell elements. Assimilation supports microbial growth and reproduction as nutrient substrates (e.g., polymeric materials) are consumed from the environment.
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3.3 Factors affecting biodegradability
\n
The polymer substrate properties are highly important to any colonization of the surface by either bacteria or fungi [29]. The topology of the surface may also be important to the colonization process. The polymer properties of molecular weight, shape, size and additives are each unique features which can limit biodegradability. The molecular weight of a polymer can be very limiting since the microbial colonization depends on surface features that enable the microorganisms to establish a locus from which to expand growth. Polymer crystallinity can play a strong role since it has been observed that microbial attachment to the polymer surface occurs and utilizes polymer material in amorphous sections of the polymer surface. Polymer additives are generally low molecular weight organic chemicals that can provide a starting point for microbial colonization due to their ease of biodegradation (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Factors controlling polymer biodegradation [30].
\n
Weather is responsible for the deterioration of most exposed materials. Abiotic contributors to these conditions are moisture in its variety of forms, non-ionizing radiation, and atmospheric temperature. When combined with wind effects, pollution, and atmospheric gases, the overall process of deterioration can be quite formable. The ultraviolet (UV) component of the solar spectrum contributes ionizing radiation which plays a significant role in initiating weathering effects. Visible and near-infrared radiation can also contribute to the weathering process. Other factors couple with solar radiation synergistically to significantly influence the weathering processes. The quality and quantity of solar radiation, geographic location changes, time of day and year, and climatological conditions contribute to the overall effects. Effects of ozone and atmospheric pollutants are also important since each can interact with atmospheric radiation to result in mechanical stress such as stiffening and cracking. Moisture when combined with temperature effects can assist microbial colonization. The biotic contributors can strongly assist the colonization by providing the necessary nutrients for microbial growth. Hydrophilic surfaces may provide a more suitable place for colonization to ensue. Readily available exoenzymes from the colonized area can initiate the degradation process.
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3.4 Biofilms
\n
Communities of microorganisms attached to a surface are referred to as biofilms [31]. The microorganisms forming a biofilm undergo remarkable changes during the transition from planktonic (free-swimming) biota to components of a complex, surface-attached community (Figure 3). The process is quite simple with planktonic microorganism encountering a surface where some adsorb followed by surface release to final attachment by the secretion of exopolysaccharides which act as an adhesive for the growing biofilm [33]. New phenotypic characteristics are exhibited by the bacteria of a biofilm in response to environmental signals. Initial cell-polymer surface interactions, biofilm maturation, and the return to planktonic mode of growth have regulatory circuits and genetic elements controlling these diverse functions. Studies have been conducted to explore the genetic basis of biofilm development with the development of new insights. Compositionally, these films have been found to be a single microbial species or multiple microbial species with attachment to a range of biotic and abiotic surfaces [34, 35]. Mixed-species biofilms are generally encountered in most environments. Under the proper nutrient and carbon substrate supply, biofilms can grow to massive sizes. With growth, the biofilm can achieve large film structures that may be sensitive to physical forces such as agitation. Under such energy regimes, the biofilm can detach. An example of biofilm attachment and utility can be found in the waste water treatment sector where large polypropylene disks are rotated through industrial or agriculture waste water and then exposed to the atmosphere to treat pollutants through the intermediacy of cultured biofilms attached to the rotating polypropylene disk.
\n
Figure 3.
Microbial attachment processes to a polymer surface [32].
\n
Biofilm formation and activity to polymer biodegradation are complex and dynamic [36]. The physical attachment offers a unique scenario for the attached microorganism and its participation in the biodegradation. After attachment as a biofilm component, individual microorganisms can excrete exoenzymes which can provide a range of functions. Due to the mixed-species composition found in most environments, a broad spectrum of enzymatic activity is generally possible with wide functionalities. Biofilm formation can be assisted by the presence of pollutant chemical available at the polymer surface. The converse is also possible where surfaces contaminated with certain chemicals can prohibit biofilm formation. Biofilms continue to grow with the input of fresh nutrients, but when nutrients are deprived, the films will detach from the surface and return to a planktonic mode of growth. Overall hydrophobicity of the polymer surface and the surface charge of a bacterium may provide a reasonable prediction of surfaces to which a microorganism might colonize [37]. These initial cell-surface and cell-cell interactions are very useful to biofilm formation but incomplete (Figure 4). Microbial surfaces are heterogeneous, and can change widely in response to environmental changes. Five stages of biofilm development: have been identified as (1) initial attachment, (2) irreversible attachment, (3) maturation I, (4) maturation II, and (5) dispersion. Further research is required to provide the understanding of microbial components involved in biofilm development and regulation of their production to assemble to various facets of this complex microbial phenomenon [38].
\n
Figure 4.
Biofilm formation and processes [34].
\n
The activities envisioned in this scenario (depicted in Figure 4) are the reversible adsorption of bacteria occurring at the later time scale, irreversible attachment of bacteria occurring at the second-minute time scale, growth and division of bacteria in hours-days, exopolymer production and biofilm formation in hours-days, and attachment and other organisms to biofilm in days-months.
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3.5 Standardized testing methods
\n
The evaluation of the extent of polymer biodegradation is made difficult by the dependence on polymer surface and the departure of degradation kinetics from the techniques available for small pollutant molecule techniques [39]. For applications for polymer biodegradation a variety of techniques have been applied. Visual observations, weight loss measurements, molar mass and mechanical properties, carbon dioxide evolution and/or oxygen consumption, radiolabeling, clear-zone formation, enzymatic degradation, and compost test under controlled conditions have been cited for their utility [27]. The testing regime must be explicitly described within a protocol of steps that can be collected for various polymers and compared on an equal basis. National and international efforts have developed such protocols to enable the desired comparisons using rigorous data collecting techniques and interpretation [40].
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4. Environmental biodegradation of polymers
\n
The conventional polymers such as (PE), (PP), (PS), (PUR), and (PET) are recognized for their persistence in the environment [41]. Each of these polymers is subject to very slow fragmentation to form small particles in a process expected to require centuries of exposure to photo-, physical, and biological degradation processes. Until recently, the commercial polymers were not expected to biodegrade. The current perspective supports polymer biodegradation with hopeful expectation that these newly encountered biodegradation processes can be transformed into technologies capable of providing major assistance to the ongoing task of waste polymer management.
\n
\n
4.1 Polyolefins
\n
The polyolefins such as polyethylene (PE) have been recognized as a polymer remarkably resistant to degradation [42]. Products made with PE are very diverse and a testament to its chemical and biological inertness. The biodegradation of the polyolefins is complex and incompletely understood. Pure strains elicited from the environment have been used to investigate metabolic pathways or to gain a better understanding of the effect that environmental conditions have on polyolefin degradation. This strategy ignores the importance of different microbial species that could participate in a cooperative process. Treatment of the complex environments associated with polymeric solid waste could be difficult with information based on pure strain analysis. Mixed and complex microbial communities have been used and encountered in different bioremediation environments [43].
\n
A variety of common PE types, low-density PE (LDPE), high-density PE (HDPE), linear low-density PE (LLDPE) and cross-linked PE (XLPE), differ in their density, degree of branching and availability of functional groups at the surface. The type of polymer used as the substrate can strongly influence the microbial community structure colonizing PE surface. A significant number of microbial strains have been identified for the deterioration caused by their interaction with the polymer surface [44]. Microorganisms have been categorized for their involvement in PE colonization and biodegradation or the combination. Some research studies did not conduct all the tests required to verify PE biodegradation. A more inclusive approach to assessing community composition, including the non-culturable fraction of microorganisms invisible by traditional microbiology methods is required in future assessments. The diversity of microorganisms capable of degrading PE extends beyond 17 genera of bacteria and nine genera of fungi [45]. These numbers are expected to increase with the use of more sensitive isolation and characterization techniques using rDNA sequencing. Polymer additives can affect the kinds of microorganisms colonizing the surfaces of these polymers. The ability of microorganisms to colonize the PE surfaces exhibits a variety of effects on polymer properties. Seven different characteristics have been identified and are used to monitor the extent of polymer surface change resulting from biodegradation of the polymer. The characteristics are hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, crystallinity, surface topography, functional groups on the surface, mechanical properties, and molecular weight distribution. The use of surfactants has become important to PE biodegradation. Complete solubilization of PE in water by a Pseudomonas fluorescens treated for a month followed by biosurfactant treatment for a subsequent month in the second month and finally a 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment at 60°C for a third month led to complete polymer degradation. A combination of P. fluorescens, surfactant and biosurfactant treatments as a single treatment significantly exhibited polymer oxidation and biodegradation [46]. The metabolically diverse genus Pseudomonas has been investigated for its capabilities to degrade and metabolize synthetic plastics. Pseudomonas species found in environmental matrices have been identified to degrade a variety of polymers including PE, and PP [47]. The unique capabilities of Pseudomonas species related to degradation and metabolism of synthetic polymers requires a focus on: the interactions controlling cell surface attachment of biofilms to polymer surfaces, extracellular polymer oxidation and/or hydrolytic enzyme activity, metabolic pathways mediating polymer uptake and degradation of polymer fragments within the microbial cell through catabolism, and the importance of development of the implementation of enhancing factors such as pretreatments, microbial consortia and nutrient availability while minimizing the effects of constraining factors such as alternative carbon sources and inhibitory by-products. In an ancillary study, thermophilic consortia of Brevibacillus sps. and Aneurinibacillus sp. from waste management landfills and sewage treatment plants exhibited enhanced PE and PP degradation [48].
\n
The larval stage of two waxworm species, Galleria mellonella and Plodia interpunctella, has been observed to degrade LDPE without pretreatment [49, 50]. The worms could macerate PE as thin film shopping bags and metabolize the film to ethylene glycol which in turn biodegrades rapidly. The remarkable ability to digest a polymer considered non-edible may parallel the worm’s ability utilize beeswax as a food source. From the guts of Plodia interpunctella waxworms two strains of bacteria, Enterobacter asburiae YP1 and Bacillus sp. YP1, were isolated and found to degrade PE in laboratory conditions. The two strains of bacteria were shown to reduce the polymer film hydrophobicity during a 28-day incubation. Changes to the film surface as cavities and pits were observed using scanning electron microscopy and atomic-force microscopy. Simple contact of ~100 Galleria mellonella worms with a commercial PE shopping bag for 12 hours resulted in a mass loss of 92 mg. The waxworm research has been scrutinized and found to be lacking the necessary information to support the claims of the original Galleria mellonella report [51].
\n
Polypropylene (PP) is very similar to PE, in solution behavior and electrical properties. Mechanical properties and thermal resistance are improved with the addition of the methyl group but chemical resistance decreases. There are three forms of propylene selectively formed from the monomer isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic due to the different geometric relationships achievable through polymerization technology. PP properties are strongly directed by tacticity or the methyl group orientation as related the methyl groups in neighboring monomer units. Isotactic PP has a greater degree of crystallinity than atactic and syndiotactic PP and therefore more difficult to biodegrade. The high molar mass of PP prohibits permeation through the microbial cell membrane which thwarts metabolism by living organisms. It is generally recognized that abiotic degradation provides a foothold for microorganisms to form a biofilm. With partial destruction of the polymer surface by abiotic effects the microbes can then start breaking the damaged polymer chains [52].
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\n
\n
4.2 Polystyrene
\n
PS is a sturdy thermoplastic commonly used in short-lifetime items that contribute broadly to the mass of poorly controlled polymers [53]. Various forms of PS such as general purpose (GPPS)/oriented polystyrene (OPS), polystyrene foam, and expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam are available for different commercial leading to a broad solid waste composition. PS has been thought to be non-biodegradable. The rate of biodegradation encountered in the environment is very slow leading to prolonged persistence as solid waste. In the past, PS was recycled through mechanical, chemical, and thermal technologies yielding gaseous and liquid daughter products [54]. A rather large collection of studies has shown that PS is subject to biodegradation but at a very slow rate in the environment. A sheet of PS buried for 32 years. in soil showed no indication of biotic or abiotic degradation [55]. The hydrophobicity of the polymer surface, a function of molecular structure and composition, detracts from the effectiveness of microbial attachment [56, 57]. The general lack of water solubility of PS prohibits the transport into microbial cells for metabolism.
\n
A narrow range of microorganisms have been elicited for the environment and found to degrade PS [53]. Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains isolated from soil samples have been shown to degrade brominated high impact PS. The activity was seen in weight loss and surface changes to the PS film. Soil invertebrates such as the larvae of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus) have been shown to chew and eat Styrofoam [57]. Samples of the larvae were fed Styrofoam as the sole diet for 30 days and compared with worms fed a conventional diet. The worms feeding Styrofoam survived for 1 month after which they stopped eating as they entered the pupae stage and emerged as adults after a subsequent 2 weeks. It appears that Styrofoam feeding did not lead to any lethality for the mealworms. The ingested PS mass was efficiently depolymerized within the larval gut during the retention time of 24 hours and converted to CO2 [51]. This remarkable behavior by the mealworm can be considered the action of an efficient bioreactor. The mealworm can provide all the necessary components for PS treatment starting with chewing, ingesting, mixing, reacting with gut contents, and microbial degradation by gut microbial consortia. A PS-degrading bacterial strain Exiguobacterium sp. strain YT2 was isolated from the gut of mealworms and found to degrade PS films outside the mealworm gut. Superworms (Zophobas morio) were found to exhibit similar activity toward Styrofoam. Brominated high impact polystyrene (blend of polystyrene and polybutadiene) has been found to be degraded by Pseudomonas and Bacillus strains [58]. In a complementary study, four non-pathogenic cultures (Enterobacter sp., Citrobacter sedlakii, Alcaligenes sp. and Brevundimonas diminuta) were isolated from partially degraded polymer samples from a rural market setting and each were found to degrade high impact polystyrene [59].
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4.3 Polyvinyl chloride
\n
PVC is manufactured in two forms rigid and flexible. The rigid form can be found in the construction industry as pipe or in structural applications. The soft and flexible form can be made through the incorporation of plasticizers such as phthalates. Credit cards, bottles, and non-food packaging are notable products with a PVC composition. PVC has been known from its inception as a polymer with remarkable resistance to degradation [60]. Thermal and photodegradation processes are widely recognized for their role in the weathering processes found with PVC [61, 62]. The recalcitrant feature of polyvinyl chloride resistance to biodegradation becomes a matter of environmental concern across the all processes extending from manufacturing to waste disposal. Few reports are available relating the extent of PVC biodegradation. Early studies investigated the biodegradation of low-molecular weight PVC by white rot fungi [63]. Plasticized PVC was found to be degraded by fungi such as As. fumigatus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, As. niger, and Aspergillus sydowii [64].
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Modifying the PVC film composition with adjuvants such as cellulose and starch provided a substrate that fungi could also degrade [65]. Several investigations of soil bacteria for the ability to degrade PVC from enrichment cultures were conducted on different locations [66]. Mixed cultures containing bacteria and fungi were isolated and found to grow on plasticized PVC [67]. Significant differences were observed for the colonization by the various components of the mixed isolates during very long exposure times [68]. Significant drift in isolate activity was averted through the use of talc. Consortia composed of a combination of different bacterial strains of Pseudomonas otitidis, Bacillus cereus, and Acanthopleurobacter pedis have the ability to degrade PVC in the environment [64]. These results offer the opportunity to optimization conditions for consortia growth in PVC and use as a treatment technology to degrade large collections of PVC. PVC film blends were shown to degrade by partnering biodegradable polymers with PVC [69].
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\n
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4.4 Polyurethane
\n
PUR encompass a broad field of polymer synthesis where a di- or polyisocyanate is chemically linked through carbamate (urethane) formation. These thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers have been utilized to form microcellular foams, high performance adhesives, synthetic fibers, surface coatings, and automobile parts along with a myriad of other applications. The carbamate linkage can be severed by chemical and biological processes [70].
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Aromatic esters and the extent of the crystalline fraction of the polymer have been identified as important factors affecting the biodegradation of PUR [71, 72]. Acid and base hydrolysis strategies can sever the carbamate bond of the polymer. Microbial ureases, esterases and proteases can enable the hydrolysis the carbamate and ester bonds of a PUR polymer [71, 73, 74]. Bacteria have been found to be good sources for enzymes capable of degrading PUR polymers [75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]. Fungi are also quite capable of degrading PUR polymers [83, 84, 85]. Each of the enzyme systems has their preferential targets: ureases attack the urea linkages [86, 87, 88] with esterases and proteases hydrolyzing the ester bonds of the polyester PUR as a major mechanism for its enzymatic depolymerization [89, 90, 91, 92]. PUR polymers appear to be more amenable to enzymatic depolymerization or degradation but further searches and inquiry into hitherto unrecognized microbial PUR degrading activities is expected to offer significant PUR degrading activities.
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4.5 Polyethylene terephthalate
\n
PET is a polyester commonly marketed as a thermoplastic polymer resin finding use as synthetic fibers in clothing and carpeting, food and liquid containers, manufactured objects made through thermoforming, and engineering resins with glass fiber. Composed of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol through the formation of ester bonds, PET has found a substantial role in packaging materials, beverage bottles and the textile industry. Characterized as a recalcitrant polymer of remarkable durability, the polymer’s properties are reflective of its aromatic units in its backbone and a limited polymer chain mobility [91]. In many of its commercial forms, PET is semicrystalline having crystalline and amorphous phases which has a major effect on PET biodegradability. The environmental accumulation of PET is a testament of its versatility and the apparent lack of chemical/physical mechanisms capable of attacking its structural integrity show it to be a major environmental pollution problem.
\n
The durability and the resulting low biodegradability of PET are due to the presence of repeating aromatic terephthalate units in its backbone and the corresponding limited mobility of the polymer chains [92]. The semicrystalline PET polymer also contains both amorphous and crystalline fractions with a strong effect on its biodegradability. Crystallinity exceeding 30% in PET beverage bottles and fibers having even higher crystalline compositions presents major hurdles to enzyme-induced degradation [93, 94]. At higher temperatures, the amorphous fraction of PET becomes more flexible and available to enzymatic degradation [95, 96]. The hydrolysis of PET by enzymes has been identified as a surface erosion process [97, 98, 99, 100]. The hydrophobic surface significantly limits biodegradation due to the limited ability for microbial attachment. The hydrophobic nature of PET poses a significant barrier to microbial colonization of the polymer surface thus attenuating effective adsorption and access by hydrolytic enzymes to accomplish the polymer degradation [101].
\n
A wide array of hydrolytic enzymes including hydrolases, lipases, esterases, and cutinases has been shown to have the ability to hydrolyze amorphous PET polymers and modify PET film surfaces. Microbes from a vast collection of waste sites and dumping situations have been studied for their ability to degrade PET. A subunit of PET, diethylene glycol phthalate has been found to be a source of carbon and energy necessary to the sustenance of microbial life. Enzyme modification may be effectively employed to improve the efficiency and specificity of the polyester degrading enzymes acknowledged to be active degraders of PET [102]. Significant efforts have been extended to developing an understanding of the enzymatic activity of high-performing candidate enzymes through selection processes, mechanistic probes, and enzyme engineering. In addition to hydrolytic enzymes already identified, enzymes found in thermophilic anaerobic sludge were found to degrade PET copolymers formed into beverage bottles [103].
\n
Recently, the discovery of microbial activity capable of complete degradation of widely used beverage bottle plastic expands the range of technology options available for PET treatment. A microorganism isolated from the area adjacent to a plastic bottle-recycling facility was shown to aerobically degrade PET to small molecular daughter products and eventually to CO2 and H2O. This new research shows that a newly isolated microbial species, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, degrades PET through hydrolytic transformations by the action of two enzymes, which are extracellular and intracellular hydrolases. A primary hydrolysis reaction intermediate, mono (hydroxy-2-ethyl) terephthalate is formed and can be subsequently degraded to ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid which can be utilized by the microorganism for growth [104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109].
\n
This discovery could be a candidate as a single vessel system that could competently accomplish PET hydrolysis as an enzyme reactor. This may be the beginning of viable technology development applicable to the solution of the global plastic problem recognized for its terrestrial component as well as the water contamination problem found in the sea. These remarkable discoveries offer a new perspective on the recalcitrant nature of PET and how future environmental management of PET waste may be conducted using the power of enzymes. The recognition of current limiting steps in the biological depolymerization of PET are expected to enable the design of a enzymes-based process to reutilized the natural assets contained in scrap PET [110] (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
Microbial depolymerization of poly(ethylene terephthalate).
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5. Conclusions
\n
The major commercial polymers have been shown to be biodegradable in a variety of circumstances despite a strong predisposition suggesting that many of these polymers were recalcitrant to the effects of biodegradation. The question of whether bioremediation can play a significant role in the necessary management of polymer waste remains to be determined. Treatment technology for massive waste polymer treatment must be sufficiently robust to be reliable at large scale use and adaptable to conditions throughout the environment where this treatment is required. The status of information relating to the application of biodegradation treatment to existing and future polymer solid waste is at early stages of development for several waste polymers. The discovery of that invertebrate species (insect larvae) can reduce the size of the waste polymer by ingesting and degradation in the gut via enzymes which aid or complete degradation is rather amazing and requires additional scrutiny. There is an outside change that a polymer recycling technology based on these findings is a future possibility.
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Disclaimer
\n
The views expressed in this book chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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Conflict of interest
No “conflict of interest” is known or expected.
\n',keywords:"polymers, plastics, degradation, microbial degradation, biofilms, extent of degradation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66340.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66340.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66340",totalDownloads:2013,totalViews:496,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"April 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 11th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 13th 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Polymers present to modern society remarkable performance characteristics desired by a wide range of consumers but the fate of polymers in the environment has become a massive management problem. Polymer applications offer molecular structures attractive to product engineers desirous of prolonged lifetime properties. These characteristics also figure prominently in the environmental lifetimes of polymers or plastics. Recently, reports of microbial degradation of polymeric materials offer new emerging technological opportunities to modify the enormous pollution threat incurred through use of polymers/plastics. A significant literature exists from which developmental directions for possible biological technologies can be discerned. Each report of microbial mediated degradation of polymers must be characterized in detail to provide the database from which a new technology developed. Part of the development must address the kinetics of the degradation process and find new approaches to enhance the rate of degradation. The understanding of the interaction of biotic and abiotic degradation is implicit to the technology development effort.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66340",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66340",signatures:"John A. Glaser",book:{id:"7479",title:"Plastics in the Environment",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Plastics in the Environment",slug:"plastics-in-the-environment",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",bookSignature:"Alessio Gomiero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7479.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217030",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alessio",middleName:null,surname:"Gomiero",slug:"alessio-gomiero",fullName:"Alessio Gomiero"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Polymer structures and features",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Biological degradation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Requirements to assay polymer biodegradation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Formulation of newer biodegradation schema",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Factors affecting biodegradability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Biofilms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Standardized testing methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Environmental biodegradation of polymers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Polyolefins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Polystyrene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Polyvinyl chloride",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4 Polyurethane",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.5 Polyethylene terephthalate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Disclaimer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Massy J. A Little Book about BIG Chemistry: The Story of Man-Made Polymers. 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Environmental degradability of polyurethanes. In: Thermoplastic Elastomers-Synthesis and Applications. InTech; 2015. DOI: 10.5772/60925\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Marten E, Müller RJ, Deckwer WD. Studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of polyesters I. Low molecular mass model esters and aliphatic polyesters. Polymer Degradation and Stability. 2003;80(3):485-501. DOI: 10.1016/S0141-3910(03)00032-6\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Marten E, Müller RJ, Deckwer WD. Studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of polyesters. II. Aliphatic–aromatic copolyesters. Polymer Degradation and Stability. 2005;88(3):371-381. DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab. 2004.12.001\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Liu J, Xu G, Dong W, Xu N, Xin F, Ma J, et al. Biodegradation of diethyl terephthalate (DET) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by a novel identified degrader Delftia sp. WL-3 and its proposed metabolic pathway. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2018;67:254-261. DOI: 10.1111/lam.13014\n'},{id:"B94",body:'Lee JH, Lim KS, Hahm WG, Kim SH. Properties of recycled and virgin poly (ethylene terephthalate) blend fibers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2013;128(2):1250-1256. DOI: 10.1002/app.38502\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Parikh M, Gross R. The effect of crystalline morphology on enzymatic degradation kinetics. In: Ching C, Kaplan DL, Thomas EL, editors. Biodegradable Polymers and Packaging. Lancaster-Basel: Technomic; 1993. pp. 407-415. ISBN-13: 978-1566760089\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Ronkvist ÅM, Xie W, Lu W, Gross RA. Cutinase-catalyzed hydrolysis of poly (ethylene terephthalate). Macromolecules. 2009;42(14):5128-5138. DOI: 10.1021/ma9005318\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Zhang J, Wang X, Gong J, Gu Z. A study on the biodegradability of polyethylene terephthalate fiber and diethylene glycol terephthalate. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2004;93(3):1089-1096. DOI: 10.1002/app.20556\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Mueller R-J. Aliphatic–aromatic polyesters. In: Bastioli C, editor. Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers. Shawbury, UK: Rapra Technology Ltd; 2005. ISBN: 1-85957-389-4303-38\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Mueller RJ. Biological degradation of synthetic polyesters—Enzymes as potential catalysts for polyester recycling. Process Biochemistry. 2006;41(10):2124-2128. DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2006.05.018\n'},{id:"B100",body:'Wei R, Oeser T, Barth M, Weigl N, Lübs A, Schulz-Siegmund M, et al. Turbidimetric analysis of the enzymatic hydrolysis of polyethylene terephthalate nanoparticles. Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic. 2014;103:72-78. DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2013.08.010\n'},{id:"B101",body:'Atthoff B, Hilborn J. Protein adsorption onto polyester surfaces: Is there a need for surface activation? Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B, Applied Biomaterials. 2007;80(1):121-130. DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.30576\n'},{id:"B102",body:'Biundo A, Ribitsch D, Guebitz GM. Surface engineering of polyester-degrading enzymes to improve efficiency and tune specificity. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2018;102(8):3551-3559. DOI: 10.1007/s0025\n'},{id:"B103",body:'Hermanová S, Šmejkalová P, Merna J, Zarevúcka M. Biodegradation of waste PET based copolyesters in thermophilic anaerobic sludge. Polymer Degradation and Stability. 2015;111:176-184. DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab. 2014.11.007\n'},{id:"B104",body:'Yoshida S, Hiraga K, Takehana T, Taniguchi I, Yamaji H, Maeda Y, et al. A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly (ethylene terephthalate). Science. 2016;351(6278):1196-1199\n'},{id:"B105",body:'Yoshida S, Hiraga K, Takehana T, Taniguchi I, Yamaji H, Maeda Y, et al. Response to comment on “A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly (ethylene terephthalate)”. Science. 2016;353(6301):759\n'},{id:"B106",body:'Bornscheuer UT. Feeding on plastic. Science. 2016;351(6278):1154-1155. DOI: 10.1126/science.aaf2853\n'},{id:"B107",body:'Joo S, Cho IJ, Seo H, Son HF, Sagong HY, Shin TJ, et al. Structural insight into molecular mechanism of poly (ethylene terephthalate) degradation. Nature Communications. 2018;9(1):382\n'},{id:"B108",body:'Doppalapudi S, Jain A, Khan W, Domb AJ. Biodegradable polymers—An overview. Polymers for Advanced Technologies. 2014;25(5):427-435. DOI: 10.1002/pat.3305\n'},{id:"B109",body:'Avérous L, Pollet E. Biodegradable polymers. In: Environmental Silicate Nano-Biocomposites. Springer; 2012. pp. 13-39. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4471-4108-2_2\n'},{id:"B110",body:'Vroman I, Tighzert L. Biodegradable polymers. Materials. 2009;2(2):307-344. DOI: 10.3390/ma2020307\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"John A. Glaser",address:"glaser.john@epa.gov",affiliation:'
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Suitable health procedures, management, and prevention of disease by continuous monitoring through modern technologies can lead to a decrease in health costs and improve people empowerment. Applying remote medical diagnosis and monitoring system based on mobile health systems can help significantly reduce health care costs and correct performance management particularly in chronic disease management. In this chapter, mHealth opportunities in patient monitoring with the introduction of various systems specifically in chronic disease are expressed. Also mHealth challenges in patient monitoring in general and specific aspects are identified. Some of the general challenges include threats to confidentiality and privacy, and lack of information communication technology (ICT), and mobile infrastructure. In specific aspect, some difficulties include lack of system interoperability with electronic health records and other IT tools, decrease in face-to-face communication between doctor and patient, ill-functioning of system that leads to medical errors and negative effects on care outcomes, patients, and personnel, and factors related to the telecommunication industry include reliability and sudden interruptions of telecommunication networks.",signatures:"Niloofar Mohammadzadeh and Reza Safdari",authors:[{id:"180696",title:"Dr.",name:"Niloofar",surname:"Mohammadzadeh",fullName:"Niloofar Mohammadzadeh",slug:"niloofar-mohammadzadeh",email:"nmohammadzadeh@razi.tums.ac.ir"},{id:"184243",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",surname:"Safdari",fullName:"Reza Safdari",slug:"reza-safdari",email:"rsafdari@tums.ac.ir"}],book:{title:"Mobile Health Technologies",slug:"mobile-health-technologies-theories-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"15251",title:"Dr.",name:"Chin-Feng",surname:"Lin",slug:"chin-feng-lin",fullName:"Chin-Feng Lin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"179200",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcia",surname:"Friesen",slug:"marcia-friesen",fullName:"Marcia Friesen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Manitoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"179430",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",surname:"Zhao",slug:"fang-zhao",fullName:"Fang Zhao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Augusta University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"180407",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",surname:"Li",slug:"meng-li",fullName:"Meng Li",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"180408",title:"Prof.",name:"Joe",surname:"Tsien",slug:"joe-tsien",fullName:"Joe Tsien",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"184811",title:"Prof.",name:"Shere-Er",surname:"Wang",slug:"shere-er-wang",fullName:"Shere-Er Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"184812",title:"Prof.",name:"Yen-Chiao",surname:"Lu",slug:"yen-chiao-lu",fullName:"Yen-Chiao Lu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"184813",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhong-Yi",surname:"Lin",slug:"zhong-yi-lin",fullName:"Zhong-Yi Lin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"184814",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Cheng",surname:"Chang",slug:"chung-cheng-chang",fullName:"Chung-Cheng Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"184815",title:"Mr.",name:"Tim",surname:"Yeh",slug:"tim-yeh",fullName:"Tim Yeh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"attribution-policy",title:"Attribution Policy",intro:"
Definition of Terms:
\n\n
Book - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.
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Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\n
Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\\n\\n
Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\\n\\n
Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
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All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
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\\n\\n
In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
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1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
\\n\\n
All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\\n\\n
A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
\\n\\t
All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
\\n\\t
Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
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The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\\n\\t
Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
\\n\\t
Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
\\n\\t
Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
\\n\\t
Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
\\n
\\n\\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
\\n\\t
Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\\n\\t
Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
\\n\\t
Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\\n\\n
All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\\n\\n
Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\\n\\n
All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\n
Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\n
Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\n
Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
\n\n
With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
\n
\n\n
In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\n
1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
\n\n
All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\n
A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\n
\n\t
Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
\n\t
All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
\n\t
Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
\n\t
The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
\n\t
Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
\n\t
Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
\n\t
Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
\n\n
Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\n
\n\t
Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
\n\t
Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
\n\t
Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\n
IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\n
All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\n
Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\n\n
All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\n\n
Policy last updated: 2016-06-09
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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