List of HAV vaccines available in market.
\r\n\tIn the book the theory and practice of microwave heating are discussed. The intended scope covers the results of recent research related to the generation, transmission and reception of microwave energy, its application in the field of organic and inorganic chemistry, physics of plasma processes, industrial microwave drying and sintering, as well as in medicine for therapeutic effects on internal organs and tissues of the human body and microbiology. Both theoretical and experimental studies are anticipated.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims to be of interest not only for specialists in the field of theory and practice of microwave heating but also for readers of non-specialists in the field of microwave technology and those who want to study in general terms the problem of interaction of the electromagnetic field with objects of living and nonliving nature.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-227-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-226-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-228-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8f6a41e4f5ce0e9c48628516d7c92050",bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",keywords:"Electromagnetic Wave, Microwave Energy Application, Electromagnetic Energy Generation, Intelligent Microwave Heating, Microwave Organic Chemistry, Microwave Reactor, Microwave Discharge, Microwave Plasma, Microwave Drying System, Tissue Microwave Heating, Measurement Automation, Industrial Microwave Process",numberOfDownloads:224,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Gennadiy I. Churyumov is a professor at two universities: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, and Harbin Institute of Technology and a senior IEEE member.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216155/images/system/216155.jfif",biography:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov (M’96–SM’00) received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in Electronics Engineering and his Ph.D. degree from the Kharkiv Institute of Radio Electronics, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1974 and 1981, respectively, as well as the D.Sc. degree from the Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1997. \n\nHe is a professor at two universities: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, and Harbin Institute of Technology. \n\nHe is currently the Head of a Microwave & Optoelectronics Lab at the Department of Electronics Engineering at the Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics. \n\nHis general research interests lie in the area of 2-D and 3-D computer modeling of electron-wave processes in vacuum tubes (magnetrons and TWTs), simulation techniques of electromagnetic problems and nonlinear phenomena, as well as high-power microwaves, including electromagnetic compatibility and survivability. \n\nHis current activity concentrates on the practical aspects of the application of microwave technologies.",institutionString:"Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics (NURE)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"24",title:"Technology",slug:"technology"}],chapters:[{id:"74623",title:"Influence of the Microwaves on the Sol-Gel Syntheses and on the Properties of the Resulting Oxide Nanostructures",slug:"influence-of-the-microwaves-on-the-sol-gel-syntheses-and-on-the-properties-of-the-resulting-oxide-na",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75284",title:"Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Review)",slug:"microwave-assisted-extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-review",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75087",title:"Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Microwave Heating on Rock Cracking and Their Mechanical Properties",slug:"experimental-investigation-on-the-effect-of-microwave-heating-on-rock-cracking-and-their-mechanical-",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74338",title:"Microwave Synthesized Functional Dyes",slug:"microwave-synthesized-functional-dyes",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74744",title:"Doping of Semiconductors at Nanoscale with Microwave Heating (Overview)",slug:"doping-of-semiconductors-at-nanoscale-with-microwave-heating-overview",totalDownloads:45,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74664",title:"Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction from Natural Matrices",slug:"microwave-assisted-solid-extraction-from-natural-matrices",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69680",title:"Epidemiology of Hepatitis A: Past and Current Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89248",slug:"epidemiology-of-hepatitis-a-past-and-current-trends",body:'The discovery of hepatitis viruses is one of the most mesmerizing scientific escapades of the last five decades. Their identification has been considered a milestone that revolutionized modern day medicine [1]. Disease outbreaks resembling hepatitis A have been known since ancient times. The earliest accounts of contagious jaundice are traced to ancient China [2]. Feinstone et al. were first to identify Hepatitis A virus (HAV) in the year 1973 [3]. Increasing globalization poses fresh challenges for prevention of HAV infections. This chapter is an attempt to decipher the evolution of the disease over the years and summaries the current HAV situation around the world.
Outbreaks resembling hepatitis A have been reported from Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries during the period of war. The pathologists Bamberger and Virchow proposed the name “catarrhal jaundice”, as they believed the disease to be caused by mucus blockage of common bile duct [4]. Viral origin of the disease was first indicated by McDonald [5]. The virus was identified when the focus of investigation changed from serum to feces [6]. It was first seen under immune electron microscope in fecal suspension from infected Joliet prison inmates [3].
It was not until early 1900s that the mode of transmission of hepatitis A was identified [7, 8]. Although person-to-person contact was evident, the virus was thought to spread via droplet nuclei [9, 10]. Voegt successfully transmitted hepatitis A through duodenal juice. He published his findings in Munich Medical Weekly in 1942 [11]. Havens et al., at Yale University, United States of America, successfully transmitted jaundice by feeding serum and stool filtrate to 12 volunteers [12]. The differentiation between infectious hepatitis and serum jaundice was provided by a series of experiments carried out among mentally disabled residents at the Willowbrook State School, Staten Island [13]. While, it was MacCallum who proposed the terms hepatitis A and hepatitis B in the year 1947 [14]. The virus was first cultured in the year 1979 [15]. The viral genome was identified by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. The cDNA copy was molecularly cloned. The RNA transcripts derived from cDNA clone proved infectious in cell cultures [16]. Figure 1 depicts the timeline of Hepatitis A virus.
The timeline of Hepatitis A virus.
HAV is classified in the family Picornaviridae and genus Hepatovirus. HAV is a non-enveloped, 27- to 28-nm spherical virus with icosahedral symmetry. The virus contains a positive-sense, single stranded linear RNA. The 5′ end of the viral genome consists of a covalently bound protein termed VPg typical of picornaviridae. The viral genome consists of 60 copies each of its 3 major structural proteins, namely, VP1, VP2, and VP3 (1D, 1B, and 1C). Although a variety of genotypes (genogroups I–VII) have been identified by analysis of genome sequences, the virus has a single serotype. Individual strains of HAV have differences at the molecular level that may be useful for epidemiologic studies; however, a high degree of identity in nucleic acid (as high as 90%) and amino acid sequence (as high as 98%) is generally seen between strains [17, 18].
HAV is a common infectious etiology of acute hepatitis worldwide. It is most commonly transmitted through the feco-oral route. Although, HAV contamination of food material can occur anytime during cultivation/preparation/distribution, it occurs most commonly during food distribution due to infectious food handlers [19]. Virtually any food may be contaminated with the virus. HAV is relatively resistant to extremes of temperature and pH. Hepatitis A virus is omnipresent; it can perpetuate on environmental surfaces, hands of food handlers, sewage as well as in a variety of food products [20].
Rare reports of transfusion related hepatitis A have been published over the years. Transmission is via blood/blood products (Factor VIII and IX) collected from an infected donor during the phase of viremia [21, 22, 23].
Studies have found that people who engage in sex with casual partners, sex in gay saunas, oral-anal intercourse and household or sexual contact with acute hepatitis A (AHA) patients are at increased risk of HAV infection. Several reports of HAV infections have been reported among men who have sex with men (MSM) [24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
The discovery of hepatitis A virus, its propagation in cell culture and cloning of its genome culminated almost two decades later in the development and licensing of an effective vaccine [29, 30]. According to the WHO, the most effective way to prevent HAV infection is to improve sanitation and immunization. Gamma globulin was found to be effective in prevention of measles in susceptible household contacts in the year 1944 [31]. Joseph Stokes, a pediatrician working at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, used the knowledge in curtailing hepatitis A outbreak among children by administering gamma globulins [32].
First HAV vaccine was developed in early 1900 [33, 34]. In 1991, a preliminary study was published among vaccinees, demonstrating neutralizing antibodies following the administration of formalin-inactivated vaccines [35]. Live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine was developed subsequently [36].
By 1992, the clinical efficacy of two formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccines HAVRIX (Smith-Kline Beecham) and VAQTA (Merck, Sharpe and Dohme) became obvious [30, 33]. Two laboratory-attenuated strains HM175 and CR326F respectively were used for vaccine production. The adverse reactions following vaccination were minimal, and seroconversion after two doses was found to be quite high (99.8%) [30]. Other monovalent formalin inactivated HAV vaccines available in market today include AVAXIM (Aventis Pasteur), HEALIVE (Sinovac Biotech Co Ltd), Weisairuian (Institute of Medical Biology of the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; Kunming), Veraxim (Shanghai Wison Bioengineering Inc) and EPAXAL (Crucell/Berna Biotech). Hepatitis A vaccine is also available as a combined preparation with Hepatitis B vaccine in the form of TWINRIX (GlaxoSmithKline) Table 1 [37, 38, 39].
List of HAV vaccines available in market.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) licensed HAVRIX in February 1995 for children (≥2 years), adults and travelers [34]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends vaccination for children 12 months or older, travelers to endemic countries, gays, illegal drug users, individuals with occupational risk exposure and chronic liver disease patients. The American College of Physicians too also recommends vaccination of high-risk groups [40].
In the United States, vaccination against hepatitis A is available as inactivated, monovalent vaccines (HAVRIX and VAQTA) or in combination with hepatitis B (TWINRIX). These vaccines are highly efficacious with seroconversion rates approaching 100% [41]. With the implementation of vaccination, the incidence of HAV in the United States has shown a drastic decline of 92% (12 cases per 100,000 in 1995 to 1 case per 100,000 in 2007) [42].
Among the developing nations, Indian Academy of Pediatrics (IAP) recommends two doses of vaccine for children (≥1 year). The recommended dose is 720 ELISA Units (ELU) for <19 years and 1440 ELU for ≥19 years. Protective antibody titers are seen in almost 100% vaccinees following the second dose [43]. No major adverse reactions have been associated with vaccine use.
CDC recommends vaccine instead of immunoglobulin for exposure to HAV in healthy individuals aged 1 to 40 years. Standard adult dosing recommends administration of two doses of the vaccine 6–12 months apart. For individuals 41 years and older, immunoglobulin administration is preferred due to the risk of more severe clinical presentation and limited evidence of vaccine efficacy in this age group. Immunoglobulins are also recommended for children less than 12 months, individuals with chronic liver disease, and immunocompromised patients [44, 45, 46].
In the pre-vaccine era, hepatitis A occurred in cycles, every 10–15 years, with majority of cases reported among children (≤15 years) [47, 48]. Most cases (12–25%) of hepatitis A in the United States occurred as communitywide epidemics in which infection was transmitted from person to person among household or sexual contacts. International travel and foodborne outbreaks accounted for a small percentage of cases [49]. Asymptomatic infections among children played an important role in sustaining transmission. According to a survey conducted in the United States of America (1988–1994), a third of the population were sero-positive for anti-HAV IgG antibodies [50]. In the developing part of the world, majority of the population acquires asymptomatic hepatitis A infection early in life, such that large proportion of population is immune to HAV [51, 52].
HAV infection resulted in devastating consequences in susceptible populations. An outbreak in Shanghai, China in 1988 affecting over 300,000 people due to consumption raw clams represents an example of the magnitude problem in the pre-vaccine era [53].
WHO estimates that approximately 1.5 million people are infected with HAV each year [54]. The incidence of HAV in a given population correlates with socioeconomic properties such as income, density of housing, sanitation, and water quality. Endemic rates are high in developing countries with poor sanitation and hygiene practices. HAV endemicity is classified into low, intermediate, and high based on the sero-prevalence of anti-HAV IgG (<15%, 15–50% and >50%) [37]. High sero-prevalence reflects that majority of the population is immune to HAV [55]. HAV in children is usually asymptomatic, while frank hepatitis is seen when HAV infection occurs in adults. Since 1999 several countries including, southern Asia, Latin America, and Europe, have experienced a decline in the incidence of HAV infection due to improved sanitation and routine vaccination. This has resulted in a higher incidence of HAV infection among adult population [56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. The shift in age group, which acquires hepatitis A, towards adolescents and adults has amplified the incidence of symptomatic disease, since childhood HAV infection is usually asymptomatic [51, 52].
Since the availability of HAV vaccine, an overall increase in the incidence of reported HAV cases has been observed from European Union countries [62]. This points to new risks associated with globalization and population migration [62, 63]. According to a health survey conducted in the USA, a significant decrease in HAV immunity among adult population was noted between 1988–1994 and 1999–2006 [64]. The survey also demonstrated rise in the rate of hospitalization among HAV infected individuals, consequent to a higher percentage of symptomatic infection among adult population over the last decade [65]. This is known as the “paradox of hepatitis A risk” [55].
Prognosis of HAV is usually good among younger population, with low mortality rates (0.1%). The mortality rate increases proportionately with age, to as high as 2.1% among ≥40 years old [66]. In developing world, including Asia, Africa and South America, evidence of past infection is nearly universal. Juxtapose to this, infection rates are low in developed countries such as the United States, Canada, and Europe. High-risk groups in these regions comprise of injection drug users, homosexuals, people traveling to endemic regions, and among isolated communities such as nursing homes etc. [67].
In the USA, HAV outbreaks were common among illicit drug users in the pre-vaccine era. Drug users accounted for over 20% of all HAV cases as reported by the CDC during mid-1980s [68, 69]. Since 1999, with the implementation of routine HAV vaccination program, hepatitis A incidence has shown a steady decline until 2011 [70, 71]. The incidence has stabilized at an annual average of over a 1000 cases per year. Most cases were reported among international travelers returning from countries endemic for HAV [72].
In a sero-prevalence study conducted among military personals in France, Lagarde found the prevalence of HAV antibodies as 16.3% [73]. Another study conducted in Korea found the overall HAV sero-prevalence of 63.8% [74]. Japan has been conducting sero-prevalence studies over the years. The overall HAV sero-prevalence has dramatically decreased from 96.9% in 1973 to 96.9% in 1984 and 12.2% in 2003. Notably, the population susceptibility increased annually [75]. A sero-prevalence survey in Taiwan during 2009–2010 showed that only 10% of MSM aged 18–40 years in Taiwan had anti-HAV antibodies [76]. HAV vaccination program was implemented in Taiwan in 2016. Although this lead to decline in the frequencies of both human cases and positive sewage samples, no substantial increase in vaccination coverage was seen among high risk groups like MSM and HIV-infected patients [77].
Exposure to HAV is virtually universal before the age of 10 years in most developing countries [78]. In a study conducted in rural Liberia, an annual incidence of HAV was reported to be 45% among children aged 1–5 years [79]. In Indonesia, 95% of children, under the age of 10 years, were naturally immune to HAV infection [80]. Above-mentioned studies point towards the fact that, mass HAV vaccination might not be necessary in highly endemic regions.
In India, the sero-prevalence of anti-HAV antibodies exceeds 90% among adults [81]. However, there have been recent reports of a decreasing sero-prevalence across the country, paralleling with the industrialized world [82, 83]. Accordingly, HAV vaccination has been recommended for school children as well as adults [84]. Another study conducted among children found the age-related sero-prevalence of HAV to be 50.3% in the age group of 6–10 years and 30.3% among 18 months to 6 years of age. The HAV prevalence correlated strongly with the child’s education and socioeconomic status [85]. In another Indian study, the HAV prevalence was found to be 97.2% [78]. These findings were in agreement with the expected pattern of HAV sero-prevalence in an area of high endemicity. Similar findings have been reported from other parts of the country as well [86, 87, 88].
About 90% of Indian children acquire protective antibodies against HAV by the age of 10 years. Similar patterns of endemicity have been found in other developing countries, with high sero-prevalence of anti-HAV antibodies [89]. Surveys conducted among children in Egypt have also reported almost 100% sero-prevalence rates [90].
Several studies from India have recently reported a significant sero-epidemiological shift, with increasing incidence of infection among adults and adolescents. Recently in New Delhi, anti-HAV antibody prevalence among adults was reported to be as low as 36.7% [82].
Chile and Jordan have reported a decrease in anti-HAV sero-prevalence over the years [89, 91]. The study conducted in Jordan showed a continual rise of the sero-prevalence rates with rise in age. While, sero-prevalence was 26% among <2 years old, the rate increased to a whooping 94% for >20 years old [91]. A study conducted in Western Brazil revealed overall sero-prevalence among children as 16.7% in the year 2011, which significantly increased to 70.45% in a recently conducted survey [52, 91]. This high prevalence might be attributed to disease outbreaks in few parts of the district of Gampaha.
Over the last 10 years, several outbreaks have been reported throughout the world Table 2 and Figure 2 [92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107].
Hepatitis A outbreaks around the world over the last decade.
Hepatitis A outbreaks throughout the world over the last decade.
Although feco-oral route has been implicated in most of the cases, sexual mode of transmission among high risk groups is the second most prevalent route of transmission [104, 105].
In 2016, about 2000 cases of HAV were reported in the United State [92]. CDC and FDA investigated two major HAV outbreaks due to consumption of contaminated foods (strawberries imported from Egypt and scallops from Philippines). The first outbreak affected 134 people, with two hospitalization while, the second outbreak affected 292 individuals with 94 hospitalizations [93, 94]. An HAV outbreak in California in 2017 encompassed homelessness individuals and illicit drug users with poor sanitation practices. The outbreak spread to several other states as well. A total of 694 individuals were infected, with 45 hospitalizations and 21 deaths [95].
A sizeable hepatitis A outbreak was reported in Australia in 2009, resulting in a 2-fold increase in the number of cases reported to the state health departments. Surveillance data suggested infection due to contaminated semidried tomatoes [96].
A total of 32 outbreaks of water/food-borne disease outbreaks were reported from Kerala, India alone, in the same year, involving 2421 cases. All these outbreaks were attributable to feco-oral route [97]. Around 223 hepatitis A cases were identified in a HAV outbreak in Kerala. Attack rate was found to be highest among the age group of 16–30 years (1.44%). Food/water from a newly opened hotel in the area was the possible source of the outbreak [101]. In another study, authors reported HAV outbreak in the medical college area in Kottayam [100]. Another outbreak of acute hepatitis was reported from Mylapore village, Kollam district, southern India during February to June 2013. A total of 45 cases were affected, pipe water contamination from a bore well was identified as the source [101].
In a study conducted among acute viral hepatitis patients in North India, hepatitis A virus was identified as the most common etiological agent (26.96%) followed by hepatitis E virus [99].
Gassowski et al. reported two hepatitis A outbreaks in Europe. One affecting travelers returning from Morocco and the other among European residents without travel history. The outbreaks lasted from January to June 2018, affecting 163 patients in eight European countries. The HAV was genotypically identified as belonging to subgenotype IA DK2018-231 and subgenotype IB V18–16428. Common risk factor among the cases was found to be unvaccinated travel due to lack of awareness [102].
In July 2010, five cases of HAV infection were reported among the Orthodox Jewish (OJ) community in London, United Kingdom. Two of the cases gave history of travel to Israel for the same event a few days back. A total of 900 contacts of the cases were traced and vaccinated [106].
Cyclic outbreaks of HAV among high-risk groups (MSM and/ HIV) have been described in several reports. Outbreak strains among MSM across countries were found to be genetically alike and circulated for over a decade [104, 105]. In June 2015, a considerable increase in reports of AHA infection was noted in Taiwan mostly affected MSM and patients with HIV or other STI. The strain was later identified as TA-15 strain. In 2016, multi-country HAV outbreaks predominately affecting MSM were observed in Europe. The EuroPride strain (RIVM-HAV16–090) detected was genetically quite similar to the TA-15 strain identified earlier [87, 108]. A similar outbreak strain was also reported in the United States in 2017 [103], which suggests a global pattern of increased risk among susceptible male adults, with possible transmission through sexual contacts at MSM events.
HAV adversely affects the economy of a country by decreasing productivity of its citizens due to absenteeism from work, adding to medical costs and the effect on tourism. Improving sanitary conditions and providing clean drinking water are imperative pillars in curtailing spread of HAV. Simple method like hand hygiene is an effective way to prevent virus transmission. Vaccination forms the foundation in prevention of HAV. Both inactivated and live attenuated vaccines are licensed and available for use. Improved sanitation and vaccination although prevents Hepatitis A infection, it paradoxically increases the susceptibility of adult population towards a more symptomatic disease. This vicious cycle is the dilemma of HAV control and prevention program.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Shipping has a vital role in developing human society over the years, at which the shipping activities have linked the widely separated parts of the world through commercial relationships. In fact, the shipping industry is still developing from time to time with rapid industrial and digital economy growth. In Canada, the shipping industry has been established since 1840 and now undergone significant technological advances, where the size of ships that carry containers for international use continues to increase [1]. Even in Malaysia, the government has launched an initiative, namely, Malaysia Shipping Master Plan, that ensures the shipping industry is focused on developing itself and has a guide for future development. This initiative takes place from 2017 until 2022 with a “Revitalizing Shipping for a Stronger Economy” theme [2].
\nGenerally, there are three main classifications for the global cargo shipping industry, which are:
Wet bulk: Transportation of crude oil and other petroleum products
Dry bulk: Shipment of bulk goods
Liners: Small shipments of general commercial goods
Each of wet bulk, dry bulk, and liner shipping needs their specialized vessels, which are tankers, bulkers, and container ships, respectively [3].
\nFirstly, for wet bulk shipping, approximately a quarter of the goods transported by sea is dominated by crude oil [4]. The oils are transported from its production point to the purchasers by the wet bulk shipping or known as tankers. Majority of the crude oil is moved from the most significant oil-producing region, which is the Middle East, to the dominant importers like the European Union, Japan and the United States of America. Other than that, North America imports oil from the Caribbean and West America meanwhile West and North Africa export their oils to Europe [4].
\nNext, the largest group out of these three classifications is dry bulk shipping, where more than 50% of all loaded goods are handled by the bulkers, while 30 and 16% are for tankers and containers, respectively [5]. There is a vast range of solid cargoes transported by containers. Generally, there are five primary crucial bulk goods, which are coal, grain, iron ore, bauxite, and phosphates, in which iron ore and coal are the two goods that are transported the most [4]. Meanwhile, chemical packages and steel products are the example of the shipped minor bulk goods [6]. The main routes for iron ore transportation are from Australia and Brazil to Japan as well as from Brazil to Western Europe. While for coal, which is commonly used as steam coal in power stations to generate electricity, the leading exporters are from South Africa, Australia, Colombia, the East and West Coast of the United States, as well as Indonesia. Moreover, Australia, South Africa, Colombia, and the East Coast of the United States export their coal to Western Europe, whereas Japan receives the coal from the West Coast of the United States, Australia, and South Africa [4].
\nLiner shipping, also known as container shipping, provides services by transporting goods in containers with scheduled sailings. The variety of goods transported by liner shipping are packed in a smaller unit. One of the contributors to the continuation and development of liner shipping is the increment of the digital economy. According to Ref. [7], companies that produce and process raw materials, commodities, and manufacturing goods are the previous world’s fastest-growing and biggest corporations. However, currently, Internet-related service and technology-based manufacturers, such as Alibaba, Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft, have become the world’s most valuable and most prominent companies, where e-commerce, online communication and cashless Business to Business (B2B) and Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions are practiced [7]. This development has contributed more to the growth of the shipping industry, where it is considered as a catalyst for economic development by facilitating world trade, due to the cheaper mode of transportation.
\nHowever, aside from on-the-ground activities such as lubricants, refineries, and petrochemical industries, it is undeniable that shipping activities have contributed to marine pollution, especially in this twentieth century where carriage of the cargoes by the ships is increasing. According to [8], millions of tons of oily wastes and waste oils are generated as the by-products of the ships, every year. One of the contributors to water pollution by the operating marine vessels is the discharging of oily bilge water. Typically for marine vessels, the oily wastes and waste oil that come from various sources accumulate in the bilge space, which is the lowest part of the vessel.
\nRoutinely, the accumulated oily bilge water must be discharged out of the bilge spaces to maintain the stability of the vessel, hence eliminating the possibility of the ship to be in the conditions that can cause a hazard to it [9]. The wastes discharged can eventually cause water pollution, which leads to many negative impacts on the human, environment, and marine populations. Oily bilge water may poison marine organisms because it might cover plants and tiny animals when it floated on the surface of the water and is carried into the shoreline, causing life cycles of the plant and the respiration of the animals be interfered [10].
\nHence, many governments and international industries are working on the marine pollution issue, mainly originated from the shipping industry, such as the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC), the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), and the Department of Environment (DOE), Malaysia. In order to solve the problem, oily wastewater separator is essential and needs to be installed and operated effectively to prevent the pollution as well as to ensure that the water discharged overboard is within legal limits.
\nThe lowest compartment of the vessels and directly above the keel is known as bilge, where water that drains off from various sources is captured. The water might be originated from rain, interior spillage, rough seas, or minor leakage in other main parts of the vessel. Depending on a few factors such as ship size, design of engine room, and components’ age, the amount of accumulated bilge water onboard varies from one to another. In order to maintain the stability of the vessel and to avoid conditions that can cause hazard (such as vessel’s propulsion systems and ancillary machinery damage and fire hazard) due to too much of bilge waste accumulation, it is crucial to remove the bilge water into a holding tank, periodically [9]. There are two options to manage the bilge water, which are whether installing bilge separator to treat it onboard or holding it in a tank on the vessel before discharging it to the shore’s treatment facility. Somehow, treating it onboard has an advantage where a smaller volume of oily bilge water has to be stored in the vessel. Meanwhile, the treated wastewater can be removed according to the related regulations and standards.
\nThe composition of bilge water depends on the design and function of the ship. The wastewater is commonly comprised of water, oily fluids, cleaning fluids, lubricant, and grease as well as other wastes that originated from piping, engines, and other operational and mechanical sources in the vessel’s machinery spaces [9] as well as urine and chemicals. Other than that, extra waste streams in massive vessels contain sludge, waste oil, and oily water mixtures. Sludge is formed from the continuous fuel purification to remove contaminants in order to enhance low-quality fuels as well as to avoid ship’s engines and highly machined components from being damaged.
\nThe regulation stipulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) highlighted on the oil content of the bilge water discharged to the sea. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) has set the maximum limit of 15 mg/L for the oil content in the wastewater to be discharged to the sea. According to the US EPA (2008), passenger ships produce the highest amount of bilge water with huge difference as compared to the other types of ships. This is due to their more complex constructions and support for crowds of passengers [9].
\nTypically, the small volumes of treated bilge water are released above the water line and instantly diluted in the sea water. Hence, the obvious effects of oil spill is most likely not going to occur. However, a long-term effect might happen to the marine living organisms around the shipping lanes. The negative consequences that will take place may be due to the excessive concentration of biodegradable compounds, including oil, as well as continuous increment of nondegradable compound concentration such as metals [11].
\nOther than that, surfactant is one of the significant chemicals contained in the bilge water. The mixtures of oil and surfactants may cause higher toxicity since the oil and surfactants alone are toxic themselves. This may be due to the synergistic effects or the crude oil that has been dissolved, causing it to be consumable for the exposed organisms [12, 13, 14, 15].
\nTypically, OWS is made up of three segments, which are separator unit, filter unit, and oil content monitor and control unit. The separator and filter units are included as treatment units, where many designs and different principles are applied. The gravity and centrifugal separators are commonly used as the first stage of the treatment, followed by other separation techniques, which is called as polishing treatment. The examples of the polishing unit are flotation, coagulation and flocculation, filtration, biological treatment, as well as absorption and adsorption [16]. Normal techniques, such as gravitational and centrifugation, are used for oily wastewater that has two distinct phases; meanwhile, addition of chemical or biological de-emulsification is required for separation of emulsified oily bilge water [17].
\nTypically, oily bilge water treatment onboard starts with a gravitational method in order to remove heavy fractions and lighter fractions based on density difference. In this method, coalescing materials made of oleophilic polymer in the form of loose-packed media or parallel plate are used to attract the oil droplets to adhere to the plate [16]. Examples of oleophilic polymer used as the coalescing plate separators are polyethylene, fiberglass, and nylon [18].
\nThe free-moving dispersed oil droplets continue to adhere to the plate or media until it can break from the coalescing material and float up to the surface of the tank. The presence of the oil detected by the sensors then automatically triggers the OWS to remove the collected oil to a waste oil tank. However, this method can only be effective when the phase of the oil and water is separated distinctively [19]. In other words, in some instances, the gravitational method is not suitable since the bilge water typically consists of emulsified oil formed due to the chemical emulsifiers (solvents and cleaning agents) as well as mechanical means such as ship’s motion and transfer system pump [16]. Figure 1 shows the gravitational separator process.
\nGravitational separator [20].
As can be seen from the figure above, as the oily bilge water flows through the parallel plate, oil globules are formed and float up to the surface to form oil layer. Oil skimmer is used to skim off the oil layer. Then, oil discharge valve and purge water valve are opened, where the oil is removed from the unit by the purge water.
\nCentrifugal separators are the alternative option for the gravity separators. The same principle is applied, in which the oil is separated based on the different density of oil and water as well as coalescence of the oil droplets. Somehow, the centrifugal acceleration causes the gravity to increase more, and the coagulation and flocculation processes are enhanced in order to separate the emulsified oil. This type of separator has many advantages as compared to gravity OWS. Since it can separate more oil from the bilge water, including emulsified oil, less oil content is loaded to the next treatment step, which is usually called a polishing unit. Thus, the polisher’s service life might last long, reducing the cost of maintenance and repair. Centrifugal separators are also more compact and require smaller bilge water holding tanks [16]. However, high capital cost is needed for the centrifuges, and regular maintenance must be done since large horsepower motors are used during the process.
\n\nFigure 2 shows an example of manufactured separator (PureBilge by Alfa Laval).
\nPatented Alfa Laval XLrator [21].
In the inlet stream of the unit, the bilge water is accelerated by the XLrator with less shearing and foaming in order to prevent the oil drops from separating and further emulsion formation. Then, it flows into the separator, in which coalescence occurs due to high centrifugal force. Flocculation of small oil drops takes place and flocculants is added to promote bigger flocs for easier separation [21].
\nSeparation of oil by flotation occurs due to the difference in density of oil and water, where water is denser than oil, forming a scum layer on top of the water. Floatation technique can be divided into many different techniques, including electroflotation, froth flotation [22], and dissolved air flotation (DAF). Electroflotation separates oil from water through electrochemical reactions by electrolysis, where tiny bubbles produced from electrolysis will cause the pollutants to float to the water body surface [23]. In froth flotation, the separation takes place when the oil adheres onto the fine bubbles generated when air is introduced into the system. Surfactant is added to adsorb the air or water interface of the bubbles of air with the head groups (hydrophilic) in the water and the tail groups (hydrophobic) in the air. Hence, when the bubbles rise through the solution, the oil will concentrate on the bubble surfaces and foam is formed [24].
\nMeanwhile, dissolved air flotation (DAF) introduces micro gas bubbles into the flotation chamber that has been formed when water is saturated with gas under pressure [25]. The oil droplet will spread around the gas, and conglomerate will continue to rise to the surface of the solution. The advantages of flotation treatment are the following: less investment needed, low energy consumption, and easy to maintain [26]. However, the statement contradicts with Yu et al. [27] who stated that flotation requires high energy consumption and has repairing and maintenance problem as well as issue in manufacturing of the device.
\nAccording to Yu et al. [27], coagulation process is a robust oil–water separation technology because it is able to separate dissolved and emulsified oil; hence, it is vastly applied in the latest oily wastewater treatment method [28]. In the coagulation process, coagulant, a chemical substance, is added to the wastewater to destabilize the charge of colloidal particles in the solution [29] which is too tiny for gravitational settling. When the particles are destabilized, larger flocs are formed making it easier to settle and then are skimmed off to the clarifier or sludge thickener.
\nAnyhow, many experiments might be needed if the coagulation method is going to be used in treating oily wastewater. This is because of the complexity of oily wastewater, making it hard to choose the most suitable coagulants for effective separation of oil and water to take place [27]. In a study done by Zeng et al. [30], oil removal efficiency is improved up to 99% when aggregation of poly-zinc silicate (PZSS) with anionic polyacrylamide (A-PAM) is used as the coagulating and flocculating chemicals. Somehow, higher costs are needed, and it could cause water bodies’ secondary pollution and difficulties to the next process [27].
\nSome bilge water treatment units include biological treatment, which is called as a bioreactor. In this method, microorganisms are used to eliminate or reduce the organic and inorganic compounds before the treated wastewater being discharged to the sea or to a collection system [29]. The microorganisms convert the dissolved and particulate carbonaceous organic matter, including oil, in the bilge water into simple end products through the oxidation process. The equation below is representing the aerobic biological oxidation of organic matter [29].
\nAs can be seen from Eq. 1 above, the oxidation process needs oxygen (O2) and nutrients, which are nitrate (NH3) and phosphate (PO4\n3−), in order to convert the organic matter to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Other than that, the new cells generated are referring to the biomass produced after the oxidation of organic matter takes place.
\nThere are two principals of biological processes used to treat wastewater, which are suspended growth and attached growth, or also known as biofilm, processes. Suspended growth process maintains the microorganisms in liquid suspension by proper mixing methods. Meanwhile, attached growth attach the microorganisms to an inert packing material, where the wastewater will flow past the biofilm to remove the organic materials [29]. For OWS onboard, biofilm is used, in which the bacteria are attached to a synthetic support media. In this bioreactor, aerators are installed under the media to supply oxygen to the bacteria for bacterial growth as well as for oxidation of the organic contaminants to take place. Other than that, a clarifier is needed in order to remove the biomass formed at the end of the processes [16].
\nBiological treatment, with flexible operation, simple maintenance and management, as well as stable effluent quality [26], is indeed a suitable method since no waste oil is produced by the process [16]. Small oil droplets of emulsified oil, which are hardly removed by physical and chemical treatment, can be degraded easily by the bacteria [31]. However, CO2 will be produced from the process, resulting in increment in greenhouse gases. Even though the operating cost is low, the capital cost needed is high and skillful personnel to be in charge is required to ensure the treatment functioned well.
\nBasically, there are three stages involved in the process [32]. The first stage is heavy phase separation, where separated oils and solids are removed. In the second stage, the bacteria are used to convert the emulsified oil into non-harmful end products. This stage is known as emulsified oil degradation stage. Then, the third stage contains clarifier in order to remove the remaining solids and water.
\nPhysicochemical sorption involved in absorption and adsorption processes can eventually separate the oil from the bilge water. Absorption occurs when two discrete physical states of substances are fused together. Meanwhile, in adsorption, molecules adhere onto the surface of different phase [16]. Both absorption and adsorption involved absorbent sorption media and adsorbent, respectively. The oil is separated by pumping the bilge water through these media until their maximum sorption capacity is achieved, which then the oil is removed. Certain used media are possible to be regenerated onboard; meanwhile, some are regenerated or disposed of onshore. Somehow, the regenerated media is replaced once it is exhausted, where it can no longer absorb or adsorb the oil molecules. Having a few advantages which include low capital and operating cost as well as compact treatment unit, these two sorption techniques are suitable for vessels with less than 400 gross tonnages [16]. Table 1 summarizes the comparison of the oil–water separation techniques.
\nTechniques | \nAdvantages | \nDisadvantages | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Gravitational | \nEffective for discrete phases of oil and water | \nNot effective to separate emulsified oils from water | \n[16, 19] | \n
Centrifugation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16] | \n
Flotation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[26, 27] | \n
Coagulation and flocculation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16, 27, 28, 33] | \n
Biological | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16, 27] | \n
Absorption and adsorption | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16] | \n
Comparison of the separation techniques.
Currently, many types of OWS for bilge from different manufacturers are available in the market. The separators consist of a number of separator units that use different separation techniques. Table 2 shows examples of companies that produced commercially available bilge water separators.
\nNo. | \nManufacturers | \nName of the products | \nSeparation techniques applied | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nAlfa Laval | \nPureBilge | \nCentrifugation | \n
2 | \nEnSolve Biosystems, Inc. | \nPetroLiminator OWS | \nBiological | \n
3 | \nVillage Marine Tec. | \nVillage Marine Tec. Oily Water Separator (VMT OWS) | \nAdsorption | \n
4 | \nSeparator Spares & Equipment, LLC. | \nULTRA-SEP Bilge Water Separator | \nUltrafiltration (membrane) | \n
5 | \nCompass Water Solutions | \nCRP-SEP | \n\n
| \n
ULTRA-SEP | \n\n
| \n||
VG-SEP | \n\n
| \n||
6 | \nRecovery Energy, Inc. | \nBOSS Oily Water Separators | \n\n
| \n
Examples of commercially available bilge water separator.
Different techniques are available and being used in the oil–water separation techniques for bilge water treatment. Typically, more than one unit of separators is needed to meet the minimum allowable discharge limit value set by the regulatory bodies. Gravitational and centrifugal methods are said to be the first technique before undergoing further polishing separation. Polishing treatment unit caters smaller droplet of oil, or emulsified oil, which cannot be treated by gravitational and centrifugal methods. To conclude, oily bilge water can be treated with proper separation techniques so that the treated bilge water discharged to the sea comply with the limit and marine pollution can be minimized and prevented. Any other treatment techniques can as well be tested and introduced to enhance the oil–water separation process in treating bilge water.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge the Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research (CBBR) and Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for the support.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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