\r\n\t• Role of technological innovation and corporate risk management \r\n\t• Challenges for corporate governance while launching corporate environmental management among emerging economies \r\n\t• Demonstrating the relationship between environmental risk management and sustainable management \r\n\t• Contemplating strategic corporate environmental responsibility under the influence of cultural barriers \r\n\t• Risk management in different countries – the international management dimension \r\n\t• Global Standardization vs local adaptation of corporate environmental risk management in multinational corporations. \r\n\t• Is there a transnational approach to environmental risk management? \r\n\t• Approaches towards Risk management strategies in the short-term and long-term.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-906-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-905-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-907-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b65afaff43ec930bc6ee52c4aa1f78f",bookSignature:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz and Prof. Larisa Ivascu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10226.jpg",keywords:"Global Risk Management, Risk Assessment, Climate Risk, Environmental Management, International Business, Business Sustainability, Corporate Governance, Financial Market, Financial Risks, Sustainable Economic Environment, Business Valuation, Organizational Behavior",numberOfDownloads:131,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz focuses on corporate social responsibility, human resource management, strategic management, and business management. He is a member of the British Academy of Management (UK), Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), American Economic Association (USA), and an Ambassador of the International MBA program of Chongqing University, PR China, for Pakistan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu's area of research includes sustainability, management, and strategic management. She has published over 190 papers in international journals. She is vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management, Timisoara, and a member of the World Economics Association (WEA), International Economics Development and Research Center (IEDRC), Engineering, and Management Research Center (CCIM).",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260655/images/system/260655.jpeg",biography:"Dr Muddassar Sarfraz is working at the Binjiang College, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China. He has obtained his PhD in Management Sciences and Engineering from the Business School of Hohai University. He holds an International Master of Business Administration (IMBA) from Chongqing University (China) and Master of Business Administration (HR) from The University of Lahore. He has published tens of papers in foreign authoritative journals and academic conferences both at home and abroad.\nHe is the Book Editor of Sustainable Management Practices, Analyzing the Relationship between Corporate Governance, CSR, Sustainability, and Cogitating the Interconnection between Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability. He is the Associate and Guest Editor of Frontiers in Psychology, International Journal of Humanities and Social Development Research and the Journal of Science and Innovative Technologies. He is an Editorial Board Member of the International Journal of Human Resource as well as a member of the British Academy of Management (UK), Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), American Economic Association (USA), and an Ambassador of the International MBA program of Chongqing University, PR China, for Pakistan. \nHis research focuses on corporate social responsibility, human resource management, strategic management, and business management.",institutionString:"Binjiang College, Nanjing University of Information Science &Technology, Wuxi, Jiangsu",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"288698",title:"Prof.",name:"Larisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ivascu",slug:"larisa-ivascu",fullName:"Larisa Ivascu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRfMOQA0/Profile_Picture_1594716735521",biography:"Dr Larisa IVAȘCU is currently an associate professor at the Politehnica University of Timisoara. 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1. Introduction
Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated systemic disorder elicited by gluten and related prolamins in genetically susceptible individuals, characterized by the presence of a variable combination of gluten-dependent clinical manifestations, CD-specific antibodies, HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 haplotypes, and enteropathy. Genetic, immunological, and environmental factors therefore appear to be responsible for the disease. HLA-DQ2 is present in 90%–95% of patients with CD, whereas 5% carry the HLA-DQ8 haplotype and the remaining 5% at least one of the two DQ2 alleles [1, 2]. The prevalence of CD is high in the European and North American population (1%), reaching 10%–15% in patients who have first-degree relatives with this disease [1, 2].
HLA system has a fundamental role in identifying the antigens inoculated with the vaccines and in the production of specific antibodies [3, 4], and some HLA phenotypes seem to be predictive of a less effective immunological response [5].
In particular, the immunogenic peptides in the hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine determine the protective immune response to the virus through the HLA-DR and DQ molecules [6, 7], with the DR3-DQ2 and DR7-DQ2 haplotypes generally having a lower response rate [7–10].
HBV infection is one of the major causes of chronic liver disease, associated with a high risk of death from cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, and therefore represents an important global public health problem [11, 12]. To prevent it, since 1982, a safe and effective hepatitis B vaccine has been available. The one currently in use is a recombinant vaccine that contains HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) and causes the production of specific antibodies (anti-HBs) that protect against the infection [13]. Many epidemiologic studies have been conducted to determine the efficacy of the vaccine. A positive immune response to the vaccine is defined as the development of HBV anti-HBs at a titer of >10 mIU/mL, after a complete and appropriate immunization schedule, measured preferably 1–3 months after the last vaccine administration [14, 15]. The optimum response, conferring seroprotection against HBV infection, is defined as an anti-HBs titer ≥100 IU/l [14, 15]. Subjects that develop an anti-HBs titer between 10 and 100 IU/ml are referred to as “poor responders.” Vaccinated subjects with an anti-HBs titer <10 mIU/ml after completion of primary vaccine series are called “nonresponders” [16]. HBV vaccination is very effective, showing a sustained immune response in immune-competent individuals: the antibody response has been found to occur in more than 90% of the healthy subjects vaccinated with the standard dose regimen of 20 μg HBV vaccine given at 0, 1, and 6 months of intervals [17, 18]. However, among healthy immunocompetent subjects, approximately 4–10% do not produce protective levels of anti-HBs after immunization [19] depending on age, male gender, obesity, inappropriate vaccine storage conditions, route of administration, smoking, drug abuse, state of immunosuppression, and presence of specific HLA haplotypes.
2. Responses to vaccinations in celiac children
Data concerning antibody response of patients with CD to vaccine are scanty. Most studies in this field are addressed to HBV vaccination response, while fewer works are available about the immunological response to other vaccinations.
Several research papers have suggested that celiac patients may have low rate of protective antibodies after vaccinations such as HBV. The failure of CD subjects to respond to HBV vaccination has great importance for public health policies as the nonresponders could be regarded as a reservoir for HBV [20]. The studies that have addressed the relation between CD and HBV vaccination in children are summarized in Table 1 [21–29]. In the earliest report involving 26 celiac patients aged 9.2 ± 4.6 years and 18 age-matched controls, receiving the full complement of childhood vaccination (HBV, tetanus, rubella, Haemophilus influenzae type b), Park et al. [21] demonstrated that a significantly higher proportion of subjects in the CD group failed to respond to HBV vaccine compared with controls (53.9% versus 11.1%; p < 0.05). However, all subjects in both groups tested positive for other vaccinations. These results led the authors to support the role of HLA haplotypes in response to HBV vaccine. Nemes et al. [22] evaluated HBV vaccine response in CD patients in relation to disease activity and examined the possible role of dietary gluten in the failure to achieve protective antibody titers. The authors studied 128 biopsy-proven CD children and adolescents and 113 age-matched control subjects; 22 patients with CD were prospectively vaccinated with a recombinant HBV vaccine after the diagnosis of CD during dietary treatment, while 106 CD patients received a recombinant HBV vaccine unrelated to CD diagnosis and dietary compliance. They found that a seroconversion rate for anti-HBs was 95.5% (95% CI: 78.25–99.2%) after vaccination in the patients prospectively immunized, while the response rate was 50.9% and correlates with gluten intake (untreated patients 25.9%, non-strict diet 44.4%, strict diet 61.4%) when HBV immunization was performed unrelated to diagnosis and diet status suggesting that disease activity may play a primary role in vaccination failure rather than specific HLA alleles [22]. Subsequently, Ertem et al., to assess the response to HBV vaccine prospectively in a group of CD children and to explore the potential link between CD and HBV vaccine nonresponse, evaluated serologically for anti-HBs status 63 previously biopsy-proven CD patients on a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) and 54 healthy children. CD children who were anti-HBs negative at baseline were fully vaccinated prospectively and reevaluated for the response to HBV vaccine. The authors found that the response rate to HBV vaccine in CD patients prospectively vaccinated was 96.9%, which was as high as the response rate obtained in healthy population, and they concluded that treatment with GFD and compliance to the treatment rather than the specific HLA alleles may improve the immune response to HBV vaccine in CD patients [23]. Balamtekin et al. conducted a study to compare the response rates to HBV vaccination in the first year of life, using two different immunization protocols. The total study group included 64 CD children (group 1 who received HBV vaccination at birth, 2 and 9–12 months of life, and group 2 at birth, 1 and 6 months of life) and 49 healthy controls. The authors found that the response rate to HBV vaccine and anti-HBs titers in CD patients who completed the HBV vaccination before 1 year of age were significantly lower compared to healthy controls, whereas no statistically significant difference was observed with the two different HBV vaccination schedules [24]. Ertekin et al. compared the response to HBV vaccine between children with CD and healthy children and investigated the relationship between the patients’ responses to HBV vaccine, the clinical presentation of CD, and the dietary compliance in the patients. They evaluated the production of specific anti-HB surface antigen (HBsAg) in 52 CD patients and 20 age- and sex-matched healthy children who received HBV vaccination according to the standard immunization schedule. The authors found that anti-HBs titers of CD patients were positive in 32 (61%) and negative in 20 (38.5%) patients, while 18 (90%) of control subjects had positive anti-HBs titers. They found also statistically significant differences between negative anti-HBs titers, clinical presentation of CD, and dietary compliance in patients with CD (P < 0.05). Therefore, they concluded that, in children with CD, the immune response to HBV vaccination may be improved by compliance to the GFD [25]. Leonardi et al. [26] in a retrospective report confirmed that CD patients have a lower percentage of response to HBV vaccination than healthy subjects. In fact, they found that 30 (50%) of 60 CD patients were nonresponders to HBV vaccination, compared to 7 (11.6%) of 60 controls. The same authors also found that a significantly higher number of nonresponders in adolescent patients older than 14 years and concluded that a very early diagnosis of CD seems to increase significantly the percentage of responders suggesting that a short time of gluten introduction seems to play a favorable effect on the antibody memory [26]. Leonardi et al. [27] in a subsequent retrospective study, including 66 CD patients and 50 healthy children, analyzed and compared the immunologic response against obligatory vaccination (HBV, diphtheria and tetanus component, and Bordetella pertussis) and against recommended vaccination (Measles virus, Paramyxoviridae, and Rubella virus) in the two groups. The authors found similar response to obligatory and recommended vaccines into the two groups, except for HBV vaccine. Moreover, they compared patients whose diagnosis was made before or after 18 months of age and found that an early or a delayed diagnosis does not significantly modify the immunological response, except for that one involved in the HBV vaccination. Thus, the immunologic response did not seem to be influenced by the natural history of CD [27]. Urganci and Kalyoncu determined the rate of response to hepatitis A (HBA) and HBV vaccine, the duration of protection against HAV and HBV, and the incidence of acute HAV or HBV infections during follow-up in 30 pediatric patients with CD and compared them with 50 healthy age-, sex-, and body mass index-matched controls [28]. They found that 14 (46%) of 30 CD patients and 15 (30%) of the controls had natural immunity for HAV, whereas all patients and controls did not show evidence of earlier exposure to HBV. Sixteen patients and 35 controls received HAV vaccine, and HBV vaccine was administered to all CD patients and controls; protective anti-HAV antibodies were developed in 12 (75%) of the patients and all the controls (75% versus 100%, respectively). Thirty patients and 50 controls received HBV vaccine, and 70% of the patients versus 90% of the controls achieved seroprotection. The authors concluded that the rate of seroconversion to the HBV and HAV vaccine is lower in CD patients than in healthy controls. Finally, in a very recent paper, Leonardi et al. comparing a group of patient affected by diabetes mellitus type 1 (DMT1) and CD and a group affected by DMT1 without CD (both groups had similar HLA haplotype) found a higher nonsignificant percentage of nonresponders in DMT1/CD group than in DMT1 (53.3% versus 38.2%); comparing the DMT1/CD group with CD group, the authors found a similar percentage (53.3% versus 50%) of nonresponders, and this result indirectly confirmed that gluten can favor a further decrease of efficacy to HBV vaccine, beyond the HLA system [29].
22 (mean age 8.8 years) treated CD prospectively immunized; 27 (mean age 16.7 years) untreated CD; 79 (mean age 16.7 years) treated CD vs 113 (mean age 16.1 years) controls
HBV
0.5% 74.0% 38.6% vs 24.8%; P < 0.001, P < 0.001, P = 0.102
Group 1 (22 treated CD): HLA DQ2 Group 2 (53/106 treated and untreated CD): 51: HLA DQ2 2: HLA DQ8
30 (mean age 6 years) CD/DMT1 vs 100 (mean age 13.6 years) DMT1 vs 60 (mean age 8.6 years) CD
HBV
53.3% vs 38.2% vs 50%; P > 0.02
NA
Table 1.
Response to HBV vaccination in CD children and adolescents compared to healthy subjects.
HBV hepatitis B virus; CD celiac disease; HLA human leukocyte antigen; NA nonavailable; DMT1 diabetes mellitus type 1.
3. Pathogenetic role of HLA system in vaccination unresponsiveness in celiac disease
The mechanism for hepatitis B vaccination failure in patients with CD is not clear. A few hypotheses have been proposed. Multiple candidate genes influence the ability to respond to the recombinant HBV vaccine [9, 30–32]. HLA is believed to contribute significantly to the genetic susceptibility immune response variations to the vaccine [33]. Poor or nonresponsiveness to HBV vaccine has been associated with HLA-DQ2, DR3, and DR7 alleles, which are also associated with CD [9, 10, 34]. In particular, HLA genotype DQ2, found in 90–95% of celiac patients, may have a fundamental role in the predisposition to a weaker immunization to recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in these patients. The HLA is coded by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) group of genes located on chromosome 6 in the human genome, and they are essential for determining the specificity of an individual’s immune response [35]. There are three classes of HLA: HLA class I, HLA class II, and HLA class III. Among them, HLA class II molecules have the task of presenting antigens to the T lymphocytes from outside the cell. Antibody-producing B cells are then stimulated to produce specific antibodies by these antigens [36]. HLA-DQ2 haplotype would be responsible for the failure of induction of the Th2 response needed to promote the differentiation of B cells and the formation of memory B cells necessary for immunization.
Defective or insufficient HBsAg-specific T-helper cells, inadequate T-helper 1, and T-helper 2 cytokine production [37–39], or diminished expression of cell contact signal between activated T and B cells, like CD40L [40] may also be responsible for the lack of response to HBsAg [41, 42]. On this regard, interleukin genotypes (IL10, IL12, IL18) were associated with the anti-HBs antibody development in response to HBsAg in hemodialysis patients [43, 44]. Chen et al. in 2011 found that serum anti-HBsAg response to HBV vaccine in healthy population was closely related to four specific single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) in the IL4, IL4RA, IL13, and Toll-like receptor (TLR2) genes and suggested that variation in these structures may influence the duration and intensity of HBV vaccine-induced immune response [45].
Other studies suggested that compliance with a GFD is responsible for the response to the hepatitis B vaccine in patients with CD. Several studies have hypothesized gluten intake as a cause of failed immunity upon vaccination. Gluten may be implicated because both HBsAg protein fragments and gliadin peptides bind to HLA-DQ2 molecules and induce proliferation of T lymphocytes. Defective antibody production may result from competition between the proteins [22, 23].
4. New approaches in hepatitis B vaccination in celiac children
Inadequate response to HBV immunization in CD patients represent a public health concern because the group of nonresponder patients could act as an HBV infection reservoir. For this reason, response to HBV vaccine should be investigated in children with CD. To protect this population and to achieve the goal of universal protection, new immunization strategies were proposed for CD: the first one is the use of booster and/or higher doses of HBV vaccine by intramuscular (IM) route, and the second one addresses on the use of intradermal route (ID). The studies that have addressed new immunization strategies in CD are summarized in Table 2 [22, 23, 46, 47].
After first dose: ID:76.7% vs IM: 78.6% After third dose: ID: 90% vs IM: 96.4% High responders (anti-HBs >1000 IU/l): ID: 40% IM: 7%; P < 0.01
Table 2.
Seroconversion rate in CD children and adolescents after IM or ID HBV vaccination.
CD celiac disease; IM intramuscular; ID intradermal; VAC vaccine; Ag antigen; GFD gluten-free diet; HBV hepatitis B virus; anti-HBs anti-hepatitis B surface
Nemes et al. administered intramuscularly to 37 nonresponder CD children on GFD, the booster dose of 20 μg of recombinant HBV vaccine, and found that 36 out 37 (97.3%) showed seroconversion 4 weeks after vaccination. However, success with the booster vaccination after controlled GFD suggests that disease activity may play a primary role in vaccination failure [22]. Few studies that exist about HBV vaccine administered by ID route in CD patients unresponsive to IM recombinant vaccine. Leonardi et al. revaccinated 20 CD children and adolescents with a 2 μg dose of recombinant intradermal HBV vaccine. After 4 weeks they found that 15 out 20 patients (75%) showed a protective titer of anti-HBs [22, 23].
Subsequently, Leonardi et al. conducted a prospective, randomized study on 58 CD patients, vaccinated in the first year of life, without protective HBV antibodies as demonstrated by blood analysis. They performed in all patients randomly an HBV vaccination booster dose by ID or IM route. In 30 CD children, a 2 μg dose of recombinant HBV vaccine was administered by the ID route, while 28 CD patients received by IM route 10 μg dose of the same vaccine. Four weeks after every booster dose, 90% of ID patients and 96.4% of IM subjects showed a protective anti-HBs titer after a third booster dose. The authors concluded that both routes are effective in revaccinating CD patients; however, the ID route seems to produce a significantly higher percentage of higher responders [47].
Data suggest that the ID route offers greater immunogenicity due to direct delivery of antigen to the skin immune system, using even lower doses of antigen than IM route [47]. Moreover, the presence of a skin reaction on the site of the intradermal injection could represent a less expensive strategy to test serum anti-HBs response after the booster dose [48]. Economic studies suggest that the substantial cost-saving benefits could be achieved using a fraction of the IM dose via an ID route [48, 49].
5. Conclusions
The available literature shows that HBV vaccine response is lower in celiac subjects compared with healthy ones. Some authors hypothesize that the failure to respond to HBV vaccination is related to specific HLA association, whereas others argue that exposure to gluten at the time of vaccination may play an important role in unresponsiveness to the HBV vaccine. Therefore, nonresponsiveness to the HBV vaccination in CD patients represents a serious public health problem because of the large diffusion of CD that affects about 1% of the European population. Consequently, new vaccination strategies have been proposed to achieve full protection in this context, including the administration of booster doses of HBV vaccine by the intramuscular or the intradermal route. An evaluation of the response to HBV vaccine should be considered as a routine assessment in children newly diagnosed with CD who were previously vaccinated for HBV. Whenever unresponsiveness occurs, certain measures must be taken into account, such as revaccination utilizing ID route, which offers a potentially greater immunogenicity than the IM one, even using lower doses, due to the direct delivery of antigen to the skin immune system. Moreover, the revaccination should be done after the decrease of specific antibodies, which usually occurs after about 1 year of GFD, seen as some studies support GFD as crucial to vaccine responsiveness. More randomized controlled studies with a prospective design are needed for CD patients in order to clarify this topic.
\n',keywords:"celiac disease, children, hepatitis B vaccine, HLA, gluten-free diet",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54009.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54009.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54009",totalDownloads:1044,totalViews:310,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 4th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 23rd 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 7th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated systemic disorder elicited by gluten and related prolamins in genetically susceptible individuals, characterized by the presence of a variable combination of gluten-dependent clinical manifestations, CD-specific antibodies, HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 haplotypes, and enteropathy. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is an important global public health problem that can cause chronic liver disease, and it is associated to a high risk of death from cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Since 1982, a safe and effective HBV vaccine has been available, and recommendation for HBV vaccination has been extended to all infants to achieve protection against HBV infection. HBV vaccination is highly effective in eliciting a sustained immune response in immune-competent individuals. However, research papers have suggested that celiac patients may have low rate of protective antibodies after HBV vaccination. The failure of CD subjects to respond to HBV vaccination has great importance for public health policies as the nonresponders could be regarded as a reservoir for HBV. The aim of our work is to revise and to discuss the scarce literature on this field in order to provide clinical practice guidelines to establish the best surveillance program of response to HBV vaccine in CD pediatric patient.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54009",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54009",book:{slug:"celiac-disease-and-non-celiac-gluten-sensitivity"},signatures:"Caterina Anania, Francesca Olivero, Eugenia Olivero and Lucia\nPacifico",authors:[{id:"181185",title:"M.D.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Pacifico",fullName:"Lucia Pacifico",slug:"lucia-pacifico",email:"lucia.pacifico@uniroma1.it",position:null,institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"185268",title:"Prof.",name:"Caterina",middleName:null,surname:"Anania",fullName:"Caterina Anania",slug:"caterina-anania",email:"caterina.anania@uniroma1.it",position:null,institution:null},{id:"185269",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Olivero",fullName:"Francesca Olivero",slug:"francesca-olivero",email:"francesca_ol@hotmail.it",position:null,institution:null},{id:"185270",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",middleName:null,surname:"Olivero",fullName:"Eugenia Olivero",slug:"eugenia-olivero",email:"eu_ol@hotmail.it",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Responses to vaccinations in celiac children",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Pathogenetic role of HLA system in vaccination unresponsiveness in celiac disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. New approaches in hepatitis B vaccination in celiac children",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Fasano A, Catassi C. Clinical practice. Celiac disease. N Engl J Med. 2012; 367:2419–2426. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp1113994.'},{id:"B2",body:'Husby S, Koletzo S, Korponay-Szabo IR, Mearin ML, Phillips A, Shamir R, Troncone R, Giersiepen K, Branski D, Catassi C, Lelgeman M, Maki M, Ribes-Koninckx C, Ventura A, Zimmer KP. ESPGHAN Working Group on Coeliac Disease Diagnosis, ESPGHAN Gastroenterology Committee. European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition guidelines for the diagnosis of coeliac disease. 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Umberto I – Polyclinic of Rome, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Umberto I – Polyclinic of Rome, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Rios",authors:[{id:"69471",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:"Garcia",surname:"Soriano",fullName:"Francisco Soriano",slug:"francisco-soriano"},{id:"117418",title:"Dr.",name:"Ester",middleName:"Correia Sarmento",surname:"Rios",fullName:"Ester Rios",slug:"ester-rios"}]},{id:"26191",title:"Oxidative Stress and Antioxidative Status in the Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-antioxidative-status-in-the-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Andrzej Lewandowski, Krystyna Markocka-Mączka, Maciej Garbień, Dorota Diakowska and Renata Taboła",authors:[{id:"65620",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Lewandowski",fullName:"Andrzej Lewandowski",slug:"andrzej-lewandowski"},{id:"66576",title:"Prof.",name:"Krystyna",middleName:null,surname:"Markocka-Maczka",fullName:"Krystyna Markocka-Maczka",slug:"krystyna-markocka-maczka"},{id:"66577",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Diakowska",fullName:"Dorota Diakowska",slug:"dorota-diakowska"},{id:"66578",title:"Dr.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Garbie?",fullName:"Maciej Garbie?",slug:"maciej-garbie"},{id:"71698",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Taboła",fullName:"Renata Taboła",slug:"renata-tabola"}]},{id:"26192",title:"Microcirculatory Disturbances in the Pathogenesis of Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"microcirculatory-disturbances-in-the-pathogenesis-of-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Dirk Uhlmann",authors:[{id:"63169",title:"Prof.",name:"Dirk",middleName:null,surname:"Uhlmann",fullName:"Dirk Uhlmann",slug:"dirk-uhlmann"}]},{id:"26193",title:"Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography-Related Acute Pancreatitis – Identification, Prophylaxis and Treatment",slug:"endoscopic-retrograde-cholangiopancreatography-related-acute-pancreatitis-identification-prophylaxis",signatures:"Alejandro González-Ojeda, Carlos Dávalos-Cobian, Elizabeth Andalón-Dueñas, Mariana Chávez-Tostado, Arturo Espinosa-Partida and Clotilde Fuentes-Orozco",authors:[{id:"65817",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Ojeda",fullName:"Alejandro Gonzalez-Ojeda",slug:"alejandro-gonzalez-ojeda"}]},{id:"26194",title:"Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) Related Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"endoscopic-retrograde-cholangiopancreatography-ercp-related-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Zoltán Döbrönte",authors:[{id:"65652",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoltan",middleName:null,surname:"Dobronte",fullName:"Zoltan Dobronte",slug:"zoltan-dobronte"}]},{id:"26195",title:"Nutrition Assessment and Therapy in Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"nutrition-assessment-and-therapy-in-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Vanessa Fuchs-Tarlovsky and Krishnan Sriram",authors:[{id:"67143",title:"Dr.",name:"Vanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchs-Tarlovsky",fullName:"Vanessa Fuchs-Tarlovsky",slug:"vanessa-fuchs-tarlovsky"},{id:"118763",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishnan",middleName:null,surname:"Sriram",fullName:"Krishnan Sriram",slug:"krishnan-sriram"}]},{id:"26196",title:"Changes in the Management of Treatment in Acute Pancreatitis Patients",slug:"changes-in-the-management-of-treatment-in-acute-pancreatitis-patients",signatures:"Juraj Bober, Jana Kaťuchová and Jozef Radoňak",authors:[{id:"69676",title:"Prof.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Bober",fullName:"Juraj Bober",slug:"juraj-bober"},{id:"69682",title:"Prof.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Katuchova",fullName:"Jana Katuchova",slug:"jana-katuchova"},{id:"69689",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozef",middleName:null,surname:"Radonak",fullName:"Jozef Radonak",slug:"jozef-radonak"}]},{id:"26197",title:"Hypertriglyceride Induced Acute Pancreatitis",slug:"hypertriglyceride-induced-acute-pancreatitis",signatures:"Joshua Lebenson and Thomas Oliver",authors:[{id:"63815",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Oliver",fullName:"Thomas Oliver",slug:"thomas-oliver"},{id:"64128",title:"Dr",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Lebenson",fullName:"Joshua Lebenson",slug:"joshua-lebenson"}]},{id:"26198",title:"The Role of Percutaneous Drainage in the Treatment of Severe Acute Pancreatitis on the Basis of the Modified Atlanta Classification",slug:"the-role-of-percutaneous-drainage-in-the-treatment-of-severe-acute-pancreatitis-on-the-basis-of-the-",signatures:"Zsolt Szentkereszty, Róbert Kotán and Péter Sápy",authors:[{id:"72116",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Szentkereszty",fullName:"Zsolt Szentkereszty",slug:"zsolt-szentkereszty"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73149",title:"Assessment of Biocontrol Potential of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (Glomus spp.) against Damping-off Disease (Rhizoctonia solani) on Cucumber",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93313",slug:"assessment-of-biocontrol-potential-of-arbuscular-mycorrhizal-glomus-spp-against-damping-off-disease-",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
\nRhizoctonia solani Kühn, the causative agent of damping-off disease in a variety of crop plants such as cucumber, is an economical important soil-borne pathogen [1, 2]. R. solani fungus is considered as a difficult pathogen to control due to several characters such as the great variability in the pathogen population, a wide host range, and long-term survival in soil [3]. Further, some cultural practices including the crop rotation, sanitation, and soil solarization with R. solani are not sufficiently effective because the pathogen is able to survive for many years in soil. The application of chemical pesticides, mainly methyl bromide, is the most reliable method to control R. solani; however, it causes serious risks including polluting the air, damaging the environment, building fungicides’ resistance of pathogen, and harming the human health [4, 5]. Therefore, the biological control method becomes an important component of the disease management to increase crop production and food safety [6].
\n
The biological control becomes an important target of many researchers in the field of biological and agricultural sciences [5]. Biocontrol agents use different mechanisms of action against fungal pathogens, such as antimicrobial compound production activity, mycoparasitism or hyperparasitism, cell wall-lytic enzyme activity, and the application of systemic resistance (ISR) activity [7]. In addition, some biocontrol agents are capable of improving some aspects of plant growth, such as the germination rate, shoot and root weight, nutrients’ uptake, and yield [8].
\n
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have been known to form a symbiotic relationship with around 80% of vascular plants. The symbiotic relationship can provide the plant with many benefits, including enhancement of plant growth and germination rates, increasing supplement of water and nutrients [9, 10]. In return, the AM fungi are completely dependable on the nutrients that are coming from the living root system [9]. In addition, AM fungi have been known to increase the host’s resistance to a wide range of fungal and bacteria pathogens, especially rot pathogens [11]. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of different species of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (Glomus spp.) to promote systemic resistance against the disease agent of damping-off disease (R. solani Kühn) on cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).
\n
\n
\n
2. Materials and methods
\n
Infected samples were brought from cucumber plants with wilting, yellowing, and dwarfing symptoms from a field related to the College of agriculture, University of Al-Qadisiyah. The plants were washed with sterilized water to remove soil residues and were cut to small pieces. Then, the samples were sterilized with sodium hypochlorite (NaCIO) 1% for 2 min, washed with sterilized water twice, and dried with filter papers. Nine petri dishes of potato dextrose agar (PDA) were inoculated with five pieces of the infected plants and incubated for 3 days at 25°C. Soil samples were diluted for pathogen isolation and the petri dishes were incubated at 27°C. Both plant and soil samples were kept in a refrigerator at 4°C and diagnosed using classification keys [12].
\n
Isolated pathogens were stored at 4°C prior to analysis and incubated at 25°C for 3 days. From the colony edge, four populated agar disks (7 mm) were cut and mixed in a 250 ml flask containing 100 ml of potato dextrose broth and 25 mg of chloramphenicol [13]. Sterilized soils were separated on each pot (3 kg) and inoculated with 1 ml from pathogen broth culture, and sterilized water was used for the control. Then, all pots were irrigated and covered for 3 days. Cucumber seeds were disinfected with sodium hypochlorite (NaCIO) 1% for 4 min and were planted in each pot. Germinated, not germinated seeds, and collapsed plants were recorded after 7 and 10 days for planting, and disease intensity was calculated as recommended [14]: 0 = no symptoms; 1 = seed rot, not germinated; 2 = brown rot on the stem base, plant is still standing; 3 = plant is wilted, laying on the ground; and 4 = plant is dead. DS was calculated from disease grades 0–3 using the following formula [15]:
where DS = disease severity, f = infection class frequencies, v = number of plants of each class, N = total of observed plants, and X = highest value of the evaluation scale.
\n
Cucumber seeds were surface-sterilized using 0.2% NaCIO for 2 min and rinsed several times with distilled water. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi were obtained from the Iraqi Ministry of Sciences and Technology’s laboratory. This mixture consists of propagated units of Glomus clarum (Nicol. Schenck) and Glomus mosseae (Nicol. Gerd) in a suspension form (1 × 106 unit L−1 concentration). Glomus spp. were identified and separated in two tubes by the experts at Iraqi Ministry of Sciences and Technology’s laboratory. Six healthy seeds of cucumber were planted in each pot (25 cm in diameter), which contained 3 kg of sterilized soil (clay:sand, 2:1, v/v) into each pot. For mycorrhizal inoculum, each pot was inoculated with dilution of 5 ml of either Glomus clarum or G. mosseae/L−1 water twice at the beginning of cultivation and after 14 days. As controls, the pots were provided with no AM + no pathogen, AM only, and pathogen only. For the pathogen inoculum, 5 ml of spore suspension (R. solani) was added at the beginning of cultivation. Six treatments were conducted as the following: Glomus clarum, G. mosseae, G. clarum + R. solani, G. mosseae + R. solani, control, and control + R. solani. Four replicates were made for each treatment. In this study, all plants did not receive any fertilizer and were watered when necessary at outdoor conditions. The disease severity for each treatment was monitored and estimated as mentioned above [16].
\n
When the plants emerged above the soil surface, five plants were harvested from each treatment after 5, 10, 15, and 20 days. The plants were washed with tap water to clean off soil particles. Fresh and dry weights were evaluated and recorded after drying the samples by a hot air oven at 60°C for 48 h until gaining constant weight [17].
\n
\n
\n
3. Results and discussion
\n
Five pathogens were isolated form the infected plants and soil. The fungal identification was performed according to the morphological characteristic as previously reported in literatures [18, 19]. Among five isolated pathogens, R. solani showed the highest disease severity (DS) on cucumber plants, which was about 63%, while Penicillium spp. showed the lowest disease severity (DS), which was about 8% (Figure 1). Therefore, R. solani was the most aggressive pathogen due to the suitable environment condition, and the availability of susceptible hosts and was used for all subsequent studies.
\n
Figure 1.
Pathogenicity test for isolated pathogens against damping-off diseases on cucumber. Each column represents the mean of five replicates. Bars on the pillars represent standard error and LSD = 5.73 (P = 0.01).
\n
The effect of AM fungi against R. solani on cucumber plants was studied by the inoculation of cucumber plants with the AM, G. mosseae + G. clarum, which showed a significant reduction in the disease severity of damping-off compared with control (Figure 2). Disease severity (DS) of mycorrhizal plants was reduced by 46% and 41%, respectively. Furthermore, inoculated plants with mycorrhiza showed fewer symptoms compared with non-mycorrhizal plants. Disease severity in AM-inoculated plants with G. mosseae was about 20%, which was slightly less than AM-inoculated plants with G. clarum (Figure 2).
\n
Figure 2.
Evaluation of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi on the disease severity of damping-off diseases on cucumber. Each column represents the mean of four replicates. Bars on the pillars represent standard error and LSD (P = 0.01).
\n
The effect of AM fungi on the growth parameters of cucumber plants was assessed by shoot dry weight and root dry weight. AM fungi-colonized plants had significantly increased shoot and root dry weights when compared with the non-mycorrhizal plants (Table 1). Cucumber plants, colonized with AM (G. mosseae), showed a slight increase in all growth parameters compared with the plant colonized with AM (G. clarum), which matches with our results on the DS experiment (Table 1).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Treatment
\n
Shoot dry weight (g/plant)
\n
Root dry weight (g/plant)
\n
\n
\n
5 days
\n
10 days
\n
15 days
\n
20 days
\n
5 days
\n
10 days
\n
15 days
\n
20 days
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Control
\n
0.5
\n
0.8
\n
0.9
\n
1.1
\n
0.2
\n
0.4
\n
0.7
\n
0.9
\n
\n
\n
Control + R. solani\n
\n
0.1
\n
0.3
\n
0.4
\n
0.5
\n
0.08
\n
0.1
\n
0.2
\n
0.3
\n
\n
\n
\nGlomus clarum\n
\n
0.4
\n
0.6
\n
0.7
\n
1.2
\n
0.15
\n
0.3
\n
0.6
\n
0.8
\n
\n
\n
\nG. mosseae\n
\n
0.6
\n
0.7
\n
0.8
\n
1.1
\n
0.2
\n
0.4
\n
0.7
\n
0.9
\n
\n
\n
\nG. clarum + R. solani\n
\n
0.3
\n
0.5
\n
0.6
\n
0.9
\n
0.15
\n
0.2
\n
0.5
\n
0.6
\n
\n
\n
\nG. mosseae + R. solani\n
\n
0.4
\n
0.6
\n
0.8
\n
1
\n
0.2
\n
0.3
\n
0.6
\n
0.7
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Evaluation of AM fungi on the growth parameters of cucumber plants.
\n
Mycorrhizal fungi are considered as ideal biocontrol agents due to some characteristics such as the ability to form a mutualistic symbiosis relationship with the roots of most vascular plant species [20]. Moreover, the plant-mycorrhiza relationship benefits the plant not only to control soil-borne pathogens but also to enhance the plant’s resistance to various abiotic stresses and increases the nutrients’ absorption [21].
\n
In the present study, inoculated plant with mycorrhizal fungi reduces significantly the disease severity of R. solani pathogen, which may be attributed to increase the nutrients’ status, reduce the direct competition for root space and resources with the pathogen, induce the plant’s immunity to involve certain systemic mechanisms such as the systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and cell wall defenses, and enhance the production of defense compounds such as phenolics, -1,3-glucanase, and chitinolytic enzymes [9]. Additionally, inoculated plants with mycorrhizal fungi (G. mosseae) showed a lower disease severity than G. clarum, which may lead to a potential active control tool. Furthermore, the inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi increases both the root dry weight and shoot dry weight, which supports our hypothesis.
\n
Mycorrhizal fungi play a main part in plant defense against pathogens and form a mutual relationship with plants. In summary, both mycorrhiza species could be an important tool to control soil-borne pathogens, increase plant nutrient absorption, and increase resistance to abiotic stresses. In future research, specific systemic mechanisms of mycorrhiza fungi against pathogens should be investigated more.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The research was supported by University of Muthanna, Iraq. The authors acknowledge the Ministry of Sciences and Technology in Iraq for providing them with the isolates of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi to complete their research.
\n
\n',keywords:"biological control, Rhizoctonia solani, arbuscular mycorrhiza, cucumber, damping-off diseases",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73149.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73149.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73149",totalDownloads:91,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 24th 2020",dateReviewed:"July 2nd 2020",datePrePublished:"September 7th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Rhizoctonia solani is one of the most important causative agents of damping-off diseases on cucumber plants and significantly reduces their yield. R. solani possesses some characteristics, such as wide host range and unlimited survival in soil, which made it most difficult to control. Therefore, the research for a biocontrol agent will be valuable to control this disease. Two species of mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus mosseae and Glomus clarum) that were evaluated against the agent R. solani reduced the damping-off disease on the cucumber plant. Mycorrhizal-inoculated plants with both species showed a significant reduction in disease severity (DS), which were 21 and 25%, respectively, whereas the disease severity was 65% for non-inoculated plants. Furthermore, the effects of mycorrhizal fungi were evaluated against the growth parameters of cucumber plants. Plants inoculated with both species of mycorrhizal fungi showed a significant increase in both shoot dry weight and root dry weight compared with uninoculated plants. In conclusion, both mycorrhiza species could be an important tool to control soil-borne pathogens, increase plant’s nutrients’ absorption, and increase resistance to abiotic stresses.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73149",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73149",signatures:"Baker Diwan Getheeth Aljawasim, Hussein M. Khaeim and Mustafa A. Manshood",book:{id:"10249",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Industry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Industry",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramalingam Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10249.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"219072",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramalingam",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"ramalingam-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSaberi M, Sarpeleh A, Askary H, Rafiei F. The effectiveness of wood vinegar in controlling Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in green house-cucumber. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. 2013;1(4):38-43\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nBartz FE, Cubeta MA, Toda T, Naito S, Ivors KL. An in planta method for assessing the role of basidiospores in Rhizoctonia foliar disease of tomato. Plant Disease. 2010;94(5):515-520\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nThakur M, Sahu NR, Tiwari P, Kotasthane A. Combination of azoxystrobin + difenocanazole provides effective management of sheath blight of rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani. IJCS. 2018;6(4):1682-1685\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nVinale F, Sivasithamparam K, Ghisalberti EL, Marra R, Woo SL, Lorito M. Trichoderma–plant–pathogen interactions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2008;40(1):1-10\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nManganiello G, Sacco A, Ercolano MR, Vinale F, Lanzuise S, Pascale A, et al. Modulation of tomato response to Rhizoctonia solani by Trichoderma harzianum and its secondary metabolite harzianic acid. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9:1966\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nJustyna N, Magdalena S, Urszula M. Trichoderma atroviride enhances phenolic synthesis and cucumber protection against Rhizoctonia solani. Plant Protection Science. 2017;54(1):17-23\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nVinale F, Marra R, Scala F, Ghisalberti E, Lorito M, Sivasithamparam K. Major secondary metabolites produced by two commercial Trichoderma strains active against different phytopathogens. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2006;43(2):143-148\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nLiu K, McInroy JA, Hu C-H, Kloepper JW. Mixtures of plant-growth-promoting Rhizobacteria enhance biological control of multiple plant diseases and plant-growth promotion in the presence of pathogens. Plant Disease. 2018;102(1):67-72\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nJacott CN, Murray JD, Ridout CJ. Trade-offs in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: Disease resistance, growth responses and perspectives for crop breeding. Agronomy. 2017;7(4):75\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nSmith SE, Smith FA, Jakobsen I. Mycorrhizal fungi can dominate phosphate supply to plants irrespective of growth responses. Plant Physiology. 2003;133(1):16-20\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nHoeksema JD, Chaudhary VB, Gehring CA, Johnson NC, Karst J, Koide RT, et al. A meta-analysis of context-dependency in plant response to inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi. Ecology Letters. 2010;13(3):394-407\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nDomsch KH, Gams W, Anderson T-H. Compendium of Soil Fungi. Vol. 1. London: Academic Press Ltd.; 1980\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nJaiswal AK, Elad Y, Graber ER, Frenkel O. Rhizoctonia solani suppression and plant growth promotion in cucumber as affected by biochar pyrolysis temperature, feedstock and concentration. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2014;69:110-118\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nKhan MR, Fischer S, Egan D, Doohan FM. Biological control of Fusarium seedling blight disease of wheat and barley. Phytopathology. 2006;96(4):386-394\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nAbawi G, Widmer T. Impact of soil health management practices on soilborne pathogens, nematodes and root diseases of vegetable crops. Applied Soil Ecology. 2000;15(1):37-47\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nAl-Askar A, Rashad Y. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: A biocontrol agent against common. Plant Pathology Journal. 2010;9(1):31-38\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nManila R, Nelson R. Nutrient uptake and promotion of growth by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in tomato and their role in bio-protection against the tomato wilt pathogen. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology Research. 2017;3(4):42-46\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nSharma M, Gupta S, Sharma T. Characterization of variability in Rhizoctonia solani by using morphological and molecular markers. Journal of Phytopathology. 2005;153(7-8):449-456\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nGuleria S, Aggarwal R, Thind T, Sharma T. Morphological and pathological variability in rice isolates of Rhizoctonia solani and molecular analysis of their genetic variability. Journal of Phytopathology. 2007;155(11-12):654-661\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nSong Y, Chen D, Lu K, Sun Z, Zeng R. Enhanced tomato disease resistance primed by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2015;6:786\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nSmith SE, Read DJ. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Academic Press; 2010\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Baker Diwan Getheeth Aljawasim",address:"baker.aljawasim@mu.edu.iq",affiliation:'
Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Al-Muthanna University, Iraq
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Hussein M. Khaeim",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Soil Science and Water, College of Agriculture, University Of Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mustafa A. Manshood",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Al-Muthanna University, Iraq
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10249",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Industry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Industry",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramalingam Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10249.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"219072",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramalingam",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"ramalingam-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"182238",title:"Prof.",name:"William A.",middleName:null,surname:"Gough",email:"william.gough@utoronto.ca",fullName:"William A. Gough",slug:"william-a.-gough",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Collaborative Uses of Geospatial Technology to Support Climate Change Adaptation in Indigenous Communities of the Circumpolar North",slug:"collaborative-uses-of-geospatial-technology-to-support-climate-change-adaptation-in-indigenous-commu",abstract:"A literature review is conducted of geospatial technologies in community-based research on ice and mobility among Indigenous people of the circumpolar north. Numerous studies explore the use of traditional knowledge in the Arctic on sea ice, but limited evidence of community-based research in sub-Arctic communities and in freshwater ice systems is found. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing tools have been applied in a variety of ways in support of community adaptations. These include the production of living memory maps, ice classification systems, and geodatabases that reflect the relationship-building nature of collaborations between Indigenous traditional knowledge holders and scientists. Satellite imagery—particularly synthetic aperture radar (SAR)—is widely used to characterize traditional understandings of ice to help tailor geospatial tools, climate research, and early warning systems, so that they may be used more effectively to address community interests and needs. As numerous mapping platforms have been developed in the circumpolar north, there are important considerations with respect to data management, Indigenous rights, and data sharing. We see opportunities for further research in lake and river ice, and in further developing early warning systems to address the growing problem of unpredictable ice regimes in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions.",signatures:"Megan Sheremata, Leonard J.S. Tsuji and William A. Gough",authors:[{id:"182233",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Megan",surname:"Sheremata",fullName:"Megan Sheremata",slug:"megan-sheremata",email:"megan.sheremata@utoronto.ca"},{id:"182238",title:"Prof.",name:"William A.",surname:"Gough",fullName:"William A. Gough",slug:"william-a.-gough",email:"william.gough@utoronto.ca"},{id:"182241",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonard J. S.",surname:"Tsuji",fullName:"Leonard J. S. Tsuji",slug:"leonard-j.-s.-tsuji",email:"leonard.tsuji@utoronto.ca"}],book:{title:"Geospatial Technology",slug:"geospatial-technology-environmental-and-social-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"4222",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",surname:"Imperatore",slug:"pasquale-imperatore",fullName:"Pasquale Imperatore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4222/images/4987_n.png",biography:"Pasquale Imperatore received the Laurea degree (summa cum laude) in electronic engineering and the Ph.D. degree in electronic and telecommunication engineering, both from the University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy. Currently, he is a Researcher at National Council of Research (CNR), Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA), Naples, Italy. His research interests include microwave remote sensing and electromagnetics, with emphasis on SAR data calibration, modeling and processing, SAR interferometry, theoretical models for electromagnetic scattering, random layered media, parallel algorithms for parallel/distributed computing environments and high-performance scientific applications. Dr. Imperatore is an IEEE Member and is a member of InTech\\'s Editorial Advisory Board. He acts as a reviewer for several peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/77597/images/system/77597.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yuanzhi Zhang is a Professor and Research Fellow on Coastal Environment and Applied Remote Sensing at Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology in China and at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Dr. Zhang received his Doctor of Science in Technology at Helsinki University of Technology (now Aalto University) in Finland. Dr. Zhang is the author and co-author of 130 peer-reviewed journal articles and 15 books or book chapters. He received the First-Rank Award of the Guangdong Provincial Prize of Science and Technology, China, in 2013 and the Second-Rank Award, ARCA (Actions for Raising Critical Awareness) Prize at the International Symposium \\'Environment 2010: Situation and Perspectives for the European Union”, Porto, Portugal, in 2003.",institutionString:"Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology",institution:{name:"Chinese University of Hong Kong",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99269/images/system/99269.png",biography:"Antonio Pepe received the Laurea degree (equivalent Master of Science) in Electronics Engineering and the Ph.D. degree in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering from the University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy, in 2000 and 2007, respectively. In 2001 he joined the IREA-CNR where he is a permanent researcher. He was a Visiting Scientist at the University of Texas, Austin, in 2005, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Caltech, Pasadena in 2009, and at the East China Normal University, Shanghai from 2014 to 2016 (one monthly visit per year).\r\nDr. Pepe acts as a reviewer for several peer-reviewed international journals. From 2012 to 2016 he was also an Adjunct Professor of Signal Theory at the Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy, and in 2017 he was Visiting Professor of Systems of Wireless Communications at the University of Naples, Italy.\r\nHe was the recipient of the 2014 Best Reviewer mention of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. \r\nHis main research interests include the development of advanced DInSAR algorithms aimed at monitoring surface deformation phenomena induced by subsidence, volcano activities, and earthquakes, with a particular interest toward the phase unwrapping problems. More recently, he has developed research activities for the generation of DInSAR products through the new generation SAR instruments, for the generation of hybrid scanSAR-to-stripmap DInSAR analyses, and for the integration of SAR and optical images.",institutionString:"Institute for the Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"180767",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayong",surname:"Shen",slug:"dayong-shen",fullName:"Dayong Shen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"181883",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Christine",surname:"Barbeau",slug:"christine-barbeau",fullName:"Christine Barbeau",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Waterloo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"182233",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Megan",surname:"Sheremata",slug:"megan-sheremata",fullName:"Megan Sheremata",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Toronto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"182234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Solaro",slug:"giuseppe-solaro",fullName:"Giuseppe Solaro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"182241",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonard J. S.",surname:"Tsuji",slug:"leonard-j.-s.-tsuji",fullName:"Leonard J. S. Tsuji",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183462",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Allen",slug:"adriana-allen",fullName:"Adriana Allen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"186196",title:"Dr.",name:"Don",surname:"Cowan",slug:"don-cowan",fullName:"Don Cowan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
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All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
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All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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