Not retouched artifacts from the Kami 7 site.
\r\n\tThe book aims to provide useful information to electrical engineers, system engineers, communication engineers, mechanical engineers and researchers.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-337-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-336-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-338-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1de858f7edccd1bfc9374d96bd867aa1",bookSignature:"Dr. Albert Sabban",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10508.jpg",keywords:"UWB Systems Development, Electronic Devices, Communication Systems, Fabrication Technologies, Fabrication Cost, UWB Integration, Analysis Methods, Computer-Aided Design, UWB Filter, UWB Radar, UWB Imaging, UWB Location Tracking",numberOfDownloads:202,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in wideband communication systems, wearable communication systems, WBAN systems, antennas, editor of three books, author of five books, IEEE senior member and holder of registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16889/images/system/16889.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Albert Sabban holds a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA (1991), and an MBA from the Faculty of Management, Haifa University, Israel (2005). He is currently a Senior Lecturer and researcher at the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at Kinneret and Ort Braude Engineering Colleges. From 2007 to 2010, Albert Sabban was an RF and Antenna specialist at biomedical hi-tech companies where he designed wearable compact systems and antennas for medical systems. In 1976 he joined RAFAEL in Israel where he worked as a senior researcher, group leader, and project leader in the electromagnetic department until 2007. From 2008 to 2010 he worked as a RF Specialist and project leader at hi-tech biomedical companies. He has published over 100 research papers and holds a patent in the antenna area. He wrote four books on wearable compact systems and antennas for communication and medical systems. He wrote a book on electromagnetics and microwave theory for graduate students, and a book on wide band microwave technologies for communication and medical applications. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70827",title:"Sociocultural Interaction and Symbolism in Prehistoric South America: Quartz Crystal Manuports from Tierra del Fuego",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90851",slug:"sociocultural-interaction-and-symbolism-in-prehistoric-south-america-quartz-crystal-manuports-from-t",body:'\nTierra del Fuego is located at the extreme south of South America. The archipelago is formed by a large island, the Big Island of Tierra del Fuego, and a series of smaller ones extending to the south up to Cape Horn. From there, the Nassau Strait separates the southern tip of the American continent from the top of Antarctic Peninsula. Politically, the archipelago is divided between two countries, Chile and Argentina (i.e., in [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]).
\nThe Big Island is separated from the continent, to the north and west, by the Magellan Strait. However, by the end of last glaciation, low sea levels converted the island in a peninsula of Southern Patagonia and gave one of the windows of opportunity for the peopling of Tierra del Fuego. During that short time, pedestrian hunter-gatherer populations arrived from Northern Patagonia via this existing land connection (i.e., in [11, 12, 13, 14]). Their older remains have been dated from 11.000 BP. Shortly later, canoe hunter-gatherers from Southern Chile colonized the islands, sailing along the Pacific southern coast. Their older remains in the Big Island Beagle Channel coasts date from 9.000 BP (i.e., in [15, 16]) (Figure 1).
\nGeographic location of the study area and archeological sites.
Thereafter, hunter-gatherer societies spread all over the Big Island and the archipelagos, keeping these two different ways of life. One of them extended in almost all the Island; it was oriented to exploitation of inland resources, especially hunting of the biggest mammal in Tierra del Fuego, the guanaco (Lama glama guanicoe), as well as rodents, that was complemented by collection of a wide variety of plant products, eggs, and occasional fishing and shellfish collection near the coast. The other one developed on the southern coast of the Big Island as well as in the archipelagos extending to the south. It was adapted to sea mammal hunting, especially sea otters (Otaria flavescens and Arctocephalus australis), as well as to exploitation of coastal resources including all types of shellfish, maritime birds, and plant resources from the forest. These two different ways of life of hunter-gatherer populations persisted in Tierra del Fuego until the early twentieth century.
\nA long tradition of ethnographic and archeological studies produced a detailed corpus of information about the occupation dynamics of large portions of the island by these societies, their ways of life, and the characteristics of biotic and abiotic resource management strategies (i.e., in [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]).
\nOur research concerns specifically the central mountains region of the Big Island, within the frame of an ethnoarchaeological project called “Proyecto Arqueológico Corazón de la Isla” (PACI) that started in the late 80s and early 90s. This region, according to the reports written by the travelers arrived to Tierra del Fuego during the nineteenth century, was inhabited by the Selknam, a nomad hunter-gatherer society who exploited a wide range of biotic and abiotic resources that were used for subsistence goods (food, medicine), as well as sociocultural (shelter, clothing, technology, ornament, ceremonies, etc.).
\nAnthropologist A. Chapman registered different modes of interaction that allowed the maintenance of the hunter-gatherer way of life, until the arrival of the Europeans. The most important were different aggregation events, in which the ceremonies stand out. As an example, we can mention the initiation ritual of adolescent males, the Hain ceremony. While this ritual has as an essential objective the consolidation and maintenance of social order, it is also true that it is an opportunity to meet relatives or friends, coming from different territories, who gather and camp together for months. These events were ideal occasions for carrying out exchanges and transactions (i.e., in [4]).
\nWithin the scope of our archeological project, evaluations and systematic surveys were carried out in several sectors that allowed evaluating the intensity of human occupation and locating archeological sites in different environments and microenvironments within the mountain landscape. The results of these investigations show evidence of different types of archeological sites. On one hand, there are small archeological sites with diffuse combustion structures, poor conservation of bone remains, and reduced lithic registry, attributed to short occupations of small and mobile family groups. On the other, there are large extensive sites with abundant archeological material and evidence of different activities considered as multiple task base camps, as Kami and Ewan (i.e., in Refs. [6, 7, 9, 18, 23, 24]).
\nThe archeological site Kami is formed by horizontal palimpsests caused by successive reoccupations, at least over the last 1000 years approximately (i.e., in [7, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]). It is located on the southern coast of Fagnano Lake, the largest lake in the Big Island, cutting the relief in two parts, north and south of Fagnano (Figure 1). On the other hand, Ewan is a very special site, with only one occupation. It is formed by two sectors. In one of them, there is still visible part of the structure of a log hut, thus indicating its recent chronology (Ewan 1). The other sector (Ewan 2), apart around 200 mts from the first one, has no aerial structure conserved. It was identified by systematic survey, where we could locate four more structures, smaller than that of Ewan I. Excavations and analysis in both sectors let us confirm that Ewan I was a ceremonial hut. The whole site’s settlement pattern as well as the characteristics of materials and distributions recorded correspond to those described for the Hain ceremony (i.e., in Refs. [3, 4, 5]). This ceremony was held, as dated by dendrochronology and other chronological indicators, in the spring–summer of 1905 (i.e., in [26, 29, 30]).
\nIn recent years, PACI investigations have extended to the eastern and western extremes of this central strip of the Big Island that is to the Atlantic coast to the east and to the west where the international border Argentina-Chile is located. In general, the results obtained allowed the identification of sites near to the Atlantic coast (Cabo San Pablo and Lainez and Irigoyen rivers) and at the western end of the Fagnano Lake (National Park and Torito Bay). The spatial distribution of archeological sites and remains indicates a general occupation of all environments within the subantarctic forest. However, for the different environments, it has been possible to document differences in density and intensity of occupation, as well as differences in raw materials used, as revealed by technofunctional analysis. These variations are related to the mobility of hunter-gatherer groups, due to the accessibility, availability, and/or seasonal abundance of resources (i.e., in Refs.[7, 24, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33]).
\nWe believe that these differences are good indicators to study mobility of hunter-gatherer groups around the whole territory. Currently we are investigating social interaction networks from the archeological point of view, from the determination of nodes and internodal spaces (i.e., in [34, 35]), taking as a basis the circulation of raw materials and ornaments (i.e., in [10, 36]). However, there are elements that we cannot explain from the point of view of circulation of raw materials, because they are really exceptional in archeological contexts and also because they have not been manufactured or used.
\nIf we consider these elements as manuports, we can analyze the possibility of circulation as ornamental pieces loaded with symbolic value within social interaction networks. From this point of view, we present and discuss the case of a series of nine prismatic quartz crystals that were discovered in one of the sites. This is something really unusual for the archeological record of Tierra del Fuego. The technofunctional analysis revealed that they have neither been manufactured nor used. Their provenience source is far from the site, and the primary sources of this raw material have not yet been identified.
\nDifferent scenarios can be proposed to explain their presence here; however, the most probable interpretation is that they have arrived as a “gift” between relatives in one of the social interaction networks. Because of their attractiveness, color, rarity, and difficulty to be found, they are likely to be included in exchange activities, reinforcing connections, like the Hain ceremony. Since the works of Marcel Mauss, especially the publication of the essay The Gift (i.e., in [37]), the concepts of “gift” and “counter-gift” start to be used to understand the economic logics in primitive societies. For Mauss, “gift” and “counter-gift” constitute the basis of reciprocity. They are not a simple exchange; they give prestige and importance to the donor. Then, Lévi-Strauss gives a clear dimension to reciprocity in relation to kinship relations and alliances. He considers that in primitive societies, the reason for gifts is to create alliances. In the type of exchange where there is a gift and a counter-gift, there is much more in the exchange than the exchanged objects themselves (i.e., in [38]). In this case, we understand as a gift the exchange of particular objects (with ornamental or symbolic value) that have as purpose to strengthen the relations between groups during and after aggregation events, as the Hain ceremony.
\nWe believe that the models extracted from ethnographic and ethnohistoric information, which we utilize to explain this perspective on strategies implemented by Fuegian hunter-gatherer societies, are an excellent starting point to approach the interpretation of different aspects of Paleolithic hunter-gatherer strategies. Consequently, it would be interesting to explore them in relation with different findings of quartz crystals in archeological contexts in other parts of the world.
\nQuartz is a common raw material on earth that occurs in different states, such as milky quartz or as hyaline quartz (rock crystal). Due to this availability, it was a raw material highly used in prehistory, mainly milky quartz. This archeological abundance does not occur in the same way for hyaline quartz crystals; however, they have been used as raw materials for lithic assemblages in certain regions as central Brazil, South Africa, Russia, Greece, and Portugal (i.e., in Refs. [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]). On the other hand, this material has been interpreted with functions associated with the symbolic, votive aspect, as part of funeral garments, in megalithic constructions, or used by the shamans for their possible magical powers (i.e., e.g., [45, 46, 47, 48, 49]). There are ethnographic works that account for the use of quartz by shamans and their magical-symbolic function (i.e., [50, 51, 52]). However, as mentioned by Fenandez-Machena and Ollé (i.e., [53]), these attributions are difficult to prove with materials from archaeological contexts.
\nIn the case of quartz crystal prisms, with little or no modification, something similar occurs; they are not represented in a large number of archeological sites. Some examples are the quartz prisms found within the megalithic complex of Palace III, in the Almadén de la Plata, Seville. The complex consists three different funeral structures in type and temporality. It is a Dolmen in Gallery, a monument of the Tholos type of the Copper Age, and finally a cremation burial mound of the Iron Age. There, quartz elements of different aspects such as pebbles and sheets were recovered, but the most striking were the quartz prisms. In addition, other quartz prisms associated with other dolmen have been found in Spain such as Navalcán (Toledo) (i.e., in [54]) or the single crystal of Alberite (Cádiz) which is 20 cm long (i.e., in [55]). Another case with the presence of prisms of quartz crystals is the Dembeni site, on Mayotte Island in East Africa, dated between the ninth and twelfth centuries. These crystals are not native to the island but possibly come from Madagascar. The authors suggest that it would be a material transported as part of regional trade at short and long distance; this data is in turn supported by ethnohistoric information (i.e., in [56]). Finally, in Paleolithic sites associated with hunter-gatherer societies, some quartz crystal prisms without modification have been identified, in Europe, India, the Near East, and China (i.e., in [57]).
\nSpecifically, in the Great Island of Tierra del Fuego, quartz is a raw material that is widely distributed. Its ubiquity, accessibility, and effectiveness to make usable edges can explain its presence in several archeological sites on the island.
\nGenerally, it is milky quartz that appears in the landscape like a boulder of various sizes (from 3 to 15 cm) or in veins within the Yaghan Formation (of the lower Cretaceous) (i.e., in [58]). For lithic production activity, it can be exploited using various knapping techniques. However, in the region a type of exploitation has been identified that appears on a recurring basis. This is the selection of quartz pebbles that are opened using bipolar percussion technique, which produces elongated flakes or hemi-pebbles. These have been systematically used to make only one type of tool, scrapers (i.e., in [59]). These are small artifacts, whose maximum lengths range between 1.5 and 2.5 cm. With respect to their use, in most of the cases analyzed, they have been used to scrape skins and to a lesser extent for wood and bone, with a kinematics of work transverse to the edge (i.e., e.g., [27, 59, 60]).
\nAs we have written on other occasions, the particularity of the quartz edges is that they have no tendency to round by losing grains—as occurs with other raw materials such as sandstones, rhyolites, or basalts when they are used—but to shear; as a result, they allow longer use and continuous sharp edge, with no need for constant reactivation (i.e., in [61]).
\nUndoubtedly, this material was specially selected by hunter-gatherers of Tierra del Fuego, as indicated by the recurrence of this raw material in lithic samples of different archeological sites of the island, in particular those of the IV component of Tunel I (i.e., in [59]), Shamakush 1 (i.e., in [60]), Kami 1 (i.e., in [19]), and La Vueltas and La Herradura—although in smaller proportions (i.e., in [62]).
\nUnlikewise, with respect to the quartz crystals, it is surprising to note that their presence in archeological sites is very low: they have only been registered in Laguna town northwest of Filaret (NOF), in San Sebastián Bay (one fragment), and in Rancho Donata site (two fragments) (Borrazzo, personal communication, 2013) and the cases of our research that we present in this work.
\nDuring its geological evolution, Tierra del Fuego experienced the necessary conditions for the development of quartz crystals: hydrothermal solutions loaded on silica and cavities in the rock, where these solutions decompress and deposit dissolved silica. Both during the Jurassic volcanism generated by the Fm Lemaire (which occupies the northern flank of the Sorondo mountain range, the Vinciguerra mountain range, the Valdivieso-Alvear mountain range, Montes Negros, etc. to States Island and to the west in Chile) and then during the regional metamorphism, these conditions could occur together with a moderate temperature of more than 200°C. The first case is more favorable than the second, because there was a higher temperature and wide availability of silica since it is an acid volcanism. Given the extent reached by the geological formations affected by these characteristics (i.e., in [58]), there may be outcrops of this raw material distributed in various parts of the island.
\nHowever, as mentioned above, its presence in archeological sites is very low. Therefore, it is interesting to mention the case of those we discovered the investigations in the central strip of Tierra del Fuego.
\nIn the central strip of Tierra del Fuego, hyaline quartz materials were recovered at two archeological sites, Kami 7 site and Lainez 1 site.
\nKami 7 is an extensive site located on an elevation of till, surrounded by a small pebble beach on the south coast of Lake Fagnano. This area has a thin soil eroded in many sectors, characterized by a mixed evergreen forest of Nothofagus pumilio and Nothofagus betuloides, and the presence of an extensive Sphagnum bog to the east (i.e., in Refs. [19, 28]).
\nThe archeological researches in Kami 7 were made from two methodological strategies: excavation and surface collection. Two excavations were carried out: a large one (K7a) in which a total area of 12.75 m2 and another 1 × 1 m (K7b) were excavated to protect material that was at the edge of the road. Finally, the whole area was squared and the surface material recovered following the grid.
\nIn the wide excavation, two combustion areas could be determined, located 1 m away from each other. These areas have important differences between them, as well as in the archeological materials associated with each one. The combustion area no. 1 has an approximate diameter of 60 cm, and its thickness does not exceed 3 cm. The associated archeological materials include coals, bone remains, remains of lithic technology, etc. Within the raw materials represented, there are various types of rhyolites and green industrial glass (flake and microflakes). The presence of glass microflakes in this combustion area implies that this occupation took place after contact with the Europeans (Table 1).
\nNot retouched artifacts from the Kami 7 site.
The combustion area no. 2 has an approximate diameter of 50 cm, and its thickness did not exceed 2 cm. Coals of various sizes and with a wider dispersion than in combustion area no. 1 were recovered. It was obtained by analysis of AMS, on a sample of charcoal, a date of 769–974 cal AD (OxCal V 4.3.2, SHtCal 13, 95.4%) which implies that the site was occupied—so less—also in this antiquity. The lithic sample inside this combustion area is formed by 1757 elements. The majority correspond to remains smaller than 2 cm, followed by numerous flakes and fragments of various sizes, while the finished instruments are very scarce, as well as cores (Table 2 and Figure 2). The raw materials represented are mainly fine- and medium-grain rhyolites, followed by cinerites.
\nRetouched artifacts from the Kami 7 site.
Kami 7 archeological site excavation plant.
During the excavation, the presence of prismatic crystals of hyaline quartz was recorded. They were scattered over a radius of approximately 4 m. The sample consists of eight crystals with varying degrees of fragmentation, although large, pyramidal, and bipyramidal between 1.5 and 4 cm (Figure 3). To date, no sources of supply of this raw material have been detected near the site.
\nQuartz crystal from the Kami 7 site, natural surface.
To carry out the techno-morphological study, we treated the crystals surfaces with ammonium chloride powder in order to avoid translucency that impeded examination (Figure 4). The crystals generally have a faceted structure that even some of them extend on the pyramidal end (Figure 5). Although they are not 100% complete, we could determine that they do not present technological modifications that can be attributed to manufacture (débitage, knapping, etc.), nor do they present extractions of flakes by bipolar technique, so they can be considered as manuports. Only one of them, the largest, has a possible flake scar.
\nQuartz crystals from with bleaching process for techno-morphological analysis.
Totality of quartz crystals from the Kami 7 site. A. Crystals with natural surfaces. B. Crystals with bleaching process.
The microscopic-based functional analysis developed on the natural edges present in the prisms (n = 4) did not reveal traces of use. It is worth mentioning that three of the edges belong to the same piece. However, the analysis allowed us to recognize postdepositional alterations such as patinas and surfaces with abrasion and stretch marks (Table 3).
\nTechno-morphological characteristics of quartz crystals from the Kami 7 site.
Lainez 1 site is located in the middle course of the homonymous valley. The area has a pasture vegetation near the banks of the river, frequently interrupted by extensive bogs. The open forest develops toward the slopes of the mountains (Figure 6). Near the site there are river meanders with pebbles of different sizes (i.e., in [22, 25]). On the site, an excavation and four surveys were carried out. Radiocarbon analysis indicates a date of 767–971 cal AD (OxCal V 4.3.2, SHtCal 13, 95.4%) (i.e., in [26]).
\nExcavation of the Lainez site.
Among the lithic materials recovered in the excavations, two subsamples stand out. One is composed of two obsidian artifacts and the other by eight microflakes and a fragment of a quartz crystal instrument. The latter were discovered in the same survey of 1 m2. The technofunctional studies showed no use in the instrument fragment, which due to its morphology could have been considered as micro-scraper, since its maximum length does not exceed 2 cm (Figure 7).
\nElements of quartz crystal and bipolar obsidian fragment from the Lainez 1 site.
The archeology of the central strip of Tierra del Fuego is key to understand the ways of human circulation along the territory of the Big Island. Technofunctional analysis including determination of raw materials provenience has demonstrated that there were long-distance movements of materials. Hypothesis derived from the ethnographic and historical records discusses these movements as exchanges included in social interaction networks between different groups along Tierra del Fuego (i.e., in [10]). In this research, we concentrated in a series of exceptional materials, i.e., quartz prisms. The objective of the analysis was to determine whether they had been either manufactured or used and to discuss their appearance in some sites within the mountain environment.
\nThe presence of these materials in Kami 7 and Lainez sites, in the central part of the Big Island, is extremely interesting in several aspects.
\nIn the first place, it is not the case of materials that were taken to the site as raw materials for tool making, nor for uses of any kind, as it was revealed to be the technofunctional analysis, since they do not present any kind of modification.
\nSecondly, it is unlikely that their presence is natural in the sites, since they are not located close or within outcrops. Although the characteristics of the geology of Tierra del Fuego could allow the formation of quartz crystals, these are associated with the Le Maire formations, and so far no outcrops of large crystals have been identified. Some very small crystals were found in the Emerald lagoon area, in the Paso Francés valley that flows into the Domo Blanco hill. And others of larger sizes have been identified in the elevations near the springs of the Malengüena River (Figure 8).
\nQuartz prisms from the Malengüena River. (A–D) Different quartz prisms from the Malengüena River area. They show natural impact traces and erosion marks.
It is also unlikely that the crystals correspond to secondary deposits formed by glacial or river drag. The microscopic analysis does not reveal the characteristic surface alteration traces produced by glacial or river erosion. Moreover, the crystals were in direct association and stratigraphy with the archeological materials of Kami 7 site, and the same happened at Lainez 1 site.
\nConsequently, we started to consider the possible scenarios for their arrival to the site, in routine migrations circuits or in more complex social interaction networks.
\nCirculation of materials along long distances is not a new phenomenon in Tierra del Fuego (i.e., in Refs. [25, 63]). It has been recorded in different contexts, such as the case of the Miraflores silicified tuff in the Kami 1 site, the quartz crystals in the Kami 7 site, the black obsidian and microflake of quartz crystal in Lainez 1, the silicified wood of Cabo San Pablo, and even the presence of a marine shell of Fasciolariidae family discovered in Punta Amarilla, an area inside the forest on the south coast of lake Fagnano (i.e., in [64]).
\nThe Miraflores silicified tuff has its primary outcrop about 200 km in a straight line from Kami 1. The inhabitants of the Kami 1 site could have obtained this raw material directly from the outcrop, although it is a little improbable, due to both distance, different landscape units, and the technological characteristics of the tools and fragments from Kami 1 (i.e., in [63]). In order to get to source and assure provision of material, it would be necessary that the source be included in the mobility circuits for seasonal migration, or resource exploitation, of the group. Alternatively, the raw material could have been obtained through exchange with people from the northern or western territories of the island, where this silicified tuff has been identified, in low quantities, in several sites (i.e., in [63]).
\nIn the case of Lainez 1 site, there are two fragments of black obsidian, a raw material that up to now has not been discovered in Tierra del Fuego. If it corresponds to a source located in the continent, on the other side of Magellan Strait, it would indicate long-distance interaction networks that interlink territories with different landscapes, peoples, and probably even languages. As here it is the case of just two non-used fragments, we believe that the most likely scenario corresponds to prestige goods exchanged in social interaction networks (i.e., in [63]). As for the elements of quartz crystal, outcrops or primary sources of this raw material have not yet been identified.
\nAs for the silicified wood, a core was discovered in a site on the Atlantic coast. This raw material is very abundant across the Magellan Strait (in continental Patagonia), but in Tierra del Fuego, until now only one area was identified in the northeast, near Cullen River (i.e., in [65]).
\nWe believe that the most relevant indicators for interaction recovered up to now are those that come from the analysis of raw materials use in the sites in the center of the island; they show evidence of nonlocal raw materials, which reveal then some mode of circulation. However, these observations suggest that their acquisition and conservation can be connected with symbolic or ornamental aspects related to social interaction (i.e., in [28]).
\nThere is an important number of publications where the role of quartz is evidenced as a raw material for the manufacture of artifacts that intervene in different production and use processes. But in addition, quartz, especially pyramidal or bipyramidal prisms or monocrystals, were used for symbolic and votive purposes, and they could even be part of the shamans’ toolkits as suggested by Márquez Pecchio and Eielson (i.e., in Ref. [66]) in their work Pre-Columbian Sculpture of Quartz, where they comment that for some pre-Hispanic societies of Venezuela, the crystals were used as amulets by the shamans. It is also mentioned that because of their attractiveness, color, rarity, and difficulty in being found, they were objects that were included in exchange activities.
\nThe central region of Tierra del Fuego was inhabited by a hunter-gatherer society until the beginnings of the twentieth century. There are many reports written by travelers who arrived during the eighteenth and nineteenth century and by missionaries and colonialists in the early twentieth century (i.e., in Ref. [1, 2]). However, the best information about these people comes from the work and publications of two ethnographers, Martin Gusinde, who made different stays in the island during the years 1920, and Anne Chapman, who worked in Tierra del Fuego since 1966 until her death in 2011 (i.e., in Refs. [3, 4, 5]).
\nAccording to the ethnographic data, each Selknam family had a territory that was considered as their “own,” called “haruwen.” However, the borders of these territories were relatively permeable. They could be opened, especially at certain times, such as for passage for aggregation events, or at critical times for the exploitation of animal resources (i.e., in [4]).
\nAggregation events and particularly ceremonies played an essential role in maintenance of biological and social reproduction. The most relevant for the Selknam people was the initiation ritual of adolescent males, the Hain ceremony. While this ritual has as an essential objective the consolidation and maintenance of social order, it is also true that it is an opportunity to meet relatives or friends coming from different territories, who gather and camp together for months. These events were ideal occasions for carrying out exchanges and transactions (i.e., in [4]). They could take the form of gifts, understood in the sense of Levi Strauss (i.e., in [38]), reinforce social links among relatives, or constitute formal exchanges. In any case, mobility circuits, fortuitous meetings, or events as ceremonies, many of which were made up of families or distant groups that shared long periods of time, were propitious moments to exchange material goods, sumptuaries, ideas, etc. (i.e., in Refs. [3, 4, 5]).
\nAs for circulation of other goods within the different groups and territories, the literature mentions an important circulation of materials, among which perishable resources are abundant: woods from the forest area that are exchanged with the neighbors of the northern steppe (in the form of bows, sticks, etc.) or sea lion skins from the coastal areas (i.e., in [3]). We believe that circulation could also include other resources that we consider critical, such as the case of the lithic raw materials. However, although there are all these mentions to movements and exchanges in mechanisms of reciprocity and redistribution, there are no detailed accounts of the type of prestige goods with symbolic value that could enter in this exchange.
\nIn most of the cases of findings of distant origin materials that we have analyzed, these are materials that have entered the productive circuit, since they were modified into instruments and used. However, their small number, their distant origin, and the fact that the complete operational chains are not present suggest the hypothesis that these materials could have arrived as “gifts” between relatives, in some of the interaction circuits that reinforce connections between distant groups.
\nMaterials that by their exotism, or by their physical characteristics, their place of origin, etc. that were used by societies at various times and places, can be traced from the Middle Paleolithic with the incorporation, by Neanderthal societies, of such elements as marine fossils found at the Chez-Pourrez and the Grotte de l’Hyene (i.e., in [67, 68]).
\nThe justification for these hypotheses can be found in the diversity of evidence of the use of quartz crystals in various archeological sites around the world. The use of this raw material can be divided into two fields of social activities of human groups: on the one hand, within the production and use process, included in the subsistence context, and on the other, within the activities of symbolic and/or magical character, granting powers by the shamans.
\nHowever, in the case of the quartz crystals that we present, there is an important difference, and that is that they were not manufactured or used. For this reason, they are considered as manuports. As we said, so far there have never been discovered so many crystals and of such large dimensions in sites of Tierra del Fuego. Then these crystals could have been collected somewhere for their peculiarity, their size, their translucent character, their rarity, etc.; they could have been considered as amulets or ornaments that could be used for exchange or have been obtained by exchange. From this point of view, we can consider them as elements that have an important ornamental or symbolic value and therefore circulated in reciprocity circuits that reinforced social structure.
\nWe thank Dr. Ignacio Clemente Comte (CSIC, Barcelona), Dr. Jaques Pelegrin (CNRS, Paris), and Marcio Alonso Lima (UFMG, Belo Horizonte) who kindly accepted to look at these materials with us. Drs. Mauricio Gonzales Guillot and Pablo Torres Carbonell (area of Geology of CADIC-CONICET) for the geological information. Dr. Eugenia Raffi for the bleaching process of crystals.
\nField and laboratory works were done within the scope of projects “Proyecto Arqueológico Corazón de la Isla” (D. C. y T., S. D. y P. Tierra del Fuego, Res. 285/97), PICT of the National Agency of Scientific and technological promotion (PICT 1236 and 2648), CONICET (PIP 0452).
\nSpintronics, also known as spin electronics, is a newly emerging field of research that focuses on the spin degree of freedom of electrons rather than their charge. Charge current is a flow of electrons from one point to another under the influence of an electric field. In spintronics, spin current can propagate within the material. A pure spin current can be generated through effects such as the spin Hall effect (SHE), spin pumping, spin-wave propagation, etc. The pure spin currents consume much less energy than charge currents. This is because of the absence of charge flow that eliminates the power consumption needed for the electric field required to drive charge flow [1, 2, 3].
In spintronics, magnetization switching is of both fundamental interest and technological significance. One way to switch the magnetization of a ferromagnetic film is through the spin filtering effect. In this case, a spin-polarized electrical current will be generated. As the polarized electrons flow through the ferromagnetic film, they transfer angular momentum to the film and produce a spin-transfer torque to switch the film. This torque is called spin-transfer torque (STT). Magnetic random-access memory based on STT has already been commercialized in recent years.
The above-mentioned spin-torque switching, however, has a limit. The angular momentum transferred per unit charge in the applied current usually cannot exceed a quantum of spin (
The ferromagnetic films used in most of the SOT studies were all conductive. A direct consequence is the severe shunting current in the ferromagnet layer, which not only limits the switching efficiency but also causes parasitic effects. For example, previous works have shown that interfacing a TI with a conductive FM film can result in a significant modification or even complete suppression of the topological surface states (TSSs) in the TI layer. In a TI/FM heterostructure, the TSSs may have been largely spoiled by the FM electrons. This means that many large spin-orbit torques observed in TI/FM structures may not be due to TSS. In this context, the use of MIs in an HM/MI heterostructure can effectively avoid the shunting current. Moreover, the TSSs in a TI/MI structure can be preserved except for the opening of a small gap at the Dirac point when strong coupling exists at the interface. This will enable the magnetization switching due to bona fide TSSs.
Magnetic insulators include a large class of materials, including spinels, garnets, and ferrites. They have a general chemical formula of M(FexOy), where M is representing non-iron metallic elements. MIs have several advantages over magnetic metals for SOT device applications. First, in a heavy metal/MI heterostructure, the charge current only flows in the HM layer but not in the MI layer. In contrast, in an HM/magnetic metal structure, the charge current also flows in the FM, resulting in certain parasitic effects. When the HM layer is replaced by a topological insulator with high resistivity, the advantage of zero shunting currents in the MI film becomes particularly important. Moreover, interfacing a topological insulator (TI) with a conductive FM can result in a significant modification or even complete suppression of the topological surface states (TSSs) in the TI layer. The use of a magnetic insulator can effectively avoid the shunting current; TSSs in a TI/magnetic insulator (MI) structure can also be well preserved.
In the ferrite family, hexagonal ferrites have strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy. For example, M-type barium ferrite (BaFe12O19, noted as BaM) has an anisotropy field of 17 kOe. The perpendicular anisotropy in MI films originates from bulk intrinsic anisotropy rather than interfacial anisotropy [4]. This means that, when being used for actual devices, the BaM film has no constrains on the thickness. This is in strong contrast with the ferromagnetic metal counterpart (e.g., CoFeB/MgO) that often has to be very thin to realize interfacial perpendicular anisotropy. In addition, the magnetic damping is usually significantly lower in MIs than in FMs. For example, the intrinsic Gilbert damping constant in BaM materials is 7 × 10−4, which is at least 10 times smaller than the value in permalloy [5]. This advantage is significant for spin-torque oscillator applications, where the current threshold for self-oscillations decreases with the damping, as well as for logic device applications that require low-damping, insulating spin channels.
This chapter reviews the main advances made in spintronic experiments with BaM over the past several years. Section 2 gives a brief introduction to BaM and discusses its crystalline structure, magnetic properties, and thin film growth techniques. This section serves to provide a background for the discussions in the following sections. Section 3 reviews the advances of spintronic experiments with BaM. Section 3.1 provides an overview of the related spintronic experiments. Section 3.2 discusses the generation of pure spin currents through the spin Seebeck effect and photo-spin-voltaic effect in the Pt/BaM structure. Section 3.3 discusses the spin-orbit torque-assisted switching in BaM. Section 3.4 discusses the use of topological insulator/BaM heterostructure for magnetization switching. Finally, Section 3.5 provides an outlook in the field of BaM materials and devices.
BaM is a hexagonal ferrite, which consists of close-packed layers of oxygen ions. Figure 1 shows a unit cell of BaM. The Ba2+ ion is large, as is the O2− ion, and the barium always replaces oxygen somewhere in the oxygen lattice. The close-packed layers form six fundamental blocks, namely, S, S*, R, R*, T, and T* [5, 6, 7]. The S block consists of close-packed oxygen layers stacking in an ABCABC… sequence. It has a cubic spinel arrangement with the <1 1 1 > axis along the vertical direction. There are two units of Fe3O4 without any barium ions in each S block. The R block comprises close-packed oxygen layers stacking in an ABAB… sequence. It has a hexagonal closest packed structure along the vertical axis. Each R block has a unit formula of BaFe6O11. The T block is made of four oxygen layers, with a barium ion replacing an oxygen ion in the middle two layers, which gives a unit formula of Ba2Fe8O14. The S*, R*, and T* blocks are 180° rotations around the c-axis from the S, R, and T blocks. BaM is built from the stacking of S, R, S*, and R* blocks.
Crystalline structure of M-type barium ferrite. Blue ball, Ba2+. Yellow ball, Fe3+. Red ball, O2−.
Trivalent Fe3+ ions occupy tetrahedral and octahedral sites as well as one trigonal bipyramidal site. Different sites account for different spin orientations and Bohr magnetons (μB). For example, a tetrahedral site contributes 2μB, while an octahedral site contributes 4μB with opposite spin orientations in the S block. In the end, S, S*, R, and R* blocks contribute 2μB each, leading to a moment of 40μB for each unit cell. This gives a saturation magnetization of ∼4700 G in bulk BaM. BaM has a strong anisotropy field of 17 kOe, which is along the c axis. This comes from the trigonal bipyramidal site Fe3+ ions, as well as breaking crystal symmetry in the R/R* blocks. This is the most distinguished property of BaM, because the perpendicular anisotropy field originates from bulk intrinsic anisotropy. BaM has a large c constant of 23.2 Å and an a constant of 5.89 Å. The x-ray density is about 5.29 g/cm3. The Curie temperature of bulk BaM is 725 K, which is much higher than the room temperature. The exchange constant is 6.4 × 10−7 erg/cm [7].
A variety of techniques are used to grow BaM thin films, including pulsed laser deposition (PLD) [8, 9, 10], alternating target laser ablation deposition (ARLAD) [11, 12], molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) [13], liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) [14, 15], magnetron sputtering [16, 17], and so on. Guo et al. at Boston Applied Technologies proposed a chemical solution deposition process to deposit BaM. Song and his colleagues succeeded in the PLD growth of BaM thin films that showed an FMR linewidth as narrow as single-crystal BaM bulks. However, these films showed a remanent magnetization much smaller than the saturation magnetization [9]. This problem was improved in the later experiments when tuning the deposition conditions [18]. Figure 2 shows the PLD parameters which decide the thin film quality. Figure 2b shows that c-axis out-of-plane BaM grains can be grown on (0001) Al2O3 substrates; c-axis in-plane BaM grains can be grown on (11 −20) Al2O3 substrates. A typical procedure is as follows: the oxygen pressure is set at 300 mTorr, and the substrate is heated to 800°C. The substrate-to-target separation is fixed at 4 cm, and the energy fluence of the laser beam is set to 0.7 J/cm2. The laser pulse repetition rate is increased from 1 to 5 pulse(s) per second in five equal steps over the first 5 min and is then set to 10 pulses/s for the remaining deposition. After the deposition, the substrate is cooled down at a rate of 2°C/min in 400 Torr oxygen. The sample is then annealed at 850°C for 4 h in a standalone tube furnace, with a heating rate of 10°C/min and a cooling rate of 2°C/min.
Growth condition in pulsed laser deposition of BaM thin films. (a) Parameters controlling the BaM thin film quality. (b) Different Al2O3 substrate types for growing BaM with different c-axis orientations.
In microwave device applications, BaM films usually have a thickness of several microns. For spintronic devices, the thickness is reduced to tens of nanometers. Figure 3 shows the structure and magnetic properties of nanometer-thick BaM thin films grown on a c-axis Al2O3 substrate. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) image in Figure 3a shows a uniform and smooth surface, and the analysis of the AFM data yielded an RMS surface roughness of 0.19 ± 0.03 nm. These results, together with other AFM data not shown, indicate that the BaM film has a reasonably good surface, which is critical for the realization of high-quality BaM thin films. The roughness value here is an average over the measurements of nine different 1 × 1 μm areas, and the uncertainty is the corresponding standard deviation.
Structure and magnetic properties of BaM thin films. (a) Atomic force microscope of 5 nm BaM thin film. (b) x-ray diffraction of 5 nm BaM thin film. (c) Hysteresis loops of 5 nm BaM thin film. Blue circles, H along out-of-plane direction. Red circles, H along in-plane direction. (d) Ferromagnetic resonance of 20 nm BaM thin film with H along out-of-plane direction. a, b, and c are adapted from [10].
Figure 3b shows a 2θ/ω x-ray diffraction (XRD) scan, with the XRD intensity on a log scale. The x-ray θ rotation gave a scattered beam that matched the specular reflection from the surface. The detected (001) diffraction peaks all come from c-plane scattering of the BaM film. The (006) sapphire substrate peak was also detected. The hysteresis loops in Figure 3c were measured by a vibrating sample magnetometer with different field orientations, as indicated. The loops clearly show that the BaM film has perpendicular anisotropy, which confirms the c-axis orientation of the film. Analysis of the hysteresis data yielded an effective perpendicular anisotropy field around Hani = 20 kOe, which is larger than the bulk value (17 kOe). The normalized saturation magnetization 4πMs = 4.16 kG, which is lower than the bulk value of BaM (4.70 kG). Figure 3d presents a ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) curve obtained with a 20-nm-thick BaM film at ω = 66 GHz. Because of the strong perpendicular anistropy field, the ferromagnetic resonance of BaM film appears between 50 GHz and 75 GHz. In the graph, the blue circles show an FMR profile measured at 66 GHz. The Lorentzian function (red curve) fits the data points better than the Gaussian fit shown as the olive curve, indicating that the film has a uniform quality. The fitting yielded a peak-to-peak linewidth
Such fitting yielded a gyromagnetic ratio
where
Figure 4 shows the structural and magnetic properties of a representative BaM film that is grown on an (1 1 −2 0) a-plane Al2O3 substrate. The film has a thickness of 1.2 μm. Thus, the AFM data show a relatively rough surface with an RMS surface roughness of 14.3 ± 1.6 nm. Figure 4b presents an XRD spectrum. The spectrum consists of a strong peak from the sapphire substrate and the two other peaks for the m-planes of the BaM film, indicating the in-plane orientation of the c-axis. Figure 4c presents the two hysteresis loops of the film measured by a vibrating sample magnetometer. One of the loops was measured with the magnetic field applied along the c-axis, while the other was measured with the field also in the film plane but perpendicular to the c-axis. The dashed lines indicate the extrapolations used to determine the effective anisotropy field Hani. The dotted line indicates the determination of the saturation induction 4
Structure and magnetic properties of 1.2 μm BaM thin films with c-axis in plane. (a) AFM image. (b) XRD spectrum. (c) Hysteresis loops of the BaM thin film. Blue circles, H along the in-plane easy axis direction. Red circles, H along in-plane hard axis direction. (d) Ferromagnetic resonance spectrum with Gaussian and Lorentzian fittings. a, b, and c are adapted from [18].
In the following sections, we introduce recent spintronic experiments using MIs with strong anisotropy fields. Devices that incorporate the unique properties of MIs are an excellent potential solution for the power consumption and heat dissipation problems of conventional electronics, as they would consume much less energy and generate significantly less heat. We introduce the use of different techniques in generating pure spin currents, using bilayer heterostructures of a normal metal (NM)/ferromagnetic material. There are a variety of normal metal choices such as platinum (Pt) and Gold (Au). Both have been explored and tested in spintronics related studies and experiments [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
In the first two sections, we will explore the generation of pure spin currents using the spin Seebeck effect (SSE) and the photo-spin-voltaic effect (PSVE). Both techniques take advantage of a NM coupled with a MI. In SSE, a temperature gradient in the MI is the main factor that induces the MI to inject pure spin currents into the NM layer. In PSVE however, the light of certain wavelengths reaching the atomic layers of the NM, exciting the NM electrons near the NM/MI interface, is what generates the pure spin currents. SSE and PSVE Experimentation results will also be explored and discussed. Then, in the last two sections, we will demonstrate how pure spin currents can be used practically to enhance magnetic switching in MIs in a significant and meaningful way. NM/MI bilayers will not be the only type of heterostructure discussed here, we will also explore topological insulator/MI structures and demonstrate the significance of topological insulators in spintronics.
The traditional Seebeck effect, first discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 [34], refers to the generation of electric potential in a conductor when a temperature gradient is applied to it. The electric potential is caused by charge carriers within the conductor moving from the hot region to the cold region. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors that are joined to form a junction; when a heat gradient is applied across the thermocouple (see Figure 5a), a voltage difference can be observed across them. The sign of the voltage flips when the direction of the temperature gradient is flipped. The traditional Seebeck effect is the basic principle behind most thermoelectric generators.
Schematic illustrations of (a) the conventional Seebeck effect and (b) longitudinal spin Seebeck effect.
The spintronic equivalent of the traditional Seebeck effect, called the spin Seebeck effect, was first discovered in 2008 [19, 28]. SSE is a phenomenon that can be observed in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials when a heat gradient is applied to them [19, 28, 35]. The heat gradient induces a spin voltage in the ferromagnet that can be used to inject pure spin currents into a conductor attached to the ferromagnet. Here, spin voltage is a potential for the spin of electrons, rather than their charge, to drive spin current [19, 36, 37, 38]. Previously mentioned bilayer heterostructures of normal metal/magnetic material have been used to study the SSE in two different configurations: transverse and longitudinal [19, 39]. In the transverse configuration, the generated spin current is perpendicular to the temperature gradient [28]. The generated spin current in the longitudinal configuration is parallel to the temperature gradient [19] (see Figure 5b). The longitudinal configuration has been the dominant choice for SSE research, owing to its simplicity [19]. Magnetic insulators (such as YIG, BaM, etc.) offer an ideal platform for observing the longitudinal spin Seebeck effect (LSSE) [19, 40]. In a conductive ferromagnet, the longitudinal configuration can give rise to a large anomalous Nernst effect (ANE)-induced voltage, which makes it difficult to distinguish between ANE and SSE [19, 33, 41, 42].
If SSE generates pure spin currents, then an important question would be how do we measure them? The absence of charge flow makes it impossible to use conventional methods to measure the spin currents. One way to measure LSSE-generated spin current is to first convert it into a charge current that can then be measured by conventional means. In this context, the choice of the normal metal in the bilayer heterostructure becomes very important. Heavy metals, such as Pt and Au, have strong spin-orbit coupling [43, 44], offering an effective mechanism to convert a transverse spin current into a longitudinal charge current through inverse spin Hall effect (ISHE) [43, 45, 46, 47]. The ISHE charge current across the heavy metal surface creates an electric field EISHE that can be measured with a voltmeter. The magnitude and sign of EISHE depend on internal and external factors. In Figure 5b, an external magnetic field H is applied in the x direction. The magnetization M of the MI layer is aligned to the x direction as well. The temperature gradient is applied across the z direction, generating a spin voltage in the MI layer, injecting spin current across the interface and into the normal metal layer parallel to the temperature gradient. The polarity of electron spins in the normal metal layer is influenced by M from the MI layer. The ISHE field, EISHE, is measured across the y direction. EISHE is proportional to the cross product of the spatial direction of the generated spin current Js and the polarity vector of electron spins in the normal metal layer. The following equation explains the relationship between EISHE, Js, and
In summary, the voltage measured across the normal metal surface is strongest when M is perpendicular to both the heat gradient and EISHE; the voltage will flip its sign if M is flipped by flipping the external magnetic field H; the voltage measured will be zero when M is parallel to EISHE.
This discussion sheds light on the importance of the existence of an external magnetic field H to enable EISHE when using soft magnetic insulators such as spinels and garnets. A strong enough H is necessary to saturate the magnetization of such insulators, as well as to control the direction of the magnetization. Indeed, SSE cannot be observed in samples incorporating spinels or garnets with a temperature gradient alone. Due to their low remnant magnetization, an appropriate external magnetic field is required to saturate them.
An exception to the external magnetic field requirement is made when using BaM thin films due to their strong uniaxial anisotropy [18]. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetization of BaM films, caused by the spins of unpaired electrons, tend to favor one axis, called the easy axis, over any other axis. Thus, most electron spins within the BaM film tend to align themselves with the easy axis, randomly up or down, in the absence of an external magnetic field. Therefore, BaM films have uniaxial anisotropy. The uniaxial field of BaM was found to be around 16.5 kOe [9, 18]. Applying a magnetic field of this value or higher along the easy axis of the film causes all the electron spins to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field, removing the magnetic field then will leave a large remnant magnetization within the BaM film owing to its uniaxial anisotropy. Namely, the film becomes self-biased and does not require an external field to magnetize it.
An LSSE experiment and its results using a Pt/BaM heterostructure [18] will be discussed next. In this experiment the sample consisted of a micron-thick BaM layer, topped with a 2.5-nm-thick Pt layer. The BaM layer was grown on a 0.5 mm sapphire substrate. The easy axis of the BaM film was in the plane of the film.
Figure 6 shows the experiment setup and results. Figure 6a shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup that was used to test LSSE within the sample. The sample was put on an aluminum plate to act as a heat sink. An incandescent light bulb was placed directly on top of the sample, acting as the heat source. The easy axis of the BaM layer was along the y-axis, and the voltage was measured along the x-axis. All measurements were performed without an external magnetic field. However, a magnetic field of 10 kOe was used prior to the experiment to set the magnetization M of the BaM film in the positive (or negative) y direction.
Light-induced generation of spin currents. (a) The experimental setup. (b) and (c) Respective voltage signals measured for M∥y and M∥(−y), in response to the light that was turned on at 100s then turned off at 200s. The graphs also show the responses of the temperature difference (ΔT) between the top and bottom of the Pt/BaM/Saphire structure. (d) Voltage amplitude as a function of ΔT. Source: [18], p. 3.
The heat from the light bulb, along with the aluminum plate acting as a heat sink, created the temperature gradient across the BaM film thickness; the difference in temperature between the bottom surface and top surface of BaM,
Figures 6b and c demonstrate the relationship between the difference in temperatures
Figure 6d shows an important property of SSE, namely, the sign of the generated voltage flips when the direction of the BaM magnetization is flipped. The graph shows the relationship between
Control measurements were performed and are shown in Figure 7. Changing the lateral position of the light bulb did not have any noticeable effect on the measured voltage. This is to be expected, as the temperature gradient depends on the height of the light bulb, rather than its lateral position. This is demonstrated in Figure 7a, where the light position was changed to six different lateral positions. The figure shows that, other than jumps from electrical disturbance caused by the position change, the measured voltage remained largely unchanged.
Control measurements. (a) Voltage changes caused by moving the bulb along the x-axis. (b) Voltage and ΔT signals obtained when both a bulb and a Peltier cooler were used to control the temperature. The data in (a) and (b) were obtained with the same sample as Figure 6. (c) SSE in a Pt(2.5 nm)/BaM(0.4 μm)/sapphire (0.5 mm) sample. (d) Voltage and ΔT signals obtained with a Cu(9 nm)/BaM(1.2 μm)/sapphire (0.5 mm) sample. Source: [18], p. 3.
Using a Peltier cooler as an added source for the temperature gradient in addition to the light bulb also did not have a noticeable change in the relationship between the measured voltage and
The importance of using a metal with strong spin-orbit coupling is demonstrated through Figure 7d, where Cu, which has very weak spin-orbit coupling, and therefore very weak ISHE, was used in a Cu (9 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm)/sapphire (0.5 mm) sample. The figure shows a behavior that is different from the Pt/BaM samples, indicating the absence of SSE in this sample. A likely source for the signal shown in Figure 7d is the conventional Seebeck effect, caused by a temperature gradient across the sample’s length. (All figures, experimentation setup and results were taken from [18] with appropriate permissions).
A closely related but fundamentally different effect to SSE is the photo-spin-voltaic effect (PSVE). PSVE happens in NM/MI heterostructures; it generates pure spin currents across the NM thickness that can be measured through ISHE. Light can generate spin voltage and drive spin currents through PSVE. While the spin voltage is generated in the MI layer in the SSE case, the spin voltage in PSVE is generated in the atomic layers of the NM that are close to the interface due to magnetic proximity effect [48]. When light of a certain wavelength hits the sample, photons excite electrons in the Pt layer, causing them to move to higher energy bands. The efficiency of this photon-driven excitation varies because of the spin orientation. The difference in efficiency, along with different diffusion rates of excited electrons and holes, generates the spin voltage through PSVE [48].
Figure 8 shows PSVE in a Pt/MI structure. An important question arises due to the extremely similar setup of both LSSE and PSVE: how can we determine the source of the ISHE generated voltage? It could be due to LSSE, or PSVE, or both. Fortunately, research in this area determined several distinguishable factors that make it possible to disentangle LSSE from PSVE. The most important factor is the wavelength of the light used to excite the sample. Experimental results determined that PSVE can only be observed when the wavelength of the light used falls in the range 1600–2000 nm [48]. Using a light source with a wavelength outside that range or a heat source other than light, such as a Peltier cooler, will only give us LSSE in our sample and no PSVE [49]. Other factors include the type of materials and device geometries used in the studies. For example, different MI types and thicknesses give widely different signals in LSSE. A recent work showed that the main contribution in the voltage comes from LSSE rather than PSVE [50]. However, experiments have shown that using a light source with the appropriate wavelength gives extremely similar results in Pt that is coupled with MI of varying types and thicknesses [48].
(a) Photo-spin-voltaic effect in Pt/MI bilayer heterostructure. (b) Sketch of the physical mechanism underlying PSVE. When light illuminates the sample, photons excite electrons and generate nonequilibrium hot electrons and holes in the Pt atomic layers that are in proximity to the MI (the gridded region). The excited electrons and holes diffuse from Pt/MI interface to the Pt interface (along the +z direction), giving rise to spin currents (Je and Jh). Source: [48], pp. 861, 865.
Figure 9 shows the results of PSVE in three different samples: Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (78 μm), Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (21 nm), and Pt (2.5 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm). For each sample, three different experimental setup configurations were tested: illuminating from the sample’s top, illuminating from the sample’s bottom, and illuminating from both the top and bottom of the sample. The phenomena of PSVE in all cases were similar, with a difference that is no bigger than an order of magnitude. This confirms that the voltage is induced by PSVE instead of SEE. Only the sign of the voltage, but not its magnitude, flipped with the flipping of the magnetization of the MI film; this confirms the spin origin of the measured voltage. (All the PSVE information and experimental setup and discussion were taken from [48] with appropriate permissions).
Measurements for different illumination/magnetization configurations for three different samples Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (78 μm), Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (21 nm), and Pt (2.5 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm). Source: [48], p. 863.
The uniaxial anisotropy and the nonvolatile nature of easy axis-aligned magnetization within the BaM film can be used to design memory and logic-based systems. If the magnetization is up, it will keep its direction until a magnetic field flips it toward the opposite direction. If an efficient way can be found to switch the magnetization states of the magnetic insulator thin films, then they can be used in magnetic memory systems commercially [51].
In a NM/MI structure, such as Pt/BaM, SHE can be used to convert a charge current across the Pt surface into a spin current that flows across the thickness of Pt through spin-orbit coupling; this process will accumulate spins at the Pt/BaM interface. The spin accumulation generates spin-orbit torques (SOTs) that can be used to switch the BaM magnetization. Each electron provided by the charge current can undergo several spin-flip scatterings at the interface, breaking the conventional spin-torque switching limit and increasing the switching efficiency considerably [51].
We discuss the SOT experimental details of a Pt(5 nm)/BaM(3 nm) sample. The easy axis of the BaM film was perpendicular to the surface of the film. Figure 10b shows the hysteresis loop of the film, measured by a vibrating sample magnetometer, when an out-of-plane external magnetic field was applied (red curve). The olive curve shows the hysteresis loop along the hard axis when the external magnetic field is applied in the plane of the film. This figure confirms the perpendicular uniaxial anisotropy of the film, with a perpendicular anisotropy field of 17.6 kOe. A Hall bar structure was fabricated out of the Pt/BaM bilayer and is shown in Figure 10a. Figure 10c shows a hysteresis loop on the Hall resistance, revealing an anomalous Hall effect (AHE)-like behavior. It is unclear whether the AHE-like behavior is from magnetic proximity effect or spin Hall magnetoresistance. However, RAHE behaves in a very similar manner to the perpendicular magnetization component of the BaM film M
(a) Optical image of the Pt (5 nm)/BaM (3 nm) Hall bar structure. (b) Magnetic hysteresis loops of the BaM film. (c) Anomalous Hall resistance RAHE of the Hall bar measured as a function of a magnetic field. The inset is a schematic showing the magnetic field H direction which is in the yz plane and 20 degrees away from the +z axis. Source: [51], p. 3.
The first experiment demonstrated was the out-of-plane switching; the external magnetic field is fixed out of the film’s plane and 20° off the easy axis. The purpose of this tilt was to break the magnetization symmetry due to the external field, allowing for the observation of the SOT effect. One would expect that if the SOT field is along the -z direction, it would act against the external field, thereby increasing the total field required to saturate the magnetization within the BaM film, while a SOT field along the z direction will aid the external field, resulting in a smaller field required to saturate the magnetization of the BaM film.
Indeed, experimental results, shown in Figure 11, confirm exactly that. Namely, when charge currents of varying intensities are applied to the Pt film along the −y direction, the SOT direction is opposite to that of H (as shown in Figure 11a), and the resultant hysteresis loops, gauged by RAHE, become wider as the current intensity increases. This is shown in Figure 11c, where the gray loop is for I = 0; blue, I = −2 mA; olive, I = −4 mA; and red, I = −6 mA. This confirms the existence and the direction of pure spin current-generated SOTs near the interface, the magnitude of which is proportional to the intensity of the supplied current. Flipping the direction of the supplied charge currents flips the direction of the SOT as shown in Figure 11b. The resultant hysteresis loops, shown in Figure 11d, become narrower as the supplied charge current increases, indicating that SOT, in the direction of H, assisted in the magnetization flipping, reducing the overall total external field needed to flip M
Switching responses in Pt/BaM for out-of-plane magnetic fields. (a) and (b) Effects of charge currents I in the Pt film on switching of the magnetization M in the BaM film under an out-of-plane field H. The red spheres with arrows represent spin-polarized electrons deflecting toward the BaM layer. M represents the magnetization of BaM. τ represents the spin torque due to SHE. The direction of H is indicated in the insert. (c) and (d) Anomalous Hall resistance RAHE of the Hall bar measured as a function of a magnetic field for different charge currents. The field was applied 20 degrees away from the z axis, as shown in the insets of (a) and (b). In (c) gray, I = 0; blue, I = −2 mA; olive, I = −4 mA; and red, I = −6 mA. In (d) gray, I = 0; blue, I = 2 mA; olive, I = 4mA; and red, I = 6 mA. Source: [51], p. 4.
Further experiments were performed to confirm the existence of spin current-generated SOT near the Pt/BaM interface. This time, the external field H was within the film plane. This means that applying a saturation field in the film plane will align the electron spins along the hard axis of the BaM film. When H is removed, the spins will return to their easy axis, randomly up or down, resulting in a net M
Anomalous Hall resistance RAHE measured as a function of a magnetic field along the y axis for I= +6 mA and I= −6 mA, respectively. Source: [51], p. 5.
These results confirm that SOT due to pure spin currents, generated by SHE in Pt/BaM structures, can be used to assist the magnetization switching in BaM films. It should be noted however, that SHE generates two different torques: a damping-like torque (DLT) and a field-like torque (FLT). The effective fields for DLT and FLT are HDLT and HFLT, respectively. Thus, the total field affecting M
where H is the external field as indicated in Figure 11, Ha is the anisotropy field of the BaM film, and x is the unit vector along the +x direction. Two different simulation models were carried out to determine the SOT field strength: macrospin model simulation and microspin model simulation.
Carrying out both simulations involved three main steps: first, Hc was calculated when Jc is set to zero. HDLT and HFLT were both set to zero as well. Ha was set such that when H is equal to the experimentally measured Hc and pointing in the direction opposite to its initial direction, m flips. The second step considers the case when Jc
The results from running the two different models of simulations were very close and are shown in Figure 13. The blue dots show the linear nature of the relationship between Hc and HDLT, when HFLT = 0. This is similar to the experimental Hc vs. Jc data. The simulation showed that when HDLT is -400 Oe, Hc increases to about 2.0 kOe, and when HDLT is 400 Oe, Hc decreases to about 0.95 kOe. This same change was experimentally observed when Jc changed between -107 A cm−2 and 107 A cm−2. Thus, we can conclude that HDLT in the Pt/BaM is about 400 Oe at Jc = 107 A cm−2. The red and olive dots in Figure 13a and b show the same relationship when HFLT = HDLT/2 and HFLT = HDLT, respectively. The red dots show that the effect of HFLT is negligible when HFLT = HDLT/2, while the olive dots show a deviation for strong negative charge currents that was not observed experimentally. The red and olive portions of both figures prove that the majority of the SHE generated torque is due to DLT, with FLT having a relatively small effect in comparison. The experimental results, along with the simulation data, show that SOT in Pt/BaM films can reduce the required switching field by as much as 500 Oe.
(a) and (b) Coercivity vs. DLT field (HDLT) estimated for three different field-like torque (FLT) fields (HFLT) through macrospin and full micromagnetic simulations, respectively. Large blue spheres, HFLT = 0; small red spheres, HFLT = HDLT/2; and small olive spheres, HFLT = HDLT. The dash line in (a) and (b) is the Hc at I = 0. All the measurements were done at room temperature. Source: [51], p. 4.
Further improvements and enhancements in the switching efficiency can be achieved by using materials with higher spin-orbit coupling, resulting in stronger SOT. Topological insulators exhibit such requirements and will be the topic of the next section. (All figures, experimentation setup, and results were taken from [51] with appropriate permissions).
Topological insulators (TI) are of great interest in spintronic-related studies. A TI is a material with nontrivial symmetry-protected topological order that behaves as an insulator in its interior but whose surface contains conducting states. What differentiates a TI from other materials with conducting surfaces is that its surface states are time-reversal symmetry-protected. Due to the very strong spin-orbit coupling of TIs [10, 52], if a charge current is supplied to their surface, the surface states induce spin polarity and therefore generate a spin current, owing to the SHE. The SHE in TIs is several times stronger than in heavy metals such as Pt, and it can become hundreds of times stronger at very lower temperatures [10].
Theoretically, the very strong SHE in a TI can generate SOT that is much stronger than its counterpart in heavy metals. This strong SOT can then be exploited for magnetization switching by pairing it with a ferromagnet, similar to what was discussed in the previous section. Using a conductive ferromagnet, however, can completely suppress the surface states of a TI [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56], preventing the generation of spin currents, therefore making it impossible for SOT magnetization switching to happen in TI/conductive ferromagnet structures.
Here, the usefulness and importance of magnetic insulators are again emphasized. Pairing a TI with MI keeps the integrity of the surface states. Various materials can be used to create a TI, such as (BixSb1-x)2 Te3. The choice of x can ensure protection from time-reversal symmetry. Figure 14a and b show the sheet resistance measurements of a (BixSb1-x)2Te3 film that was grown on a MI (Tm3Fe5O12, TIG) for x = 0.2 and x = 0.3, respectively. The lower inset of both figures show the broken symmetry of the topological surface states of both configurations. The sheet resistance in both figures shows a linear portion, attributed to the normal Hall effect, and a hysteresis loop portion. The different slopes indicate opposite carriers in each sample. The hysteresis portion indicates strong magnetic uniaxial anisotropy in the TI owing to highly spin-polarized electrons on the TI’s surface. This uniaxial anisotropy is maintained at room temperature and up to T = 400 K [57].
(a) and (b) Hall traces of TIG/(BixSb1−x)2 Te3 for x = 0.20 and 0.30, respectively. The upper insets show the corresponding temperature dependence of Rxx. The lower insets show schematic drawings of the corresponding chemical potential position. Source: [57], p. 2.
In another experiment, the authors used a Bi2Se3/BaM heterostructure to explore the effect of topological surface state in switching the magnetization of a magnetic insulator [10]. The BaM layer used had similar characteristics to the BaM layer used in the Pt/BaM experiment. The BaM film was 5-nm-thick and had a uniaxial anisotropy axis perpendicular to the surface, as shown by the two hysteresis loops in Figure 15a. The blue hysteresis loop was measured when the external field was applied perpendicular to the BaM film’s surface. The red loop was measured when an external field was applied along the BaM film plane. The two loops together confirm the perpendicular orientation of the anisotropy axis of the BaM film.
(a) Magnetization (M) vs. field (H) loops for the Bi2Se3/BaFe12O19 sample. (b) Saturation magnetization (Ms) and coercive field (Hc) as a function of T. (c) and (d) RAHE vs. field (H) loops measured at T = 300 K and T = 3 K. Source: [10], p. 4.
A Hall bar was fabricated on the Bi2Se3/BaM bilayer film. Figure 15c shows that, similar to the Hall bar setup of the Pt/BaM experiment discussed in the previous section, the AHE contribution to the Hall bar resistance, RAHE, scales with the perpendicular magnetization M
Figure 16a shows the SOT switching experiment configuration. An external field H was applied along the x direction to aid in the SOT switching of M
SOT-induced switching in Bi2Se3/BaM. (a) Experimental configuration. (b to e) AHE resistance (RAHE) measured as a function of charge current (Idc) at different fields (H) and temperatures (T), as indicated. The arrows in (b) to (e) indicate the current sweeping directions. Source: [10], p. 5.
Figure 16c,d, and e shows the results of the same experiment performed at decreasing temperatures. The figures clearly indicate that the current required for magnetization switching becomes smaller as temperature decreases. This is due to the enhancement of the topological surface states in Bi2Se3 as T decreases.
Figure 17 further demonstrates the effect of SOT on the magnetization switching of the BaM film. The experiment was performed at T = 3 K; the external field was applied at 45 degrees angle out of the plane of the film as shown in the inset of the figure. The blue hysteresis loop is the result of applying a negative charge current that generated a SOT acting against H. The result is a wider hysteresis loop when compared with the normal hysteresis loop of the BaM film shown in Figure 15. This is due to the SOT acting against H, therefore hindering the magnetization switching and requiring a stronger external field to switch the magnetization of the BaM film. The red hysteresis loop shows the result of applying a positive charge current, which caused SOT that was in the direction of the external magnetic field, significantly decreasing the switching field required as shown by the much narrower hysteresis loop. This confirms the strength and significance of SOT in TIs and how it can be used to assist in magnetization switching.
Effects of Idc on RAHE hysteresis loops at T = 3 K in Bi2Se3/BaM. Source: [10], p. 6.
The efficiency of SOT switching can be calculated using the following expression [58]:
where HSW is the switching field, w is the Hall bar width, and t is Bi2Se3 or Pt thickness. The increase of SOT efficiency as the temperature decreases is demonstrated in Figure 18. The blue data points show
SOT efficiency (η) as a function of T in Bi2Se3/BaM and Pt/BaM. The data were all measured at a field applied at an angle of 45 degrees away from the film normal direction. The data on Pt/BaM were measured with a Hall bar structure that had the same dimension as the Bi2Se3/BaM Hall bar. Source: [10], p. 6.
Magnetic insulators with perpendicular anisotropy have become an important class of materials in the development of spintronic devices. For magnetic domain devices, the low-damping and large anisotropy features can enable high-speed domain-wall motion with a small current threshold, fueling the development of domain-wall memory and logic devices. Moreover, low-damping is significant for SOT oscillator applications, where the current threshold for self-oscillations decreases with damping. Recent experiments show that spin waves can be used to control magnetic domains through spin-orbit torques [60, 61]; this effect can be amplified and become more efficient in magnetic insulators. The strong magnetic anisotropy also allows the engineering of spin-wave dispersion relation without the need for large bias magnetic fields [62]. This will expand the horizon for magnonic and spin-wave devices, allowing the development of new magnon-photon coupling devices for quantum transduction and microwave photonic systems [63, 64].
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