The different dimensions in psychomotor therapy.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8123",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Metals in Soil - Contamination and Remediation",title:"Metals in Soil",subtitle:"Contamination and Remediation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The anthropogenic input of metals into the atmosphere is estimated to be one-to-three orders of magnitude higher than natural fluxes. 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Larramendy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14764/images/system/14764.jpeg",biography:"Marcelo L. Larramendy, Ph.D., serves as a Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum (National University of La Plata, Argentina). He was appointed as Senior Researcher of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council of Argentina. He is a former member of the Executive Committee of the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis, and Carcinogenesis. He is the author of more than 450 contributions, including scientific publications, research communications, and conferences worldwide. He is the recipient of several national and international awards. Prof. Larramendy is a regular lecturer at the international A. Hollaender courses organized by the IAEMS and a former guest scientist at NIH (USA) and the University of Helsinki, (Finland). He is an expert in genetic toxicology and is, or has been, a referee for more than 20 international scientific journals. He was a member of the International Panel of Experts at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, WHO, Lyon, France) in 2015 for the evaluation of DDT, 2,4-D, and Lindane. 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She is a member of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina in the genetic toxicology field, the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis, and Carcinogenesis (ALAMCTA), the Argentinean Society of Toxicology (ATA), the Argentinean Society of Genetics (SAG), the Argentinean Society of Biology (SAB), and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC). She has authored more than 380 contributions in the field, including scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and research communications. She has served as a review member for more than 30 scientific international journals. She has been a plenary speaker in scientific conferences and a member of scientific committees. 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Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4616.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5358",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Current Consequences and Further Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4d136df9f1658ae17f3ba7b3c992460",slug:"soil-contamination-current-consequences-and-further-solutions",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5358.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55018",title:"Psychomotor Therapy for Patients with Severe Mental Health Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68315",slug:"psychomotor-therapy-for-patients-with-severe-mental-health-disorders",body:'In Belgium [1], the Netherlands [2] and Germany [3], psychomotor therapy has been well integrated into psychiatry care since 1965. Psychomotor therapy is defined as a method of treatment that systematically uses a wide variety of physical activities as cornerstones of its approach. It is considered a supplement to and a support for residential psychiatric treatment [4]. Psychomotor therapy attempts to achieve positive therapeutic results regarding the psychiatric problems of the patient (depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, autism, eating disorders, etc.) by systematically using adapted body experiences and physical activities, movement, sensory awareness and sport-derived activities. In this sense, psychomotor therapy is more than just “doing exercise” or “performing recreation activities”. The foundation of psychomotor therapy is based on the well-accepted relationship between mental health and physical activity [5, 6]. It is imbedded in different multidisciplinary psychotherapeutic treatment programmes (behavioural, cognitive, or psychodynamic therapy) for different diagnosis-related patient settings [4]. Psychomotor therapy (see Figure 1) stimulates and integrates motor, cognitive and affective competences as inherent aspects of human behaviour, thereby enabling a person to act autonomously within his own psychosocial context [7]. Psychomotor therapy focuses on the somatic effects of physical activity (at the morphological, muscular, cardiorespiratory, metabolic, and motor levels) and on the physio-psychological effects as the core of the treatment. The experiences during PMT and the responses that arise from these experiences function as a dynamic source of change [1, 4]. Psychomotor therapy is mostly a group therapy based on the ideas of Yalom [8]. It has no real side effects, and its safety rules are transparent.
Psychomotor therapy: motor, cognitive and social-affective components.
This chapter clarifies the background, history and clinical implementation of psychomotor therapy for patients with severe mental health disorders in psychiatry.
The French Revolution was a milestone in the treatment of patients with psychiatric problems. Pinel (France, 1745–1826) and his contemporaries Esquirol (France, 1772–1840), Tuke (England, 1745–1813), Greisinger (Germany, 1817–1868), Chiarugi (Italy, 1759–1820), Riedel (Czech Republic, 1803–1870), Rush (USA, 1745–1813) and Guislain (Belgium, 1797–1860) transferred the ideas of the French Revolution to the treatment of patients with psychiatric disorders [9]. A repressive approach (i.e. detention, chaining of patients) was replaced with a more humane and moral treatment that consisted of daily rounds by the medical doctor and different daily activities (housekeeping activities, gardening, working in a vegetable garden, and others). Later, other milestones were important in the development of treatments for patients with severe mental health disorders: The Great World War (1914–1918), the development of neuroleptics (1952), the influence of philosophers and phenomenologists on (mental) health care (Kierkegaard, Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty and Sartre) and the development of different types of psychotherapy and adjunctive or complementary therapies.
The book “Aktive Krankenbehandlung in der Irrenanstalt” [10], by Simon (1867–1947), a German psychiatrist, led to new ideas concerning more active treatments for patients with mental illnesses. The approach aimed to address and stimulate the healthy part of the personality of each patient.
Albert Day (1812–1894) developed an institution in New York to treat alcohol addiction. This gymnasium featured appropriate fitness equipment for its time [11, 12]. Shepherd Ivory Franz (1874–1933) [13] studied the effects upon the retardation in conditions of depression. In the United States, Meyer (1866–1950) [14] reported the positive effects of daily activities on mental health. He underlined the unity between body and mind and the effect of exercise on the balance between thinking, doing and being. He was convinced of the effects of activity as a type of therapy and of the advantages in social life for patients with mental illness. Movement activities for psychiatric patients were derived from the so-called active therapies (called “occupational therapy” in some countries) that were organized in psychiatric hospitals [1].
Until 1960, occupational therapy and psychomotor therapy were based on the same ideas [15]. In Belgium, psychomotor therapy and occupational therapy developed as two different tracks. Psychomotor therapy was focused on physical activity [1]. In the Flemish part of Belgium, Simon’s and Meyer’s ideas were adopted by several psychiatrists after the Second World War. Movement therapy became an essential part of mental healthcare treatment services and was initially provided by teachers in physical education settings. The philosophy of this approach was “mens sana in corpore sano” [“a healthy mind in a healthy body”]. Gradually, the attention broadened from movement activities themselves to how people move in relation to their environment. In 1962, Professor De Nayer, dean of the Faculty of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences at the University of Leuven, introduced courses on movement therapy in mental health within a physical therapy curriculum. At that time, this idea was very innovative. Professors Pierloot [16] and Van Coppenolle [17] developed the theoretical and practical content. Both were influenced by Simon and Meyer who, together with Van Roozendaal (1922–1996) [18], were the trendsetters in the use of movement activities in psychiatry. At the end of the 1960s, the term “movement therapy” was replaced by “psychomotor therapy”. Psychomotor therapy focused on the interactions between the body in motion and the mind, especially from a behavioural perspective. Methods derived from more physical therapy- and body-oriented approaches, such as relaxation and sensory- and body awareness, became an integral part of therapy [1, 4].
Psychomotor therapy was defined as a method or treatment that uses corporality and movement as a driver of its approach and in which the clinician tries—after having performed a methodical psychomotor examination and in consultation with the patient—to realize clearly formulated goals that are relevant to the patient’s problems [19]. This definition refers more to the structure than the content of the psychomotor therapy. Psychomotor therapy in mental health is person-centred and aimed at children, adolescents, adults and elderly individuals with common and severe, acute and chronic mental health problems. Psychomotor therapists provide health promotion, preventive health care, treatment and rehabilitation for individuals and groups, mostly in inpatient treatment. They create a therapeutic relationship to provide assessment and services specifically to the complexity of mental health within a supportive environment, applying a bio-psychosocial model. The core of psychomotor therapy is to optimize well-being and empower the individual by promoting physical activity, exercise, movement awareness and functional movement, bringing together physical and mental aspects. Psychomotor therapists play a key role in an integrated multidisciplinary team and in an interprofessional care. Psychomotor therapy in psychiatry is based on the available scientific and best clinical evidence [20].
The main purpose of psychomotor therapy is to demonstrate how goal-directed movement situations can have a positive psychological effect, not only physical skills but also cognitive, perceptual, affective and behaviour. The moving body in all its aspects is the cornerstone of the psychomotor approach. This characteristic distinguishes psychomotor therapy from other approaches in psychiatry. Movements that represent real-life situations provide the patient good structure and the opportunity to create a realistic image of his/her own capabilities and boundaries. The commitment requires discipline, responsibility and perseverance. In the first stage of therapy, mostly individualized treatment is offered depending on the problems the patient presents. At a later stage, more group and interactive activities are proposed [1]. Through the implementation of both systematically planned evaluations and individually targeted interventions, psychomotor therapy stimulates and integrates motor, cognitive and affective competences as inherent aspects of human behaviour, thereby enabling a person to act autonomously within his/her own psychosocial context. The goal is to stimulate a positive self-image and personal well-being in balanced social relationships. Psychomotor therapy is used in individual and in group sessions, mostly in inpatient settings. The theoretical foundation of psychomotor therapy came from various disciplines, such as medicine (neurology, psychiatry), psychology (clinical and exercise), pedagogy, sociology, kinesiology and exercise physiology.
On the one hand, physical activity is currently well accepted in the treatment of patients with mental health problems. On the other hand, data indicate that patients with mental illness have higher levels of social anxiety in physical activity situations compared with healthy control subjects [21]. Consequently, psychomotor therapists should consider social anxiety when trying to improve the outcomes of patients with mental illness and their adherence to physical activity interventions. Prescribing “sport” activities for patients with severe mental illness without any clarification is therefore counterproductive for the majority of these patients. Most of these patients think they are not skilful enough to fulfil expectations or are afraid of criticism from peers; therefore, they will find many excuses for not attending these activities. Most people are convinced that physical activity is healthy for people with mental illness. This is not always the case, however, as illustrated in the following example of Ellen. This story is an eye-opener.
Swimming can be an aspect of psychomotor therapy. Swimming is a basic activity, but on an individual level, swimming can have other meanings. The therapist must keep in mind that what obvious is to them is not so obvious to the patient.
A 31-year-old female with borderline personality with eating disorder features was invited to attend a weekly swimming session at the hospital’s swimming hall. The treatment was a group approach based on Linehan [22]. The patient had a negative attitude towards the swimming sessions. She discussed the problem with her therapist. She had difficulties sharing and expressing her feelings. The psychomotor therapist encouraged her to try to attend the session and to write about her experience.
“The whole day, I felt anxious about the fact that I have to go to the swimming session and that I wouldn’t fit in my swimsuit anymore. It would definitely be too small, and I too fat. I imagined a fat, bulging body. The warm weather made me uncomfortable. Sweating gave me the feeling of being too fat and too indolent, which made the thought of putting on my swimsuit quite hard. The other group members were really enthusiastic. This was unimaginable for me. I could not, and still cannot, comprehend that they like to put on their bikini and have fun in the swimming pool. When I put on my swimsuit, it was larger than the last time. I saw that my belly wasn’t sticking out. I felt quite good about my body. The water was less cold than I remembered from the last time. My skin felt soft in the water. I felt a very big contrast between the other group members and me as they moved freely through the water. Some even dared to sit on the edge of the swimming pool. I would have wanted to swim a lap, but I literally felt restricted. It was as if I wasn’t able to swim. I didn’t even know how to start, although I know that I’m a good swimmer. I had the tendency to constantly contract my muscles. When my muscles were tensed, my body felt so much better, less mushy. After a while, I asked to take a shower. The therapist gave me permission. It was very difficult for me to get out of the swimming pool. Everyone would now be able to see me. I didn’t even dare to take a shower. In my fitting room, I really felt…anxious, close to despair. Drying myself and putting on my clothes was very hard for me. I cried, I felt the urge to harm myself, to cut and to ruin myself. I wanted to feel sick and weak by drinking something. However, I didn’t do it. Mostly, I felt very and extremely tired”.
As indicated in Section 1, psychomotor therapy is more than just physical activity. In psychomotor therapy, physical activities are used in relation to psychological dimensions. Table 1 provides an overview of the different dimensions and the more concrete action points and clarifications used during the sessions. It is clear that the classification presented in Table 1 is artificial. There is indeed a connection among thoughts, mood, behaviour, physical reactions and the environment (life experiences = outside the person). The advantage of such a table is that it clarifies what is meant by the situation and the psychomotor, cognitive, affective, behaviour and symbolic dimension. Different situations can lead to different thoughts, moods, behaviours, and physical reactions.
Dimension | Feature |
---|---|
Psychomotor dimension | Physical sensations (heart rate, sweating, dizziness, shortness of breath, blushing, stomach distress, muscle tension, trembling, headaches, restlessness, fatigue irritability, pain, energy and fatigue). Body, movement and sensory awareness; physical fitness; psychomotor skills (manual skills, eye hand coordination, balance, posture, lateralization, time place orientation…). |
Cognitive dimension | Including communication aspects. Issues: What are the person’s thoughts and beliefs before, during and after the activity? Are the thoughts accurate? Is the person worried about what might occur? Does the person ruminate about the past? Does the person show thoughts of being in danger, narrow attention, and impulsivity? How are the person’s planning and organizational skills? How does the person communicate verbally and non-verbally? |
Affective dimension | Including the relational dimension and the emotional distress. What are the person’s feelings before, during and after the situation? How are the person’s relationships with peers and the therapist? How does the person cope with feelings such as sadness, anger, surprise, disgust, shame, hopelessness, being overwhelmed, numbness …? How is the person’s self-esteem, self-image, and attitude? How is his/her level of tolerance or frustration? Who takes the lead? Who follows? Who dares to voice his own opinions? |
Behavioural dimension | What is the behaviour of the subject in the given situation? What does the person choose to do or not to do? How does the person overcome the problem; what are his/her problem-solving skills? What type of strategy is used in the given situation? Does the patient use avoidance or checking behaviours, rituals, repetitive behaviour or specific habits (for instance tapping feet, biting fingernails)? Does the patient want to escape the exercise? What is his/her social behaviour like? How does the person function in team efforts? Is he able to achieve the task? |
Symbolic dimension | There is a link between the proposed exercise within the therapy and with the outside world (outside the therapy, within society). The proposed exercise contains a life message. The exercise evokes conscious or unconscious events from the past. |
The different dimensions in psychomotor therapy.
A seesaw was built with benches and mattresses, as presented in Figure 2. The exercise was successful if the group could keep the seesaw in balance with all participants for at least 5 min. Even a small movement could dramatically affect the balance.
The seesaw: a group activity in psychomotor therapy.
Psychomotor dimension: In addition to the essential skills (balance and the perception of body tonus by the patients), the patient realizes that the physical skills are not the only ones necessary to achieve a goal. Other group members intrude into their comfort zone, and the patients are confronted with body contact. For some patients, this is a stress situation. How can they cope with this stress?
Cognitive and communication dimension: What are the thoughts involved in solving the problem? Who presents a substantial proposal for addressing the challenge? How is the communication among the group? Are the basic rules of communication respected? How is the group members’ attention and concentration?
Affective and relational dimension: Which emotions come up with this exercise? Are the participants able to feel what the others are experiencing and anticipate their actions? Do they realize that personality and reactions may affect the way the person acts during this exercise? This exercise also led to the visible election of a leader who would be at the centre, giving instructions to the rest of the group. How does he/she lead the group? Which members are passive, and which are active? In this exercise, the value of teamwork is emphasized. How are the social interactions? What is the role of each individual in the group?
Behaviour dimension: What is the role of the patient (active or passive) throughout the task?
Symbolic dimension: Patients are always seeking balance in their life. People with eating disorders will see a weight scale but will soon realize that weight is not important in this exercise. The experiences during psychomotor therapy and the responses that arise from these experiences function as dynamic powers or change.
The need for treatment at a psychiatric hospital does not arise from physical or motor deficits but from psychological problems. Psychomotor therapists must therefore focus not only on physical goals but also on relevant psychological goals.
Within psychomotor therapy, observation is an important source of information that cannot always be obtained through tests or other measurement instruments. Even in group therapy, each individual reacts in a specific way. Observation can be helpful for establishing goals and a tailored treatment. Table 2 provides an inventory of the important general mental health functions to observe individual along with some specific features and descriptions. These functions include the first impression, cognitive functions, affective functions and the conative functions [23]. Motor functions can be assessed using tests such as the Bruininks Motor Ability Test [24] for gross and fine motor skills, the six-minute walk test [25–28] for measuring functional exercise capacity: alternative Leger test [29] or the Spartacus test [30].
The development of the Louvain Observation Scales for Objectives in Psychomotor Therapy (LOFOPT) followed the “Bewegingsonderzoek” of Van Roozendaal [31], which became obsolete due to the time investment required. The LOFOPT was based on the premise that the observation method should offer direct and relevant information about psychosocial aspects of functioning. These observational scales offer direct indications for goals in psychomotor therapy. The disturbed characteristics of the personality in movement situations are directly related to goals. The LOFOPT observation consists of nine categories of goals that are important to psychiatric patients: improving emotional relationships, self-confidence, activity, relaxation, movement control, focus on the situation, movement expressivity, verbal communication, and social regulation ability (see Table 3). The LOFOPT can be considered objective and reliable [32].
Functions | Features | Description |
---|---|---|
First impressions | Appearance | Self-neglect, excessive self-care, differences between biological and calendar age; over- or underweight; piercings, tattoos, injections, self-harming, amputations |
Contact | Eye contact, looking away, looking around; handshake; non interactiveness; non reactivity | |
Posture | Postural slumping, body immobility | |
Complaints | Inconsistency between the symptoms and the presentation of the complaints | |
Cognitive functions | Awareness | Somnolent, soporific, semi-comatose, stupor, narrowed/constricted consciousness |
Attention | Cannot attract or maintain his/her attention | |
Concentration | ||
Orientation | To time, place and person | |
Memory | Imprinting, short- and long-term memory | |
Intellectual functions | Assessment skills, intelligence, awareness of illness, abstraction ability, executive functions | |
Experience | Illusions, hallucinations, derealization, depersonalization | |
Concrete thinking | Slowed thinking, rapid thinking, longwinded thinking, incoherence, … | |
Substantive thinking | Poverty of thought, preoccupation, obsession, rumination, delusions | |
Affective functions | Mood | Gloomy, anhedonic, apathetic, anxious, dysphoric, euphoric |
Affect | Incongruent, flat, unstable, exaggerated, dramatic | |
Somatic affective characteristics | Muscle tension, flushing, tachycardia, shortness of breath, sweating and clammy hands | |
Vital signs | Sleep disorder, fatigue, loss of appetite, loss of body weight and loss of libido | |
Suicidality | ||
Conative functions | Psychomotor | Mimicking, expression: immutable, excessively slow, absent; facial immobility |
Motivation and behaviour | Loss of decorum, inactivity, loss of initiative, lethargy, avolition, impulsive actions and behaviour, compulsive behaviour, motor agitation |
Observation of an individual patient with psychiatric disorders (adapted from Hengeveld and Schudel [23]).
Observation categories | Description |
---|---|
Emotional relationship | The extent to which the patient can make contacts that are emotional (i.e. experiencing a connection with fellow patients and the therapist with a certain degree of emotionally). |
Self-confidence | The extent to which the patient moves independently from others, without underrating him/herself and in a non-anxious way |
Activity | The extent to which the patient actively participates in movement situations |
Relaxation | The extent to which the patient carries out or observes movement tasks without excessive muscle tension or nervousness |
Movement control | The extent to which the patient moves calmly can control his own body and paces his efforts |
Focussing attention on the situation | The extent to which the patient can give account of the situation and remain adjusted to it (concentration and task tension) |
Movement expressivity | The extent to which the patient does or does not express something in his/her movements, posture and facial expressions |
Verbal communication | The extent to which the patient can make verbal contact with others in a meaningful way according to the situation |
Social regulation ability | The extent to which the patient is able to observe predetermined agreements and rules of behaviour during the session |
The Louvain Observation Scales for Objectives in Psychomotor Therapy: observation categories for group activities [31].
Different questionnaires related to (physical) self-concept and body image are used within psychomotor therapy: the self-description questionnaire by Marsh and O’Neill [33], the physical self-description questionnaire by Marsh et al. [34], the Body Attitude Test [35, 36], physical self-perception profile [37], and the physical self-inventory [38]. Other questionnaires are IPAQ [39] and SIMPAQ [40] and the psychomotor therapy satisfaction questionnaire by Vandensande and Probst [41].
Depending on the problem analysis and the related psychomotor therapy goals, the competence of the patient, and the psychological frame of reference, the psychomotor therapist will be able to choose a more health-related approach, a psychosocial approach or a psychotherapeutic physiotherapy method (see Figure 3). Concrete activities are offered to motivate patients to act, interact, learn, experience, and express.
The scope of psychomotor therapy.
The physical health-related approach aims to improve global physical health and is focused on the somatic functional status of the patient. Studies have shown that people with mental health problems are more susceptible to inactivity and are at risk of a sedentary lifestyle. In addition, the use of psychotropic drugs can result in the development of metabolic syndrome, obesity, osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. The health-related approach is consistent with the recent recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO) regarding the relationship between “physical inactivity” and poor health, which represents a serious threat to quality of life [42]. Clinical practice shows the importance of tailoring physical activity to each person’s individual abilities to influence quality of life [43–46]. The challenge is to motivate people to remain active throughout their daily lives. People who do not continue exercising lose independence and will not maximize their potential in life. The American College of Sport Sciences offers guidelines for physical activity. It is the task of the psychomotor therapist to integrate and adapt these guidelines to the context of the person with mental health problems [47].
The psychosocial-oriented approach emphasizes the acquisition of mental and physical skills related to the moving body and to support people’s ability to function independently in society. The activities focus on learning, acquiring and maintaining psychomotor, sensorimotor, perceptual, cognitive, social and emotional proficiencies. More concretely, the following aspects are highlighted: paying attention, interacting with materials, recognizing stimuli, suppressing passivity, altering behaviour, performing goal-oriented work, enhancing attention to others, improving social proficiency, learning to collaborate, learning to cope with emotionality, learning to accept responsibilities, and being able to put oneself in someone else’s place. Other elementary proficiencies are stressed, such as relaxation education, relaxation skills, stress management, breathing techniques, psychomotor and sensory skills and cognitive, expressive and social skills. Through exercises, patients acquire a broader perspective and can experience their own abilities. Moreover, education regarding the basic rules of communication is also integrated [4]. The psychophysiological approach focuses on the use of physical activity to influence mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety [48–54]. In the literature, the benefits of physical activity for mental health are well accepted. Physical activity has a positive influence on mental well-being, self-esteem, mood, and executive functioning. These effects can halt the downward spiral leading to dejection. Well-balanced and regularly executed endurance activities (walking, biking, jogging, swimming), power training (fitness training) and mindfulness-derived exercises augment physical and mental resilience improve the quality of sleep; enhance self-confidence, energy level, endurance level and relaxation; and in general, decrease physical complaints. Some examples will illustrate this approach.
The goal of this exercise consists of tapping all the numbered cards located in the large square (calculator) by hand, in order and in the shortest possible time span.
The cards are numbered from 1 to 30 but are scattered randomly throughout the square. Only one player may be in the calculator at any time. A subsequent player can therefore only enter the machine when the other player leaves the square. The cards may not be moved. The time starts when the first player passes the start line. The stop time is at the time at which the last player returns to behind the start line. The level of difficulty can be increased by changing the rules, for instance, to tapping the cards from 30 to 1 or tapping every other card in order (1,3,5,7…). The activity can be adapted for elderly patients by allowing them to tap the cards with a foot or by placing the cards on tables or chairs. It is not necessary to include a competition between two teams. This situation focuses on coping with stress and on cognitive and social skills.
The group is divided into subgroups of three patients each. The therapist and each group receive the same number of different coloured Duplo blocks. Each subgroup designates a “go-between” and two builders. The therapist constructs a model using the different Duplo blocks and places the model so that the builders cannot see it. The group must then reproduce the model following specific rules.
The go-between is the only person who is allowed to look at the hidden model made by the therapist. The go-between from the group has to perform a circuit to be able to see that figure. After circling and checking the figure, he can come back and answer the questions of the other two members, who will ask yes/no questions and construct the figure. The winner is the group that builds the figure first. In this exercise, patients have to cope with frustration. Communication is very important, as is memorization. It is very important from a symbolic point of view that the “go-between” who checks the figure is very sure of what he/she is doing.
The psychotherapeutic-oriented physiotherapy approach uses the motor domain as a gateway for ameliorating social-affective functioning. Using movement activities with a psychotherapeutic accent, the psychomotor therapist creates a setting that favours the initiation and development of processes designed to help patients gain better insight into their own functioning. During these activities, patients are invited to venture outside their comfort zones, think outside the box, experience new things, become more in touch with their inner self and cope with many emotions (depressive feelings, fear, guilt, anger, stress, feelings of unease, estrangement and dissatisfaction) and negative thoughts (intrusion, obsession, morbid preoccupations and worrying). Moreover, they will confront their behaviours (i.e. impulses, lack of abilities) or cognitive symptoms (i.e. derealisation, lack of concentration). Throughout psychomotor therapy interventions, an alternative perspective of experiences can be proposed. Becoming aware that an alternative may exist will trigger new emotions and experiences, and a discrepancy between reality and the patient’s perception of their reality will emerge. Consequently, it is important to note that it is not the physical activity itself but the patient’s experiences and inner perception that play the central role. Different issues are elaborated during psychomotor therapy, such as being aware of one’s body and movement, expressing and regulating emotions, augmenting tolerance for frustration, refraining from impulsive behaviour, improving orientation to reality, improving social interaction, learning to define limits, strengthening self-confidence, improving body perception and self-perception, dealing with fear of failure, developing self-reflection, exploring one’s actual emotional and social life and providing better insight into one’s conscious through inter and intrapsychic conflicts. The careful guidance and encouragement of the psychomotor therapist and the opportunity to experience feelings in a safe environment allow the patient to develop behaviours that he/she would not have developed otherwise. The underlying problems are not necessarily resolved, but the therapist tries to improve the patient’s management of problems. The patient shares his/her behaviour, feelings, and thoughts, initially with the therapist and eventually with peers. More emphasis is placed on experiences and how reactions to these experiences function as a dynamic source of power. Some examples of psychomotor therapy activities clearly illustrate the underlying message of the psychotherapeutic approach.
Blindfolded participants look for two ropes in a defined area. With these two ropes, they need to make two perfect squares, a small one in the middle of a large one. The entire length of the rope should be used. The ends of each rope are tied together. Self-confidence, communication, problem solving, orientation and concentration are the main aspects in this exercise.
One person is invited to stay on a carpet. The carpet measures 70 cm by 70 cm. The top and the underside of the carpet are different colours. In this exercise, a person must turn over the carpet without touching the floor. If the person succeeds, he/she invites a second (third, fourth, fifth…) person to join him and turn the carpet back. The level of difficulty increases as the number of people on the mat increases. This is a great exercise to improve participants’ balance and test their problem-solving skills. In dialogue, the participants should find the appropriate strategy for turning over the carpets. This exercise also requires leadership, coordination and co-operation skills to succeed. Closeness, bodily contact and touch are difficult issues for people with mental health problems such as eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, and personality disorders to cope with. Patients will feel others invading their comfort zone. This exercise imitates real-life situations, such as rush hours on the bus, train or tube. Patients can become aware of their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours while at the same time searching for new strategies to cope with this uncomfortable situation.
The therapist designs a frame with 16 sections. Different letters lay in all but one of the sections. Using these letters, four group members must make a sentence following the rules of a sliding window. The person and the letters can only move horizontally or vertically. Letters and people cannot move diagonally.
An alternative form of this activity could be to place a person in all but one of the sections, with the goal of moving the youngest person to the beginning of the framework and the oldest to the end.
This exercise requires problem solving, communication skills, and attention.
Patients are asked to be aware of the concepts “push” and “pull”. During a warm-up, they can experience the meaning of “push” and “pull” separately in practice. Afterwards, the participants are asked to form to equal groups (in terms of both the number of members and strength) for a tug-of-war. The next step is to experience the push and pull concept during a two-minute music sequence. The participants are able to move freely during the activity and can choose whether to come in contact with other group members. The last step is to push and pull for 15 min along with music, starting from an as small a space as possible for the patient to feel safe. The patients are invited to increase the tempo in the room by touching, pushing and pulling. Again, they can decide whether other group members are allowed in their comfort zone.
These activities require self-esteem for the patient to use the whole space of the room or only the borders, to move without the concerns about the others, and to move in three dimensions. Attracting and rejecting or pushing away; greeting, meeting and then leaving; and coming together versus separating are well-known strategies for double messages and are congruent with eating and not eating, exerting control and not exerting control, tensing and relaxing, daring and not daring, and jumping and not jumping.
Table 4 shows the most important goals of psychomotor therapy for patients with depression. The approach focuses on providing regular successful experiences through realistic and individualized goals using mastery experiences [64] and group dynamism [8] as a mean to develop adequate coping strategies. Training effects are important but not necessary to improve the patient’s physical self-concept. Therefore, the psychomotor therapist should focus on strategies for improving physical self-concept [4, 37, 55–57].
Psychomotor therapy for patients with depression [55–57] |
|
Psychomotor therapy for patients with psychosis and schizophrenia [46, 58, 59] |
|
Psychomotor therapy for patients with eating disorders [60–62, 36] |
|
Psychomotor therapy for patients with personality disorders [63] |
|
Goals in psychomotor therapy for patients with depression, psychoses, eating disorders and personality disorders.
In addition to the basic goal of maintaining good physical condition, the psychomotor therapist will offer a wide range of movement activities to expand skills and structure their behaviour. Based on recent research, the evidence-based psychomotor programme consists of (a) a stress-reduction programme, (b) a movement activation programme and (c) a psychosocial therapy programme [58]. The stress-reduction programme consists of (1) progressive muscle relaxation, (2) yoga/tai chi therapy [65], (3) aqua therapy and (4) stress management training. This programme provides patients self-maintenance coping skills that help reduce psychological distress and improve subjective well-being [66]. In the movement activation programme (e.g. “start to walk” sessions, psychoeducation sessions regarding lifestyle, physical activity and fitness sessions), health-related issues (the metabolic abnormalities associated with atypical antipsychotics; sedentary lifestyle) should be of special interest. The self-determination theory [67] is an appropriated approach to motivate patients to move [68]. The psychosocial therapy programme focuses on a group setting and group involvement. In the group, patients will experience during the different group processes of co-operation, compromise, confrontation and conformity during movement sessions. Clinical observations confirm the conclusion of Faulkner and Biddle [69] that exercise can be a coping mechanism for positive symptoms, such as auditory hallucinations (see Table 4).
Twemlow et al. [70] suggest the use of movement in physically oriented therapies combined with psychodynamic psychotherapy. In psychomotor therapy, those ideas are applied for individuals with personality and behaviour disorders. In this setting, physical work in psychomotor therapy and psychological work in psychotherapy are combined. Psychomotor therapy is viewed as an important complementary approach to psychodynamic therapies. Individuals are allowed to re-tool their experiences under the guidance of a healthy role model [63]. Psychomotor therapy (see Table 4) aims to perceive and interpret the patients’ behaviour in terms of intentional mental states, such as needs, desires, feelings, beliefs, goals, purposes, and reasons [71]. The different activities are used to experiment with and to learn how to address emotions [4].
The cornerstones of psychomotor therapy for patients with eating disorders are the patient’s specific relationship with his/her body (unfamiliarity with their own body, body dissatisfaction and social anxiety) and the drive for exercise, expressed as restlessness or hyperactivity in anorexia and bulimia nervosa or passivity (physical inactivity and a sedentary life style) in binge eating disorder [35]. The therapy focuses on the patient’s impression (physical self-concept), expression (the emotional self-concept) and communication (social self-concept) using postural awareness exercises; breathing exercises; relaxation exercises; sensory, body and movement awareness; massage; mirror exercises; physical activity; yoga; tai chi; self-confrontation techniques; psychoeducation; guided imagery exercises; dance and expression; and problem-solving exercises in a group [17, 35, 60–62, 72] (see Table 4).
Psychomotor therapy in the field of psychiatry is a relatively recent and evolving domain. Depending on the patient’s request for assistance, competence or therapeutic possibilities and his/her goals and psychological frame of reference, the psychomotor therapist can choose either a more health-related, a more psychosocial or a more psychotherapeutic approach. The therapist has access to a wide variety of activities. The emphasis is to activate patients, to offer them new experiences, and to stimulate them to express their feelings. The psychomotor therapist needs to have good motivation skills as well as creativity and adaptation skills. Because psychomotor therapy encompasses more than just movement, good communication skills are also important. The focus lays on improving the patient’s actions and interaction with peers, learning new skills, behavioural change, new experiences and expression of emotions.
After a phase of clinical observations and explanations, the use of psychomotor therapy in psychiatry is now in a phase of testing the effectiveness of psychomotor interventions in different populations and settings. Many factors will influence clinical practice: the evidence, the skills of the patient and the therapist, the enthusiasm of the therapist’s message the marketing, the referral systems, the health service systems and of course the economic situation. Compared with the health-related approach, the efficacy of the psychosocial and psychotherapeutic approaches of psychomotor therapy is hard to prove due to the scientific need to control for large numbers of variables. However, qualitative studies concerning patient satisfaction showed that the adjunctive approach is very helpful for many patients [73]. Future research must analyze which patients benefit the most from this approach.
The psychomotor therapist will face various challenges. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary are the future of mental health care. Under these approaches, professionals will reach out to other mental health caregivers who use the same methods as the core of their approach. Hopefully, this will open doors for a more intensive interchange of ideas, and the gap between the different adjunctive therapies that developed in the 1960s will begin to close. In the future, therapists will need to obtain informed consent for each treatment. Each therapist will need to prove that his/her methods have value for the patient and provide information about what, why, where, when and how he/she will proceed and what the possible outcomes are. The move from inpatient treatment (residential therapy) to community treatment is another important challenge.
In Anglo-Saxon countries, psychomotor therapy as such is not well known as in Flanders, The Netherlands, and Germany. This approach is an evolving domain within psychiatry and can be seen as an adjunct bio-psychosocial treatment, in accordance with internationally accepted models. In Flanders, psychomotor therapy is taught at the university level and integrated in the dominant health care system [4].
Inviting people with mental health problems to participate in psychomotor therapy is not about finding a direct solution; rather, it is about starting a dialogue with the person with mental health problems.
The Norway rat Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout is one of the commensal rodents, along with the roof rat R. rattus Linnaeus, the Polynesian rat R. exulans Peale, and the house mouse Mus musculus Linnaeus. These rodents expanded their distribution worldwide by taking advantage of human activities [1, 2, 3]. However, they have limitations in their geographical distributions. Brooks and Rowe [2] point out that Norway rats are fundamentally fitted to the temperate zone, and they are less prosperous in tropical and subtropical climate zones, whereas roof rats thrive in tropical and subtropical climate zones. The question arises as to whether Norway rats are fitted to the temperate zone due to the mild temperature. Tomich [4] points out that mild temperature is secondary to appropriate diet as a factor in determining the Norway rat distribution. Although they are omnivorous, Norway rats require a diet containing a certain amount of animal matter or that is protein-rich [5, 6, 7].
Many species of seabirds nesting on or near the ground or in burrows are vulnerable to predation by Norway rats because of the terrestrial behavior of the rats [1, 8]. Rats on an island in the Aleutians were supposed to prey on seabirds and to restrict the productivity of shorebirds and land birds by preying on the birds’ food [9]. For Norway rats, such subarctic and subantarctic zones are severe environments in the cold season; when the rats’ reproductive activities are depressed, their ears, legs, and tails are frostbitten, and their mortality rate is higher [10, 11]. However, Yabe et al. [12] discovered Norway rats breeding under snow cover on uninhabited subarctic islands in Japan. This fact suggests that they breed even during the cold season or under snow cover when an appropriate diet is available.
Also, the tropical and subtropical climate zones seem to be severe environments for Norway rats. Norway rats in the tropical climate zone are distributed in patches in limited areas such as seaports, irrigated villages, and large cities [2, 13, 14, 15]. Yabe et al. [7] found that the body mass of Norway rats on islands in the subtropical climate zone was smaller than those in the other habitats in the subarctic climate zone and the temperate climate zone in Japan because of a protein deficiency. Norway rats on the islands in the subtropical climate zone preferred plant matter to animal matter. On the other hand, Norway rats on an artificial islet in the temperate climate zone stopped breeding and lost body mass in the dry winter even though they preyed on some animal matter [16, 17]. Therefore, it seems that the appropriate diet changes depending on the habitat, and protein-rich diets do not always help Norway rats to thrive. Then commenting on the review by Yabe [18], I discuss the factors that cause the appropriate diet for Norway rats to shift based on their habitat and thus limit their geographical distributions.
Yururi (168 ha, 43° 12′ N, 145° 35′ E) and Moyururi (31 ha, 43° 13′ N, 145° 36′ E) (referred to as Yururi-Moyururi hereafter) are uninhabited islands situated 2.5 and 3.7 km off the Nemuro Peninsula of Hokkaido, respectively (Figure 1). They are in the subarctic climate zone and have a mean annual temperature of 6.3°C. Both islands are flat and covered with low vegetation such as alpine plants and the bamboo grass Sasa nipponica Makino and Sibata. According to the local people, Norway rats intruded into these islands in the 1960s or 1970s from a boat used for fishing or light house construction.
Map of Yururi and Moyururi Islands, Yokohama, Kaiho-2, the Ogasawara Archipelago, and Hahajima Island [7].
Generally, the reproductive activities of Norway rats in the subarctic and subantarctic zones seem to be restricted in the summer. Schiller [11] found that the breeding season of Norway rats in a business district and in dumping sites in Nome in Alaska occurred exclusively in the summer. Pye and Bonner [10] also found that the breeding season of Norway rats in a coastal area on South Georgia Island in the subantarctic climate zone was in the summer from December to February. The most active breeding season for Norway rats on Yururi-Moyururi also seemed to be in the summer. Here, 63 (86.3%) of the 73 rats caught in late July and early August 2013 were born from June to July. However, 10 (13.7%) of them were born from December to March, the heavy snow season (Table 1) [12].
Age in months | Birth month | Number of rats | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Total | Pregnant | ||
1 (1.0–1.9) | July | 28 | 24 | 52 | 7* |
2 (2.0–2.9)s | June | 10 | 1 | 11 | 1 |
3 (3.0–3.9) | May | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4 (4.0–4.9) | April | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
5 (5.0–5.9) | March | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
6 (6.0–6.9) | February | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 |
7 (7.0–7.9) | January | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
8 (8.0–8.9) | December | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Total | 43 | 30 | 73 | 11 |
Age composition of Norway rats caught in late July to early August 2013 in Yururi-Moyururi.
1.2–1.7 months old.
Data collected by a metrological station at Nemuro, a city close to these islands, show that the amounts of snowfall were 52, 41, 52, and 29 cm in December 2012 and January, February, and March 2013, respectively. No rats entered these islands in these years because boats are restricted from approaching these islands, and there were no wrecked vessels after these islands were appointed to be a sanctuary for birds in 2011. The distance from the Nemuro Peninsula to Yururi-Moyururi is over 1 km that is pointed out by Russell et al. [20] as a possible distance for Norway rats to swim. Therefore, the 10 rats on Yururi-Moyururi must have been born during the heavy snow season. Snow cover protects Norway rats from cold temperatures. The temperature at the ground level under 50 cm of snow cover, for example, is kept above −5°C, even when the air temperature is below −30°C [21]. Inukai [22] also showed that the temperature at the ground level under 1 m of snow cover was from 0 to −2.8°C when the air temperature ranged from −6 to −13°C in Sapporo, Hokkaido. Furthermore, deep snow cover stabilizes the temperature under the snow [23], and thus, snow cover likely provides comfortable breeding conditions for Norway rats. Maeda [24] also found evidence of the breeding of Norway rats under snow cover just after the melting of the snow in a forested area in Sapporo.
Norway rats on Yururi-Moyururi thrived and reproduced under snow cover without depending on human beings for their diet. In the case of Maeda [24], Norway rats ate mainly bamboo seeds and rodents such as gray red-backed voles Myodes rufocanus Sundevall, the population of which exploded after the bamboo-grass flowering. The voles usually make their nests in tunnels under ground, but in the snow season they make their nests and breed in the space under bamboo grass covered by snow [25, 26]. Therefore, it is likely that Norway rats could easily find and prey on such voles. However, there were no rodents or other small mammals except Norway rats on Yururi-Moyururi (T. Hashimoto, pers. comm.).
Birds of prey such as common buzzards Buteo Buteo japonicus Temminck and Schlegel are known to live on Yururi-Moyururi [27, 28]. It is likely that shallow snow and dead grass cover these islands at the end of autumn or beginning of winter. Rats running across such white snow are vulnerable to birds of prey [29], and rats running on dead grass may also be. Among birds of prey, common buzzards are known to feed on Norway rats [30], and they probably leave behind body parts of the prey as in the case of roof rats (Figure 2). The dense population of rats that were born during the summer will provide the necrophagous rats with many rat remnants as a food supply to winter and breed under snow cover. All the rats in Yururi-Moyururi were less than 9 months old (Table 2). This suggests that their life spans were shorter than in any other habitats such as the Hahajima Islands, a business district in Yokohama and an islet (Kaiho-2) in Tokyo Bay. Norway rats that were 13 months old or older were common in the latter three habitats (Table 2). Predation by birds of prey was probably one of the causes of their short life span. Snow cover in the heavy snow season protected Norway rats from such predators and helped them to breed during the winter.
Remains of roof rats Rattus rattus left by common buzzards Buteo buteo japonicus in the Ogasawara Archipelago (A: by T. Yabe; B: by F. Nomura, provided by PREC Inst. Inc.).
Age in months | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Locality | <13 | ≥13 | Total | % of ≥13 | Reference |
Hahajima Islands | 32 | 42 | 74 | 56.8 | [7] |
Yururi-Moyururi | 73 | 0 | 73 | 0.0 | [7, 12] |
Yokohama | 97 | 20 | 117 | 17.1 | [7, 45] |
Kaiho-2 | 210 | 5 | 215 | 2.3 | [16] |
Percentage of the number of Norway rats that were 13 months old or more in Hahajima Islands, Yururi-Moyururi, Yokohama and Kaiho-2.
The numbers of both sexes were combined. All the rats in Yururi-Moyururi were less than 9 months old. See Table 1.
Meehan [31] reported that Norway rats become sexually mature at 2–3 months old, but it has also been found that they can become mature at less than 2 months old [32, 33, 34]. On Yururi-Moyururi, seven young rats less than 2 months old were pregnant in the summer (Table 1). Why did Norway rats on Yururi-Moyururi tend to mature at a young age and breed actively in the summer? It is possible that a protein-rich diet helped the rats to mature at a young age, as suggested by McCoy [5], who pointed out that a high-protein diet produces excellent reproductive conditions. Animal matter occupied 72.4 ± 39.8% (n = 38) by volume of the stomach contents of the rats in July–August 2013 in Yururi-Moyururi, and of this 11.9 ± 30.1% of rhinoceros auklets Cerorhinca monocerata Pallas [12]. From May to August, seabirds such as Fratercula cirrhata Pallas, Cepphus carbo Pallas, Uria aalge Pontoppidan, Larus crassirostris Vieillot, Phalacrocorax urile Gmelin, P. capillatus Temminck and Schlegel, and P. pelagicus Pallas also stay on Yururi-Moyururi to breed [35]. Norway rats probably prey on adults, nestlings, and eggs of these seabirds, which would supply the rats with sufficient nutrition to mature at a young age and engage in active breeding. Therefore, it is likely that Norway rats on Yururi-Moyururi depend on a diet of seabirds for their reproductive activities in the summer and a diet of carcasses of their own species under snow cover in the winter.
Norway rats preyed on adult C. monocerata irrespective of the body weight of the rats. The mean body weight of the predators, 187.7 ± 75.8 g (n = 16), was not significantly different (P = 0.09) from that of non-predators, 147.2 ± 54.2 g (n = 25) [36]. On the other hand, only larger roof rats on the Chichijima Islands in the Ogasawara Archipelago preyed on Bulwer’s petrels Bulweria bulwerii Jardine and Selby, where the mean body weight of the predators, 201.6 ± 27.5 g (n = 22), was significantly larger (P = 3.0 × 10−4) than that of non-predators, 167.5 ± 35.4 g (n = 17) [36, 37]. Norway rats preyed on adults of C. monocerata (520 g [38]) that were larger than themselves, whereas roof rats preyed on adults of B. bulwerii (78–130 g [39]) that were smaller than themselves. These findings show that Norway rats are more aggressive predators of animal matter than roof rats [36].
As for the water supply for the rats, peat bogs are a source of water in Yururi but there are no peat bogs in Moyururi. However, the area around the Nemuro Peninsula is covered by dense sea fog for 101.4 days a year, and over 16 days per month between June and August [40]. Therefore, dew from dense sea fog is probably one of the water sources for Norway rats. I hypothesize that a process was established by which Norway rats have an appropriate diet and engage in water supply for survival and a bimodal cycle of reproduction in the summer and under the snow cover on Yururi-Moyururi.
Davis [41] reported that generally, the pregnancy rate in Norway rats is low in cold and hot seasons, and as a result, the rate shows a bimodal curve, with the highest peaks in the spring and autumn. The breeding season is usually estimated from pregnancy rates in adult females (percentages of visible pregnancies). However, recruitments of new generations in the population are more essential than pregnancy rates in population analysis [41, 42]. We can estimate the trend in the fluctuations of reproductive activities or recruitments based on age compositions even using surveys conducted once a year. Moors [43] discussed the age composition based on the age index estimated from the upper molars in Norway rat populations in Noises Island in New Zealand and concluded that recruitments were more active in the summer than in the winter. However, this age index revealed indefinite ages. Pucek and Lowe [44] recommended the eye-lens weight as the best criterion among the known indices for determining the age of small mammals. Then, Yabe et al. [45] analyzed age compositions based on the eye-lens criterion in Norway rat populations in February or March 2014–2016 in a 21-ha business district in Yokohama in the temperate climate zone (Figure 1). In this case, Norway rats showed recruitment peaks that were not always in the spring and autumn but also in the summer or winter, and the peaks changed every year (Figure 3). These results in Yokohama suggest that reproductive activities are controlled by factors other than temperature such as the food supply and environmental sanitation. In this business district in Yokohama, environmental sanitation activities conducted by volunteers control the Norway rat population [46].
Distributions of birth month and age in months in Norway rats caught in February or March 2014, 2015, and 2016 in Yokohama. Rats over 12 months old are excluded. Modified after [45].
Kaiho-2 (Fort No. 2) in Tokyo Bay (Figure 1; 4 ha, 35°18′ N, 139°44′ E) is an uninhabited islet in the temperate climate zone. This islet is covered with concrete, bricks, sand, sandy soil, grasses, herbs, and shrubs. Norway rats probably intruded into the islet in the early twentieth century, when a fort was constructed there. I discovered from the age compositions of the rats that their reproductive activities were interrupted around December or January [16, 17]. On average, between 1981 and 2010, in November, December, January, and February, the minimum temperatures were 9.6, 4.9, 2.3, and 2.6°C, and the amounts of precipitation were 107.0, 54.8, 58.9, and 67.5 mm, respectively, at Yokohama, a city close to Kaiho-2 [47]. Therefore, Kaiho-2 was dry in December and January compared with November and February. The water supply for Norway rats was probably insufficient around December and January because the amount of precipitation was low, the majority of succulent plants died, dew and standing water were limited, and the sandy soil lost moisture. Norway rats on the islet consumed protein-rich diets such as the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck and other marine invertebrates, which amounted to more than 50% of their stomach contents by volume, even in the winter [6]. However, such an invertebrate or protein-rich diet demands a large turnover of water [48]. Furthermore, most marine invertebrates including mussels are osmoconformers to the surrounding sea water [49]. Therefore, the interruption of reproductive activities during the winter was probably due to dehydration, but not to low temperature or food shortages.
Collier and Levitsky [50] showed that albino R. norvegicus rats lose their body mass to maintain water balance when the water supply is insufficient. Moors [43] suggested that shortages of protein-rich diets and fresh water restrict the sexual maturity of females, litter sizes, and the growth of juveniles in Norway rats on Noises Island in New Zealand. It is likely that a similar situation occurred in Norway rats on Kaiho-2. The age composition of Norway rats on this islet showed a gap between the generations borne before and after the season around December and January, when breeding was interrupted. As a result, their population was divided into a wintered group and a non-wintered group based on the gap. The body mass of the wintered group was lower than that of the non-wintered group (Table 3). I compared a body fat index determined by the method of Yabe [51] among the wintered group, the non-wintered group, and pregnant females. Also, I compared the index between Kaih-2 and Shikine-jima (a 390-ha forested island in the Izu Archipelago, 34°19′ N, 139°12′ E) (Table 4). As a result, I found that the small body mass in the wintered group in Kaiho-2 was due to body fat loss [17]. The body fat indexes showed that pregnant females kept a high level of body fat irrespective of whether they were in the wintered or non-wintered group, or on Kaiho-2 or Shikine-jima. Pregnant females deposit body fat for reproduction, probably because they require more energy than nonreproducing females as was pointed out by Robbins [52]. The lost body fat in the wintered group was not recovered after the dehydration period, and the non-wintered group kept a high level of body fat [16, 17]. This fat deposition procedure is different from that in mammals, which deposit body fat as a prelude to times when the energy intake will be less than the energy expenditure [52].
Body weight (g) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Locality | Sex | 3 Months | 6 Months | |
Hahajima Islands | Male | 77.0 | 112.6 | |
Female | 79.5 | 102.9 | ||
Yururi-Moyururi | Male | 208.3 | 278.5 | |
Female | 156.3 | 205.1 | ||
Yokohama | Male | 153.8 | 223.2 | |
Female | 123.3 | 174.5 | ||
Kaiho-2 (non-wintered) | Male | 193.3 | 281.3 | |
Female | 168.9 | 259.9 | ||
Kaiho-2 (wintered) | Male | 137.7 | 220.3 | |
Female | 114.2 | 181.8 |
Wintered* | Non-wintered* | Pregnant females | |
---|---|---|---|
Kaiho-2 | 0.10 ± 0.04a | 0.16 ± 0.06b | 0.22 ± 0.06c |
n = | 28 | 63 | 9 |
Shikine-jima | 0.11 ± 0.06a | 0.12 ± 0.06a | 0.19 ± 0.07c |
n = | 37 | 40 | 4 |
Comparison of fat index (FI, mean ± SD) between wintered and non-wintered Norway rats on Kaiho-2 and a forested island (Shikine-jima) [17].
Excluding pregnant females.
Fat indexes were significantly different (t-test, p < 0.05) if they are followed by different letters. FI = 1.01FI’ + 0.01, where FI’ = fat free dry weight/dry weight [51].
The Ogasawara Archipelago (Bonin Islands, Ogasawara Islands) is composed of the Mukojima Islands, the Chichijima Islands, the Hahajima Islands, and the Kazan (Volcano) Islands in the subtropics (Figure 1). Norway rats are thought to have intruded into the Ogasawara Archipelago between 1660 and 1862, but now they are living only in the Hahajima Islands and the Kazan Islands [53, 54, 55]. On the other hand, roof rats are prosperous and are distributed in most islands in the archipelago [56, 57], although they intruded there in the 1910s or 1920s, later than the Norway rats [54, 58]. It remains to be clarified why Norway rats are restricted to only a few islands in the archipelago.
The body mass of Norway rats on the Hahajima Islands is about half the weight of Norway rats on Yururi-Moyururi, Yokohama, and Kaiho-2 (Table 3 and Figure 4). The low mass of the Hahajima rats was due to environmental factors rather than genetic factors such as Bergman’s rule and the founder’s effect. This was proved by the fact that the head and body length, tail length, and length of the upper molar row were not significantly different between the rats from Hahajima and those from other localities [7]. Therefore, the skeletons were the same but the body masses were different between the Hahajima rats and the others.
Comparison of body weight in grams (Y) and log value of age in months (X) and resulting regression lines for male and female Norway rats from the Hahajima Islands, Yururi-Moyururi, and a business district in Yokohama excluding pregnant females, showing infection with rat lungworms (Angiostrongylus cantonensis) [7]. Circles and triangles show rats that were negative and those that were positive for the infection, respectively.
Norway rats on the Hahajima Islands tended to feed on plant matter such as fruits and seeds (95.2 ± 21.8%, n = 21, by volume percentage in stomach contents) and no seashore animals were found even in rats living close to the seashore [7]. This is an abnormal food habit in the Norway rat, which prefers animal matter [6]. As I previously mentioned, preying on plant matter helps maintain water balance because the consumption of animal matter or of a protein-rich diet requires more water intake. However, this change in food habits may lead to a protein deficiency and body weight loss in the rats. To meet their energy requirements, mammals consume their gastrointestinal contents first, but finally they utilize their body fat and protein, which leads to long-term weight loss [52]. Moors [43] suggests that a shortage of protein-rich diets and fresh water limited the reproductive activities of Norway rats on Noises Island in New Zealand. It is likely that on the Hahajima Islands as well, protein deficiency and dehydration decrease the weight and inactivated the reproduction of Norway rats. I suppose that Norway rats on the Hahajima Islands are less aggressive predators than rats living in the other habitats because of their food habit.
The Ogasawara Archipelago is probably an uncomfortable habitat for Norway rats due to chronic dehydration, which restricts their distribution. In the Hahajima Islands, there are streams and ponds on the main island but not on the surrounding islands. However, Norway rats were found even on the surrounding islands and in areas far from such water sources [7]. Therefore, dehydration in Norway rats on the Hahajima Islands was not due to a lack of such water sources. The mean annual precipitation in the Chichijima Islands from 1971 to 2000 was 1280 mm, and the mean potential evaporation (the amount of evaporation that would occur when enough water is given) was 1380 mm [27]. The former is less than the latter, and as a result, the soil tends to be dry. This indicates a potential cause of dehydration in Norway rats. However, the Hahajima Islands, with a mountain 462 m in height, is foggy and more humid than the Chichijima Islands, with a mountain 326 m in height, and the low and flat Mukojima Islands [27]. Therefore, Norway rats probably thrive better in the Hahajima Islands than in the others.
Renal structures show that the ability to concentrate urinary water in Norway rats is like that in roof rats [59]. However, protein-rich diets demand a larger turnover of water than diets rich in carbohydrates or fat [48], and Norway rats feed on protein-rich diets, whereas roof rats prefer plant matter to animal matter [6]. Therefore, Norway rats require more water intake than roof rats. This difference in water requirements is probably one of the factors that separate the two species in the geographical distribution especially in tropical and subtropical climate zones [15]. Mild temperature is a secondary factor in determining the Norway rat distribution, after water balance and an appropriate diet. Even in the tropical climate zone, Norway rats are prosperous in large cities such as Bangkok (13° 44′ N, 100° 29′ E) and Chanthaburi (12° 36′ N, 102° 06′ E) in Thailand, which are surrounded by networks of watercourses and damp environments [15, 60]. Generally, in these habitats, there are protein-rich diets including garbage and invertebrates such as earthworms and insects [6]. Therefore, protein-rich diets and the means for avoiding dehydration such as creeks and sewage provide Norway rats with thriving habitats in large cities. These facts suggest that diets rich in animal matter or protein are associated with water balance, which are essential factors in the geographical distribution of Norway rats.
Mild temperature is a secondary factor in the reproductive activities of Norway rats as was proved by the results in Yururi-Moyururi in the subarctic zone and in an urban area in Yokohama in the temperate zone. In Yururi-Moyururi, the rats recruited new generations in their population under snow cover probably by preying on remnants of their own species, which were left by birds of prey such as common buzzards. In Yokohama, the rats showed peaks of recruitment even in the summer and winter, though the season of the peaks changed every year. Even in the tropics, the rats are prosperous in large cities such as Bangkok and Chanthaburi in Thailand, which are surrounded by networks of watercourses and damp environments [15, 60]. It is likely that watercourses supply the rats with an appropriate diet discarded from houses as well as with moist conditions.
Water balance and a protein-rich diet are essential factors in the reproductive activities and distribution of Norway rats as was shown by the results in Kaiho-2 and the Hahajima Islands. The rats on Kaiho-2 in the temperate zone stopped recruiting of new generations and lost body mass by consuming their body fat in the winter because of dehydration. In the Hahajima Islands in the subtropics, the rats fed mainly on plant matter to maintain water balance because of chronic dehydration, and as a result, they lost body mass. In this case, the rats probably avoided consuming animal matter or a protein-rich diet to maintain water balance, but they consumed protein from within their bodies instead. Norway rats usually feed on a protein-rich diet or animal matter, which differs from the food habits of roof rats, which prefer plant matter to animal matter (6). Thus, a protein-rich or animal matter diet is an appropriate diet for Norway rats.
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He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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