Represents the pHPZC and pHIEP of some minerals, which has been modified from the data of Parks [13] and Kosmulski [14].
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive outlook on the application of Diels-Alder reaction for the synthesis of thermo-reversible polymers and their application in material science.
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Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. Belskaya, Irina G. Danilova, Maxim O. Kazakov, Roman M. Mironenko, Alexander V. Lavrenov and Vladimir A. Likholobov",authors:[{id:"107715",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Belskaya",fullName:"Olga Belskaya",slug:"olga-belskaya"},{id:"140198",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Danilova",fullName:"Irina Danilova",slug:"irina-danilova"},{id:"140200",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",middleName:null,surname:"Kazakov",fullName:"Maxim Kazakov",slug:"maxim-kazakov"},{id:"140202",title:"Mr.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mikhailovich",surname:"Mironenko",fullName:"Roman Mironenko",slug:"roman-mironenko"},{id:"140203",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lavrenov",fullName:"Alexander Lavrenov",slug:"alexander-lavrenov"},{id:"140204",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Likholobov",fullName:"Vladimir Likholobov",slug:"vladimir-likholobov"}]},{id:"36173",title:"Hydrothermal Treatment of Hokkaido Peat - An Application of FTIR and 13C NMR Spectroscopy on Examining of Artificial Coalification Process and Development",slug:"hydrothermal-treatment-of-hokkaido-peat-an-application-of-ftir-and-13c-nmr-spectroscopy-on-examinin",signatures:"Anggoro Tri Mursito and Tsuyoshi Hirajima",authors:[{id:"104786",title:"Dr.",name:"Anggoro Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Mursito",fullName:"Anggoro Tri Mursito",slug:"anggoro-tri-mursito"},{id:"110978",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hirajima",fullName:"Tsuyoshi Hirajima",slug:"tsuyoshi-hirajima"}]},{id:"36174",title:"FTIR - An Essential Characterization Technique for Polymeric Materials",slug:"ftir-an-essential-characterization-technique-for-polymeric-materials",signatures:"Vladimir A. Escobar Barrios, José R. Rangel Méndez, Nancy V. Pérez Aguilar, Guillermo Andrade Espinosa and José L. Dávila Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"12709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Rangel-Mendez",fullName:"Jose Rene Rangel-Mendez",slug:"jose-rene-rangel-mendez"},{id:"12711",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Escobar Barrios",fullName:"Vladimir Alonso Escobar Barrios",slug:"vladimir-alonso-escobar-barrios"},{id:"112164",title:"Dr",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Espinosa",fullName:"Guillermo Andrade-Espinosa",slug:"guillermo-andrade-espinosa"},{id:"112165",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Dávila-Rodríguez",fullName:"José Luis Dávila-Rodríguez",slug:"jose-luis-davila-rodriguez"},{id:"112167",title:"Dr.",name:"Nancy Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Aguilar",fullName:"Nancy Verónica Pérez-Aguilar",slug:"nancy-veronica-perez-aguilar"}]},{id:"36175",title:"Preparation and Characterization of PVDF/PMMA/Graphene Polymer Blend Nanocomposites by Using ATR-FTIR Technique",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-pvdf-pmma-graphene-polymer-blend-nanocomposites-by-using-ft-ir-t",signatures:"Somayeh Mohamadi",authors:[{id:"108556",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamadi",fullName:"Somayeh Mohamadi",slug:"somayeh-mohamadi"}]},{id:"36176",title:"Reflectance IR Spectroscopy",slug:"fundamental-of-reflectance-ir-spectroscopy",signatures:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",authors:[{id:"111629",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Monsef Khoshhesab",fullName:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",slug:"zahra-monsef-khoshhesab"}]},{id:"36177",title:"Evaluation of Graft Copolymerization of Acrylic Monomers Onto Natural Polymers by Means Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"evaluation-of-graft-copolymerization-of-acrylic-monomers-onto-natural-polymers-by-means-infrared-spe",signatures:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta, Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández, Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel-Aldana, Ana María Mendoza-Martínez, Carlos Velasco-Santos and Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández",authors:[{id:"37761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Hernandez",fullName:"Ana Laura Martinez-Hernandez",slug:"ana-laura-martinez-hernandez"},{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta"},{id:"108894",title:"MSc.",name:"Cynthia Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Hernández",fullName:"Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández",slug:"cynthia-graciela-flores-hernandez"},{id:"108896",title:"MSc.",name:"Ruth Zurisadai",middleName:null,surname:"Del Angel Aldana",fullName:"Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel Aldana",slug:"ruth-zurisadai-del-angel-aldana"},{id:"108898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velasco-Santos",fullName:"Carlos Velasco-Santos",slug:"carlos-velasco-santos"},{id:"108905",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",fullName:"Ana Maria Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez"}]},{id:"36178",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"María González",slug:"maria-gonzalez"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67816",title:"Role of Surfactants in Mineral Processing: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85947",slug:"role-of-surfactants-in-mineral-processing-an-overview",body:'\nThe most innovative and ingenious process development of the century is the emergence of the froth flotation process for the treatment of low-grade ores. Froth flotation process, which uses the difference in hydrophobicity of minerals, is employed in several industries (mineral processing and others) for fines processing. It is a process of upgradation of minerals by taking advantage of differences in physico-chemical surface properties between valuable and gangue minerals of two different minerals.
\nFroth flotation process can be effectively applied to the system where more amount of fine liberated valuable and gangue mineral grains are present rather than of interlocked forms [1]. Froth flotation, being an established method, has been known in a century’s practice across the globe for its efficiency to eliminate impurities from different ores to produce good grade concentrate.
\nThe grade of mined ore is depleting day by day where as demand for metal and steel is increasing steeply. Improving the resource base and exploitation of iron ore resources through the processing and upgradation is the most important challenging task. A nation’s socio-economic development completely depends on effective and judicious utilization of its mineral resources.
\nProper utilization of wastes is achieved through balance between natural resource management and sustainable growth process to minimize the burden on ecological pyramid due to enormous growth of industrialization. With regard to the tailings management, reduction of tailing volume is feasible, if the maximum metallic content is extracted or recovered by a suitable technology [2]. The conventional ore processing and mining operations generate fines and slimes of huge quantities to the tune of 10–15% of run of mine which are generally of poorer grade and being discarded. These discarded tailing stockpiles occupy a huge space, which contain good metallic values, cause pollution to ground and surface water, and are having a negative impact to the environment. They need to be processed to recover metallic values for resource augmentation and to meet environmental stipulation.
\nThese fines and slimes cannot be utilized directly as feed to metallurgical plants due to size specification; besides these occupy a huge space and cause environmental and ecological problems, which need to be clearly assessed. The scarcity of high-grade ore is compelling the mineral processing industries to look for low-grade ore fines. Hence it is essential to beneficiate and to recover the additional mineral values from these fines, not only to earn additional revenue to the mineral industries but also from the point of view of conservation of mineral wealth. These low-grade slimes can be considered as national resource rather than a waste of nuisance.
\nIn the present days, the minerals liberated at extremely fine sizes, and in addition the ore typically consists of valuable mineral intergrowth with unwanted/gangue minerals making the mineral surface quite complex. This nature of particle characteristic compels to be separated by the technique that relies on surface properties. So the flotation technique is being developed to treat these low-grade ore and waste slimes.
\nLow-grade ores imply finer liberation size and cannot be upgraded by conventional gravity concentration techniques. Wet and dry low-intensity magnetic separation (LIMS) techniques are used to process ores that contain minerals with strong magnetic properties, such as magnetite and titanomagnetite. Wet high-gradient magnetic separators (WHGMS) and wet high-intensity magnetic separators (WHIMS) are used to separate the minerals having weak magnetic properties such as hematite, goethite and limonite from gangue minerals [3, 4]. Synchronically Xiong et al. [5] explained major problems about the WHIMS and WHGMS that when metallic ores are treated in these separators, matrix dogging and mechanical entrainment of nonmagnetic particles occur, because hematite ore contains a large amount of weakly magnetic particles along with it. The change from gravity-based separation to magnetic-based separation improved the iron grade by approximately 13%.
\nConcurrently, Pradip [6] examined that multigravity separation is the most effective technique for processing low-grade Indian iron ore slimes to decrease alumina content. However according to Roy and Das [7], this beneficiation method is not commercially successful due to its low capacity. Later on people combined two methods, i.e. magnetic separation and selective flocculation, and found good results. The gravity and magnetic methods, i.e. physical separation techniques, are restricted to coarse-grained sizes.
\nSo, when the size is extremely fine, in case of slimes, the physico-chemical properties start dominating over physical properties; hence these methods are unable to give satisfactory results.
\nHence, froth flotation is the single most important unit operation, which is the root solution to all these problems and used for the recovery and upgradation of valuable mineral, especially below 150. Froth flotation which uses the difference in physico-chemical surface properties of minerals is employed in several industries for fines processing. This chapter addresses how flotation has been and can be helpful in recovering the metallic values from the tailings, through a review of basics and fundamentals, efforts made earlier and future directions for research.
\nThe most important factor in froth flotation process is the selectivity, which means the choice of a suitable reagent to selectively modify the surface of desired mineral to enhance its hydrophobicity. This implies a thorough knowledge of the particle surface property, the mechanism of particle surface-reagent interaction and the correct type and quantity of the reagent to create the best selectivity conditions. Surfactants play the most important role for a successful operation of flotation process. To make the mineral float, the surface of such minerals has to be modified by adsorption of suitable surfactants in order to reduce the Gibbs’ energy. Ensuring maximum floatability of desired minerals through maximum selectivity with the aid of reagents is the key element of flotation research and the driving force of flotation research efforts [8, 9]. From an early modest beginning to treat base metal sulphides, it has been established itself as the most versatile process for the treatment of oxide ores, carbonate ores, industrial minerals and fine coal. It is not an exaggeration to state that there is not a single mineral or ore system which cannot be treated by froth flotation (Figure 1).
\n(a) Schematic representation of flotation process and (b) flotation mechanism and role of contact angle [10].
In flotation of minerals, contact angle plays a major role in hydrophobicity as it is directly proportional to hydrophobicity. The more the contact angle, the greater is the hydrophobicity and the more is the floatability.
\nDespite numerous years of research and development work since 1900, flotation is still not fully interpretable and remains a challenge, as there is involvement of the major phases (macroprocesses) and the number of inter-related events (microprocesses) (Figure 2).
\nProcess and phases in flotation [11].
Ensuring maximum floatability of desired minerals (with good grade and high recovery) through maximum selectivity with the aid of reagents/surfactants is the key element and driving force of a successful flotation research.
\nFlotation of different minerals is broadly divided into three main types:
Salt-type flotation
Sulphide flotation
Oxide flotation
Salt-type minerals include carbonate, phosphate, sulphate, tungstate and some halide compounds. They are known for their ionic bonding and moderate solubility in water. Salt-type minerals are difficult to float because they contain common cations; hence modifying agents, e.g. ammonium phosphate, calcium sulphate, sodium sulphate, nickel chloride, zinc chloride, sodium chromate, barite, celestite, gypsum, etc., are used to obtain the selectivity.
Sulphide minerals are less electronegative than oxide minerals; hence it forms fewer ionic bonds than oxygen. Sulphur has greater tendency to form covalent bonds, especially S-S linkages, e.g. chalcopyrite, cuprite, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, etc.
Oxide minerals include metal oxides, carbonates, silicates and fatty acids having saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon chains that are used to float it, e.g. hematite, magnetite, goethite, quartz, malachite, etc.
Generally flotation is practised in two different ways around the globe:
Direct flotation—The flotation in which surfactants are added to selectively float the value minerals while the gangue minerals are collected in the tailing launder
Reverse flotation—The flotation in which surfactants are selectively added to float the gangue minerals while the value minerals remained depressed with specific reagents as pulp product
When mineral is suspended in water, charged species/ions (potential determining ions) are transferred upon the surface which develops an electric charge or electric double layer. In the case of oxide minerals, H+ and OH− ions are the principal potential determining ions, and they interact with water and produce surface hydroxyls [12]:
\nDue to the charge inequality, a double layer around the particle’s surface is created. The potential difference between the stern layer and diffused layer is known as zeta potential.
\nAt certain pH, an equal number of positive and negative surface sites are created, where the surface is having no specific charge, termed as point of zero charge (PZC).
\nThese two terms have great influence on the flotation performance of mineral at specific pH.
\nZeta potential denotes charge properties of particles and in turn implies adsorption, penetration and adherence of certain substances. Processes such as adsorption, particularly surfactants or macromolecules, can alter the interfacial behaviour of the solids markedly. Adsorption and desorption of potential determining ions (H+ and OH− ions) play an important role in accounting the surface charge:
\nIn Eqs. (1) and (2), M denotes the metal.
\nIn the case of iron ores, the isoelectric point of natural hematite varies in between 5.98 and 7.01, depending upon the association of gangues. If the hematite particles are not liberated completely, then isoelectric point will be closer to quartz. The zeta potential of quartz depends on the hydroxylation of quartz surface at different pH values and the interaction of amine species. The pHPZC and pHiep values for various oxides and hydroxides of alumina vary widely (pH 5–9.6) depending upon the association of other minerals [11]. The pHiep of quartz is at pH = 2.5, below which it acquires a positive charge, and above this pH, the quartz surface acquires negative charge (Table 1).
\nMinerals | \npHPZC | \npHIEP | \n
---|---|---|
Quartz, SiO2 | \n<5 | \n2.5 | \n
Cassiterite, SnO2 | \n<5.5 | \n2.0–55 | \n
Sulphides, MeS | \n— | \n2.1–7.0 | \n
Diamond, C | \n— | \n3.5 | \n
Rutile, TiO2 | \n4.8–5.3 | \n5.5 | \n
Ilmenite, FeTiO3 | \n5, 6 | \n— | \n
Hematite, Fe2O3 | \n6.5–8.5 | \n5.98–7.01 | \n
Barite, BaSO4 | \n— | \n6.0–8.1 | \n
Tenorite, CuO | \n6.5–8.5 | \n6.0–7.6 | \n
Dolomite, (Ca, Mg)CO3 | \n— | \n7.5 | \n
Alumina, Al2O3 | \n8–9.1 | \n5–9.6 | \n
Magnesite, MgCO3 | \n— | \n7.5 | \n
Periclase, MgO | \n— | \n12.0 | \n
The reagents are added to the system in order to create proper environment for the particles to adhere to the air bubbles and recovered. The minerals are characterized by the functional groups as non-polar minerals, polar minerals and heteropolar minerals. The non-polar minerals are those whose surface is predominantly of weak molecular bonds with very little polarity. The group of minerals, which consist of both polar and non-polar groups, are termed as heteropolar and constitute a large group of minerals, e.g. gibbsite (consisting of aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3), bauxite (consisting of aluminium hydroxide), hematite (Fe2O3), etc. The polarities of heteropolar minerals vary according to the proportion of polar minerals. Those groups of minerals, whose surface is predominantly of strong covalent bond or ionic bond, are termed as polar minerals and are hydrophilic.
\nCollectors can be classified into ionizing and nonionizing based on their reaction with water. The nonionizing compounds do not dissociate into ions when contacted with water, while the ionizing compounds dissociate into ions in water. To float minerals, hydrophobicity/enhanced hydrophobicity has to be imparted to them, which is obtained by adding a special type of surfactants known as collectors to the pulp, which is further agitated or conditioned for adsorption to take place. Collectors are the chemical compounds which render hydrophobicity through adsorption and are further divided into ionizing compounds (dissociate into ions in water) and nonionizing compounds (which are practically insoluble and render the mineral water-repellent by covering its surface with a thin film) [15].
\nIonizing collectors have been used widely in flotation era, e.g. sodium ethyl xanthate, potassium isopropyl xanthate, etc. They are composed of complex molecules asymmetric in structure and are heteropolar, i.e. the molecule contains a non-polar hydrocarbon group and a polar ionic group. The non-polar part of the molecule is a hydrocarbon radical which has pronounced water-repellent properties, and the polar part has the property of reacting with water.
\nExamples of nonionizing compounds are kerosene, creosote, grease, etc., which possess inherent hydrophobic property and do not dissociate in any polar liquids.
\nBased on classification of ionized groups, the collectors have been classified as shown in Figure 3.
\nClassification of collectors.
Till now six main types of collectors are used in the mineral industry:
Anionic collector
Cationic collector
Mixed collector
Amphoteric collector
Bio-collector
Ionic liquids
(a) Anionic collector
\nAnionic collectors are opted for minerals when the surface bears a net positive charge and these collectors ionize in the solution to give negative charge. Floatability assessments of oxide and carbonate ores are generally carried out by using highly soluble collectors consisting of organic molecules varying 10–18 carbon chain length [16]. Fatty acids (a distilled tall oil containing ∼91% oleic and linoleic acid, 6% resin acid and 3% unsaponifiables) are used as collectors for mineral oxides with dosages in the range of 0.45–0.67 kg/ton [17]. Fatty acids, resin acids, soaps, alkyl sulphates and sulphonates are generally used to float iron oxide bearing minerals.
(b) Cationic collector
\nCationic collectors are opted for minerals when the surface bears a net negative charge and these collectors ionize in the solution to give positive charge. Organic bases containing a hydrocarbon group and salts of these bases are generally chlorides and acetates. This group includes the primary aliphatic amines, diamines, quaternary ammonium salts and ether amine products. Longer amphipathic linear chain molecules are more confirmatively adsorbed at the liquid/gas interface, as they are more hydrophobic through van der Waals interactive forces.
(c) Mixed collector
\nThe use of surfactant mixture was studied by several researchers and found that the surfactant mixtures can have an advantage over the use of single surfactant [18, 19, 20].
Mixed collectors provide increased flotation selectivity and increased recovery with reduction in reagent consumption. The adsorption of single surfactants at the solid-liquid interface has been comprehensively studied, but the study of adsorption of mixed surfactant solutions has been limited.
(d) Amphoteric collector
\nAmphoteric collectors are the surfactants having good acidic and basic group in their molecular structure and can function as a cation, anion and neutral molecules depending on the pH of the aqueous medium. The effect of cationic group is accentuated most in acidic media, while the anionic group is accentuated in alkaline media.
(e) Bio-collector
\nMicrobial flotation reagents are currently gaining attention as natural bacteria can be used in place of toxic chemicals from the environmental point of view, e.g. Bacillus polymyxa, Paenibacillus polymyxa and Rhodococcus opacus, for flotation of iron oxide minerals.
(f) Ionic liquids
\nIonic liquids are the salts having poorly coordinated ions and exist in liquid state below 100°C, but these liquids are gaining the attention of researchers due to their easier handling properties, interesting electrochemical properties, low vapour pressure, low volatility and flammability, high viscosity, dual natural polarity, good thermal stability, low surface tension and wide range of miscibility with water and other organic solvents and most importantly their environment-friendly nature.
Ionic liquids are more suitable surfactants than conventional classical salts because of their versatility to switch their role as anionic and cationic part as per the requirement, which is due to the presence of large organic cations with a variety of associated anions.
Sahoo et al. [21, 22] experimented the flotation of pure quartz as well as low banded hematite quartzite (BHQ) having quartz as major impurity using tricaprylmethyl ammonium salicylate (TOMAS), an ammonium-based ionic liquid, Aliquat 336, tetrahexylammonium chloride (THEX) and dodecylammonium chloride as collectors and found that ionic liquids performed better than conventional surfactants. Due to the chaotropic character of anions of ionic liquids, they easily pair with ions of mineral surfaces, thus inducing increased hydrophobicity compared to conventional surfactants. It was observed that with lower concentration of ionic liquids, higher recovery and grade were achieved, and the reverse condition was observed in the case of conventional surfactants.
\nAdsorption between mineral surface and reagents occur by various means, which is represented in Figure 4.
\nTypes of bonding adsorption between mineral surface and reagents.
Frothers are organic compounds, which dissociate into ions and decrease the surface tension at the air-water interface, thus stabilizing the froth consisting of a multitude of mineral-laden air bubbles and inducing buoyancy effect on the mineralized surface.
\nWhen brought into contact with water, the water dipoles readily associate with the polar group while virtually having no affinity to the non-polar group. The non-polar group is projected into the air phase which leaves the polar group on the air surface orienting towards the water. A frother is required to provide conditions amicable to the formation of froth that is stable enough to prevent undesirable froth breakage. The stability of bubble attachment to hydrophobic particles is further stabilized by the action of frother. A good frother should have negligible collecting power, should not affect the state of the particle surface and should act entirely in the liquid phase to produce froths which are just stable enough to retain the floated particles [15].
\nFrothers are consisted of aliphatic, aromatic, cyclic and polyglycol alcohol groups, e.g. methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC), cresylic acid or cresol, pine oil, etc. When surface-active groups of frother react with water, the water dipoles combine with the polar groups and hydrate them, but there is practically no reaction with the non-polar hydrocarbon group. Thus, the heteropolar structure of the frother molecule enhances its concentration at the air-water interface, with the non-polar groups oriented towards the air and the polar groups towards the water.
\nHence, the frothing action is due to the ability of the frother to reduce the water surface tension, thus stabilizing the air bubbles. Frothers are generally soluble in water; otherwise they would be distributed very unevenly in the water, and their surface-active properties would not be fully effective.
\nOrganic acids, amines and alcohols are the most common types of frothers. The alcohols are the most widely used because they have practically no collecting properties and in this respect are preferable to other frothers. The presence of collecting and frothing properties in the same reagent may make selective flotation difficult [16].
\nThese are chemical compounds added to the flotation pulps to enhance collector-mineral adsorption, that is, to improve the selectivity. This may be achieved by either (a) creating an environment or revitalizing the floatability of the desired mineral, (b) by suppressing the flotation activity of the undesired mineral (at a particular stage of flotation operation), (c) by removing the deleterious elements which hinder effective flotation of desired minerals or (d) by providing the proper pulp nature for the selective adsorption between the mineral and collector.
\nThese chemicals are added, prior to collector addition, to react with the mineral surface and produce compounds on the surface which are highly responsive to collector adsorption, e.g. the use of ‘sulphidisers’ in activation of oxidized minerals of base metal sulphides. The deleterious effect of oxidation is overcome by the creation of a pseudo-sulphide surface to oxidized mineral, which would then respond favourably with the sulphydryl collector added, e.g. copper sulphate, cyanide, lime, etc.
\nThese are used to suppress the floatability of a mineral when it is not desired in case of multimineral system. Several natural polymers and their derivatives have been suggested as depressants for iron oxide in reverse flotation due to the presence of large number of hydroxyl groups and large molecular sizes. The depression mechanism is may be due to the blocking of surface sites for collector adsorption, resulting in hydrophilic surface and forming bridges of hydroxyl groups.
\nFor example, in reverse flotation of iron ore, starch is used as depressant for iron ore and zinc sulphate as depressant for ZnS in Pb-Zn flotation.
\nThese are used to minimize the deleterious effect of undesired slime coating (Tables 2 and 3), e.g. sodium silicate and sodium metasilicate.
\nReagents | \nApplication | \nClassification | \nComposition | \nFunctioning process | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Collectors Collectors | \n1. Hematitic ore 2. Hematitic ore 3. Ultrafine hematite particles Goethite | \nAnionic collectors 1. Fatty acids 2. Alkyl sulphates and sulphonates (C12-C16) 3. Oleic acid and lauric acid 4. Hydroxamates Amphoteric collectors 5. Hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, decanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, stearic acid Sarcosinates and sulphosuccinates 1. Dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide 2. Mycobacterium phlei, Bacillus polymyxa, Paenibacillus polymyxa, Rhodococcus opacus, Bacillus subtilis, R. erythropolis Sodium oleate fatty acid | \nTall oil containing 91% oleic acid, 6% resin acid and 3% unsaponifiables 10−3 molar, 10−4 molar concentration 70–100 mg/L Liquid emulsion 5–20% solution | \nChemisorption on hematite surface, surface precipitation Chemisorption Classical chemisorption Microbial strain Form hydrophobic floccules of hematite particles Chemisorption | \n
Collectors | \n1. Silica (quartz) 2. Both alumina and silica 3. Alumina | \nCationic collector 1. Etheramine and etherdiamines 2. Fatty amine (dodecylamine, decyletheramine) 3. Quaternary ammonium compounds 4. Gemini surfactant Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide SOKEM (503C, 504C, 520C, 521C, 522C, 523C, 524C, 525C, 701C, 720C) Cationic, anionic and nonionic polyacrylamide | \nIn kerosene 5–10% solution Undiluted 20–30% neutralization degree with acetic acid or NaOH | \nElectrostatic adsorption Hydrogen bonding with the surface exhibiting low interaction with collectors | \n
Collectors | \nSilica | \nAnionic collectors Fatty acids | \nActivation by Ca2+ ions | \nStrong chemical bonding between mineral surface and collector | \n
Collectors | \nMagnetite | \n1. Maleic acid 2. Ethyl oleate 3. Polyethylene glycol monooleate 4. Maleic acid ester 5. Quaternary ammonium surfactant | \n10–50 mg/L | \nElectrostatic adsorption High solubilization capacity, stronger biological activity | \n
Collectors | \nPhosphorous | \nAnionic collectors 1. Carboxylate surfactants 2. Fatty acid 3. Flotigam EDA manufactured by Clariant | \n\n | Surface chemisorption | \n
Mixed collectors | \nSilica Iron oxides | \n1. Blending diamines and monoamines 2. Amalgamation of ammines with kerosene 3. Conjunction of diesel oil and ether amine 4. Non-phenol ethoxylated with ethylene oxide and etheramine 5. Mixture of amine and hydrochloric acid 6. N-dodecyl ethylene diamine (mixture of 1-bromododecane, ethanol and ethylenediamine 7. Mixture of primary ether monoamine, oxyethylated nonylphenol and oxyethylated fatty alcohol 1. Non-polar oils emulsified with fatty acids 2. Fatty acids (anionic collectors) and amphoteric collectors | \n20–30% blending Mass ratio of 1:4 Mass ratio of 1:2 Mass ratio of 4:1 ether monoamine to nonylphenol | \nCo-adsorption of collector on silicate surface by hydrocarbon tail-tail interaction increasing hydrophobicity Decreased surface tension at liquid-gas interface and reduce froth depth | \n
Frothers | \nAll iron oxides, silica, alumina, phosphorus | \n1. Pine oil (alpha-terpineol) 2. Cresylic ‘acid’ (cresols) 3. Polypropylene glycols 4. DF (Dow Froth) 200, DF 250, DF 450 5. Fuel oil 6. Aliphatic alcohols, 7. MIBC | \nThe reagents are used as undiluted and also prepared as solution in H2O | \nProvides most viscous, stable froth, have collecting action Less viscous but stable froth, have collecting action Fine, fragile froth; inert to rubber Slightly stable froth Slightly stable froths Fine-textured froth; frequently used with ores containing slimes | \n
Modifying agents | \nDirect and reverse iron ore flotation | \n1. Lime (CaO) or slaked lime Ca(OH)2 2. Soda ash, NaOH Caustic soda, NaOH Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 3. Ca2+ (CaCl2), Mg2+ (MgCl2) 4. Na2SiO3 5. Starch, dextrin Quebracho, tannic acid, gaur gum, PAM | \nSlurry Dry 5–10% solution 10% solution Solution Solution of 0.30–0.80 kg/ton Solution of 0.5–1.2 kg/ton | \npH regulator; disperses gangue slimes Activates silica with fatty acid collectors Disperses siliceous gangue slimes; Fragile froth Depress iron-bearing minerals | \n
Reagent types used in mineral oxide industries (specifically for iron ores).
Classification of collectors | \nType | \nComposition and dosages | \nMethod of adsorption | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n
| \n\n
| \nConsists of sulphydryl groups \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Optimum ratio 2:3 | \nForms dixanthogen on pyrite surface and then hydrophobicity is generated Hydrophobic chain interactions \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Co-adsorption of xanthate and dixanthogen Hydrophobic chain interaction of dixanthogen and reduction of electrostatic repulsion between ionic head groups of xanthate that are shield from each other by dixanthogen molecules | \n
Reagent types used in mineral sulphide industries.
The pH regulators help in maintaining adequate pH of the pulp, which determines the selective separation of minerals. These are achieved by variety of bases and acids.
\nIn industries froth flotation is a continuous process involving a regular flow of feed pulp and separation of minerals into the regular respective product streams. The major elements of flotation operations are:
Feed preparation
Mode, quantity and point of reagent addition
Flotation circuit configuration and flexibility
Product removal and dewatering
As the choice of specific reagent for a given ore is difficult and challenging, so is the selection of quantity, mode and time of addition of the reagents. The selection of reagent quantity does not pose much problem as a more or less precise reagent type and quantity for a specific ore system are available through reagent manufacturers and practising personnel. Whether the total quantity is to be added at different stages is a matter of difficult choice and is to be based upon carefully laboratory investigation regarding the case of floatability of minerals.
\nAdsorption of surfactant is in direct correlation with the solid-water-air interfaces as the main role of surfactants is to modify the properties of interfaces for increased adsorption of reagents and enhanced flotation process. Modified starches and blended polymers can be better alternatives to normal starches due to their higher solubility and better flocculation action.
\nApplication of flotation has been envisaged in other areas besides mineral engineering. Some of the examples are:
Deinking of paper in paper recycling
Flotation of wastewater treatment
Processing of oil sands
\n
There is a trade-off between the pH of the slurry, surfactants and the mineral surface for maximum flotation performance. It can thus be concluded that the length of alkyl chain, arrangement of atoms, nature and type of bonds present within the surfactants and regulation of pH in the flotation pulp are solely for an effective and successful flotation.
Mineral surface and collector chemistry interaction is the first and critical step in flotation. The larger the electronegativity of the group, the stronger is the acting solid intensity, and the larger the radical section of collector, the stronger the selectivity of collector.
Surfactants containing alcohol group and amine group have inherent frothing property along with their collecting capability.
Though the cost of hydroxamate is higher than fatty acids, its superiority over fatty acids in flotation of the fine-grained oxide ore deserves further attention for industrial application. Research is geared at (a) developing alternate cheaper reagents with similar performances as hydroxamates, (b) modifying the structure of fatty acids for similar or better results than hydroxamates, (c) application of other chelating agents for enhanced flotation response, (d) successfully using flotation of silicated ores and other minerals, and (e) using green surfactants and solvents given their advantage of biodegradability and sustainability. However their high cost at present continues to be a barrier preventing their use although their benefits have been well realized.
For cationic surfactants, another cationic group can be inserted, which can be further upgraded to dicationic and tricationic surfactants, which will work out well for reverse flotation process.
For the use of depressants, more kosmotropic ions can be added to existing polymers to enhance their depressing action.
As discussed earlier, froth flotation has the ability to treat any mineral and thus reigns supreme as it is the most versatile concentration process for ore fines. A universal solution for all minerals is not possible but it depends on a case-by-case basis as each mineral ore has different compositions. The challenging aspect of the interaction of value and gangue minerals of any ore could be overcome by specifically improved reagents. A universal specific reagent recipe cannot be proposed for any ore flotation due to variation of mineralogical composition of different ores, tailings and slimes. The knowledge and research about surfactant chemistry have to be given due recognition and used judiciously through encouraging innovative, simple and customized reagent regimes for given ore deposits.
\nNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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