Material composition of coal and PKS particles used in the study.
\r\n\t
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Dr. Biswas received his Ph.D. from POSTECH, South Korea.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"194151",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"abhijit-biswas",fullName:"Abhijit Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194151/images/system/194151.png",biography:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas is a research associate at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, in India. His research goal is to design and synthesize highest quality epitaxial heterostructures and superlattices, to play with their internal degrees of freedom to exploit the structure–property relationships, in order to find the next-generation multi-functional materials, in view of applications and of fundamental interest. His current research interest ranges from growth of novel perovskite oxides to non-oxides epitaxial films, down to its ultra-thin limit, to observe unforeseeable phenomena. He is also engaged in the growth of high quality epitaxial layered carbides and two-dimensional non-oxide thin films, to exploit the strain, dimension, and quantum confinement effect. His recent work also includes the metal-insulator transitions and magneto-transport phenomena in strong spin-orbit coupled epitaxial perovskite oxide thin films by reducing dimensionality as well as strain engineering. He is also extremely interested in the various energy related environment friendly future technological applications of thin films. In his early research career, he had also extensively worked on the tailoring of metal oxide crystal surfaces to obtain the atomic flatness with single terminating layer. Currently, he is also serving as a reviewer of several reputed peer-review journals.\nDr. Biswas received his B.Sc. in Physics from Kalyani University, followed by M.Sc in Physics (specialization in experimental condensed matter physics) from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay. His Ph.D., also in experimental condensed matter physics, was awarded by POSTECH, South Korea for his work on the transport phenomena in perovskite oxide thin films. Before moving back to India as a national post-doctoral fellow, he was a post-doc at POSTECH working in the field of growth and characterizations of strong spin-orbit coupled metal oxide thin films.",institutionString:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57239",title:"Analysis of Biomass Waste Cofiring into Existing Coal-Fired Power Plant Using Computational Fluid Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70561",slug:"analysis-of-biomass-waste-cofiring-into-existing-coal-fired-power-plant-using-computational-fluid-dy",body:'Biomass utilization through cofiring into existing coal-fired power plants or ones being constructed/planned becomes very important. Several European countries, Japan, and several coal-dependent countries such as China have implemented cofiring technology in their newly built coal-fired power plant with the biomass having a blending percentage of 10–20% in calorie basis [1]. Biomass cofiring with coal is believed to be able to enhance the domestic energy security through renewable energy utilization as well as improve the utilization of power plants that were initially designed for coal. To understand the cofiring behavior of biomass and coal inside the combustor, numerical method of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can be used to analyze and solve problems involving fluid flows. This method is usually adopted before performing an experimental investigation.
To understand this issue comprehensively, this chapter is divided into three main parts:
Scheme and technical aspects of biomass cofiring with coal
Modeling approach to predict combustion behavior of cofiring biomass waste in existing coal-fired power plant
Case study of palm oil waste cofiring (including result and discussion).
In Section 2, a brief knowledge about the technical aspects of biomass cofiring with coal is presented. In the next part (Section 3), CFD modeling for biomass cofiring with coal is reported. Furthermore, in Section 4, a case study of palm oil waste cofiring with coal will be discussed to evaluate the applicability of the CFD models. The palm oil waste reported in the Section 4 consists of palm kernel shell (PKS) and hydrothermally treated empty fruit bunch (HT-EFB) [2, 3].
Employing CFD to assist the cofiring behavior can give a deep discussion and a scientific knowledge to the reader. Scientists, engineers, and others who are interested in learning CFD and its current developments in biomass conversion technologies will find this chapter invaluable. Moreover, by understanding the CFD method, hopefully it can further be replicated into different biomass feedstocks and scales, depending on the research goal.
In the future, biomass will play a significant role in many countries as energy source. The utilization of biomass using an appropriate technology is important to optimize its economic benefit and minimize the environmental impacts. The appropriate technology means applicable in small- and large-scales, energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and decentralized. Some conversion techniques have been studied and applied in the recent years from small laboratory-scale up to large-scale, such as: pyrolysis, direct-combustion, gasification, and anaerobic digestion. In thermal conversion, direct-combustion is generally performed in the boilers or furnaces to produce steam that can be used for district heating or driving the turbines in power generation.
Utilization of biomass to generate electricity via direct-combustion can be technically classified into two types: firing and cofiring. Biomass cofiring to the existing power plants (as shown in Figure 1), especially coal-fired power plants, has some advantages compared to dedicated biomass firing such as minimum capital cost and optimum combustion efficiency [2]. Other advantages of biomass cofiring into existing coal-fired power plant are that it can significantly reduce the emissions from the power plant and minimize the slagging inside combustor [3].
Basic schematic diagram of biomass and coal cofiring system.
Biomass cofiring into coal-fired boilers can be performed in some different methods such as parallel cofiring, injection, pregasification, and comilling. Due to lower capital cost and high cofiring ratio, injection cofiring is the most feasible method applied in the industrial scale [4]. In this method, premilled biomass and pulverized coal are continuously mixed and cofed into the boiler.
Since developing countries are likely to put their future in the coal resources [5, 6], biomass cofiring seems to be a promising option for improving the energy sustainability and reducing the environmental impacts. Biomass can be classified into two categories: biomass waste and energy crops. In addition, properties such as moisture, nitrogen content are depending on their pretreatment [7]. For further discussion, it is also important to consider the biomass availability from the surrounding to avoid potential conflict, for example, with food production.
Once the fuel or mixed fuel is fed to the combustor, the following reactions occur continuously: preheating, evaporation or drying, devolatilization, gas-char combustion, pollutant generation, and radiation [8]. To understand this complex phenomenon, CFD is a powerful tool that can model and calculate fluid flows, heat and mass transfers, and chemical reactions as well as interactions of solids and fluids [9].
The general process for CFD-based combustion modeling is shown in Figure 2. CFD modeling method for the combustion of mixed biomass and coal particles is arguably a challenging work. However, compared to physical investigation through experiment, CFD modeling is considered more effective from both time and cost perspectives, as well as higher safety and easier scaling up. Hence, it is usually adopted before performing an experimental study. Related to cofiring using CFD analysis, it is expected that the combustion performance for all stages of the combustion including the combustion temperature, kinetic behavior, and concentration of the produced gases can be clarified. Cofiring simulation considers dynamical equations, conservation of mass (continuity), momentum and enthalpy, turbulence, radiation heat transfer, and reactions in both particle and gas phases [10].
Summary of CFD process modeling.
In the biomass cofiring, since combustion involves chemical reactions between mixed biomass-coal and an oxidant, the process is usually assumed and modeled as solid and gas or dilute two-phase flow which is approximated as Eulerian-Lagrangian equation. In this approach, the gas phase is modeled using Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations (RANS) model. On the other hand, the solid phase is treated as a discrete phase. In addition, the trajectory of each particles is calculated using Newton’s laws of motion in which the particles collision is considered using the sphere model [11]. Furthermore, both gas concentration and temperature distribution are approximated using the energy and mass transfer equations for the particles. The interactions of mass, momentum, and energy between the gas and solid particles are calculated using the particle-in-cell (PIC) approach with the consideration of particle state along the particle trajectories. The mathematical calculations are basically governed by the flow of fluid. In the conserved form, the continuity, momentum, and total energy conservations can be represented as Eqs. (1)–(5), respectively [12]:
where, ρ, V, p, f, τ, k, and
The flow in the combustor, usually called as “turbulence,” is very important to be considered in the combustion simulation. This physical phenomenon influences both heat and mass transfers inside the combustor. Turbulence occurs due to the inertia of the fluid covering time-dependent and convective acceleration, and which is characterized by the velocity fluctuations because of the complex geometry and high flow rates. Due to good solution and effective time during computation, k-ε (k-epsilon) turbulence model is widely adopted to calculate the RANS equations that are employed to model the cofiring. In addition, in CFD modeling, this k-ε turbulence model is generally employed to determine and solve the swirling combustion flows. There are two main equations involved in this model relating to each turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, ε. Both of them can be expressed in the following Eqs. (6) and (7), respectively:
where, k, ϵ, ui, and Eij are turbulent kinetic energy, turbulent dissipation, velocity component in corresponding direction, and deformation rate component, respectively. Furthermore, the turbulent viscosity, μt, is calculated using Eq. (8).
where C1ϵ, C2ϵ, Cμ, σk, and σϵ are constants.
Since the combustion temperature is relatively high, attention should be given for heat transfer through radiation. It controls both heat transfer and heat flux, especially during heating, drying, flame ignition, devolatilization, and char combustion. The suitable model for radiation can be selected from different radiation models such as:
Discrete-ordinates model (DOM)
P-1 model
Discrete transfer radiation method (DTRM)
For certain cases, one radiation model may be more appropriate than another, depending on the boundaries and system conditions. Each model has advantages and limitations. P-1 model is widely used for specific application to pulverized coal-fired boilers. In addition, some researchers are also adopting P-1 radiation model for their research related to cofiring [2, 3, 13]. The DO model is more expensive but has an accurate process and is applicable for a large range of optic thickness. Furthermore, the DTRM model is suitable for a large range of optic thickness with less accuracy than DO model [14].
In cofiring process, we can consider the mixture of biomass waste and coal as a typical gas-solid flow with their chemical reactions. Furthermore, Eulerian-Lagrangian model can be adopted to figure the hydrodynamics of the mixture. Both particles are modeled separately as two discrete phase models. There are some reactions involved in the particle phase, especially the char combustion. It is assumed as char oxidation to produce CO that is released to the bulk gas in the combustor. It is important to note that, in general, char from biomass is more reactive and has higher heating rate than one from coal.
During devolatilization, the volatile matters exhausted from each biomass and coal are released to the bulk gas and then have reaction with O2 (oxidation). The general reactions in both particle and gas phases for coal cofiring with biomass waste can be shown in the following reactions:
Char of coal
Char of biomass
Volatile matter of coal
Volatile matter of biomass waste
and
Composition and enthalpy formation for both biomass waste and coal are determined based on both proximate and ultimate analyses of each material. Therefore, the variables α and γ in the above reactions can be derived by proximate and ultimate analyses from each cofired material.
The first step in the cofiring evaluation through CFD is determining the combustor or boiler dimensions and its layout of the meshing. The detailed part of the boiler is shown in Figure 3, including the feeding inlets in cross section. The boiler shape of this simulation referred to an existing coal-fired power plant with capacity 300 MWe. This boiler had a height, width, and breadth of 45, 12, and 15 m, correspondingly. To perform the simulation, a commercial CFD software was prepared. ANSYS DesignModeler was used to build the combustor model in 3D, and Fluent ver. 16.2 (ANSYS Inc.) is used to analyze the cofiring behavior. The cofiring simulation took account of governing equations (for mass, momentum, enthalpy, temperature, and specific mass fraction), turbulence, radiative heat transfer, and reactions for both the particle and gas phases.
Schematic diagram of the boiler design: (a) boiler dimensions, (b) meshing layout, (c) inlet feed distribution (cross section).
The used biomass sample was PKS, which is one of solid wastes in palm milling to produce palm oil. The solid wastes in palm milling include empty fruit bunch (EFB), fiber, and PKS with ratios of about 23, 12, and 5%, respectively [15, 16]. Fiber is usually combusted inside the mill to produce steam consumed for the milling, especially sterilization. In addition, an effective energy utilization of EFB has been proposed in previous studies [17, 18] for power generation. PKS has advantageous characteristics of low moisture content and higher calorific value, compared with those other solid wastes.
Both the coal and PKS characteristics are shown in Table 1. Since the case was designated to perform cofiring in Indonesia, the coal was collected from the country that is categorized as having low rank coal (LRC) with high moisture content. In addition, the PKS was obtained from a palm oil mill (POM) located in Sumatera Island. Due to high moisture content, initial drying was conducted in order to lower the moisture content up to 17.30%. Moreover, the PKS was used for cofiring with any initial pretreatment except grinding.
Component | Properties | Coal | PKS | |
---|---|---|---|---|
As-received | As-used | As-used | ||
Proximate analysis (wt%) | Fixed carbon | 24.93 | 40.23 | 24.35 |
Volatile matter | 25.76 | 41.57 | 66.77 | |
Moisture | 48.76 | 17.30 | 3.86 | |
Ash | 0.56 | 0.90 | 5.02 | |
Ultimate analysis (wt%) | Carbon | 35.30 | 56.98 | 43.77 |
Hydrogen | 2.29 | 3.69 | 5.85 | |
Oxygen | 11.23 | 18.13 | 42.32 | |
Nitrogen | 1.75 | 2.83 | 0.89 | |
Sulfur | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.00 | |
LHV (MJ kg−1) | 13.84 | 22.33 | 17.68 |
Material composition of coal and PKS particles used in the study.
The fuel flow rates for coal and air under ambient condition were 73 and 630 kg s−1, correspondingly. In addition, the air is approximated to contain N2 and O2 with concentrations of 79 mol% and 21 mol%, respectively. Each particle was regarded as to be a solid sphere, having particle sizes in the range of 60–200 mesh (74–250 μm). Furthermore, the bulk densities of the coal and PKS were considered to be 700 and 600 kg m−3, respectively. The ambient temperature, combustor wall thickness, and external and internal emissivity coefficients were set at 300 K, 0.2 m, 0.9, and 0.6, respectively.
The simulation was performed using a Quad-core Intel Core i7 2.9 GHz CPU and 16 GB of RAM. The total mesh of the 3D model used to represent the combustor was an approximately 1,805,305 tetrahedral cell unstructured grid. In the CFD modeling, the temperature distribution and concentration of the produced gases (CO2, CO, O2, NOx, and SOx) were evaluated. In addition, five different PKS mass fractions were tested: 0% (100% coal), 10, 15, 25, and 50%.
Temperature distribution for each PKS mass fraction is shown in Figure 4. Generally, higher PKS mass fraction leads to higher flame temperatures inside the boiler, since higher PKS mass fraction means larger amount of volatile matter emitted during cofiring. The average temperature in the upper part of boiler, especially at the freeboard, is lower than the lower part of boiler. It is considered as the result of heat loss across the boiler.
Temperature distribution at the center along the height of the boiler for each different PKS mass fraction.
In Table 1, it can be observed that the used PKS has higher volatile matter and lower moisture content compared to the coal, since the used coal was LRC with relatively low calorific value. With this condition, the devolatilization of PKS particles would be faster and earlier than the devolatilization of the coal particles. It resulted in higher and more uniform combustion temperature at high PKS mass fraction. Because the water has a relatively high heat capacity, the increase of PKS mass fraction also leads to the decrease of the total moisture content of the mixed fuel, influencing the combustion temperature.
The average temperature at boiler outlet for PKS mass fractions of 0, 10, 15, 25, and 50% are 1390, 1414, 1422, 1513, and 1494 K, respectively. Although insignificant, cofiring with a PKS mass fraction of 25% resulted in higher combustion temperature compared to a mass fraction of 50%. In contrast to the moisture content, a higher PKS mass fraction decreased the total amount of fixed carbon (including char) in the mixed fuel. Therefore, the heat obtained from the char combustion fell since the PKS mass fraction increased. The temperature distribution profile suggested that the optimum combustion performance of coal and PKS cofiring can be achieved at a PKS mass fraction of 25%.
Figures 5–7 [3] represent the CO2, CO, and O2 gases distribution inside the boiler, respectively. Generally, higher PKS mass fraction led to a lower CO2 concentration, lower CO concentration, and higher CO2, respectively. This is because PKS has a relatively high O2 content, part of which persists and is exhausted together with the nitrogen and other flue gases.
CO2 distribution at the center along the height of the boiler at each different PKS mass fraction.
CO distribution at the center along the height of the boiler at each different PKS mass fraction.
O2 distribution at the center along the height of the boiler at each different PKS mass fraction.
Figures 8 and 9 [3] represent the cross-sectional NOx and SOx distribution at the center of the boiler. Higher PKS mass fraction leads to higher NOx concentration and increased significantly as the PKS mass fraction increased to 25%. According to the Zeldovich mechanism [19], at above 1600 K, thermal NOx generation can occur easily. The maximum combustion temperature at PKS mass fractions of 25 and 50% exceeded this value. This suggested that a lower PKS, of up to 15%, is the appropriate cofiring condition for limiting NOx emissions.
NOx distribution at the center along the height of the boiler at each different PKS mass fraction.
SO2 distribution at the center along the height of the boiler at each different PKS mass fraction.
In the second study case, detailed geometry of used small drop tube furnace (DTF) is shown in Figure 10. DTF can generate results in efficient time and cost, with similar results to those conducted in the real boiler. The combustion process takes place inside the tubular furnace and in the downward direction. The detailed report of this study can be read in the full paper written by Darmawan et al. [2].
Geometry of DTF or combustor used in the simulation [2].
The coal used in the simulation is originated from Kalimantan, Indonesia. This coal is classified as low rank coal having high moisture content and lower calorific value. On the other hand, the biomass, which is EFB, is hydrothermally treated in order to reduce the moisture content, increase the calorific value, and improve the mechanical properties [20, 21]. Hydrothermal treatment (HT) is also generally known as wet torrefaction [22]. Table 2 shows the compositions of used coal and HT-EFB including proximate and ultimate analyses.
Components | Raw coal [3] | Dried coal [3] | Raw EFB [23] | HT-EFB [24] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Proximate analysis | ||||
Fixed carbon (wt% wb) | 24.93 | 40.23 | 3.71 | 28.62 |
Volatile matter (wt% wb) | 25.76 | 41.57 | 34.84 | 62.57 |
Moisture (wt% wb) | 48.76 | 17.30 | 60.00 | 3.00 |
Ash (wt% wb) | 0.56 | 0.90 | 1.46 | 5.82 |
Ultimate analysis | ||||
C (wt% wb) | 35.30 | 56.98 | 17.97 | 52.92 |
H (wt% wb) | 2.29 | 3.69 | 2.49 | 5.35 |
O (wt% wb) | 11.23 | 18.13 | 17.60 | 32.06 |
N (wt% wb) | 1.75 | 2.83 | 0.47 | 0.85 |
S (wt% wb) | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
Calorific value (MJ kg−1) | 13.84 | 22.34 | 17.02 | 22.22 |
Material composition.
In the simulation, a commercial CFD software ANSYS DesignModeler and Fluent ver. 16.2 (ANSYS Inc.) are used to build 3D combustor model and analyze the cofiring behavior. As discussed earlier, cofiring simulation includes some considerations of dynamics equations, conservation of mass (continuity), momentum and enthalpy, turbulence (k-ε turbulence model), radiation heat transfer (P-1 model), and reactions in both particles (Eulerian-Lagrangian model) and gas (global two-steps reactions) phases. Some additional boundary conditions include (1) fuel and air inlet flow rates that are 1.38 × 10−5 kg s−1 and 1.6 × 10−4 kg s−1 at 300 K, (2) furnace wall temperature, wall roughness, and internal emissivity that are set to 1300 K (isothermal), 0.5, and 1, respectively, and (3) feeding wall is considered isothermal at 300 K.
An HT-EFB after hydrothermal treatment is found to become more uniform and coal-like. Hydrothermal treatment also can improve the drying and dehydration performance, thus the moisture content of the HT-EFB decreases to approximately 3%. This characteristic is very important in the combustion system. Figures 10 and 11 [3] show the temperature distribution along the axis of the DTF under different cofiring mass fractions. The figure excludes axis of the DTF at high temperatures of 0–0.6 m considering that there is no substantial change in the bottom of DTF and can be neglected. The dots in Figure 11 correspond to the measured result obtained from experimental validation for coal. In general, higher HT-EFB mass fraction will increase the temperature inside the combustor. HT-EFB mass fractions of 50% result in the highest outlet temperature (maximum of 1536 K) (Figure 12).
Temperature distribution inside the combustor of HT-EFB cofiring.
Temperature distribution of coal and HT-EFB cofiring across the combustor: (a) coal fully (b) HT-EFB 10% (c) HT-EFB 25% (d) HT-EFB 50%.
Fuel combustion process involves three basics stages as mentioned in Section 3: devolatilization, volatile combustion, and char oxidation. Compared to the main combustion area, a lower temperature is observed in the upper part of the combustor where the devolatilization process occurred. The mixture is pyrolyzed and then evolves as volatile matter. The devolatilization of HT-EFB particles occurs earlier and in a shorter time than coal because of lower moisture content of HT-EFB and higher volatile matter content. On the other hand, since coal has significantly higher moisture content, its particles require a longer time for drying and the devolatilization to occur. Therefore, in high HT-EFB mass fraction, the flame temperature remains high and distributed more uniformly although it is located in a lower part of the combustor. In addition, as HT-EFB has a lower moisture content than coal, high HT-EFB mass fraction leads to the lower total moisture content of the mixed fuel of HT-EFB and coal in the combustor system. Finally, this condition affects the flame temperature due to high heat capacity of water.
In contrast to the fuel coal combustion, HT-EFB cofiring has increased carbon monoxide concentrations and nitrogen monoxide in the combustion. Figures 13 and 14 [3] represent further information about the concentration of CO and CO2 gases during cofiring.
CO mass fraction along the combustor height under different HT-EFB mass fractions.
CO2 mass fraction along the combustor height under different HT-EFB mass fraction.
Regarding the produced CO concentration, higher mass fraction of HT-EFB leads to the increase of CO mass fraction during initial reaction of combustion. The volatile matter, especially from HT-EFB, is oxidized under high combustion temperature forming CO. Afterward, CO reacts further with O2 (air) along the combustor forming CO2. In addition, coal cofiring with HT-EFB results in lower CO2 concentration following the increase of both HT-EFB mass fraction (Figure 9). The dots in Figure 10 show the CO2 pollutant observed during the experimental study; meanwhile, the lines show CO2 emission based on a simulation model.
Cofiring of biomass waste in a pulverized coal power plant was studied using CFD. This chapter has discussed performance for all stages of the combustion including the combustion temperatures, kinetics behavior, and concentration of the produced gases (CO2, CO, O2, NOx, and SOx). Moreover, the current state-of-the-art CFD modeling-based study is capable of solving the complexity of the interdependent processes such as turbulence, heat transfer via radiation, complex reactions in both the particle, and gas phases and the produced gas.
For further development, cofiring of biomass waste with coal can be clarified by a pilot experimental scale before being applied in full-scale power plants. This validation is necessary after conducting CFD simulation. To be remembered, it is also very important to take account of the biomass waste supply from the surrounding resources to avoid potential conflict with food production or prevent from potential shortage of sustainable biomass supply.
This work was partially supported by Indonesian government, which contributed to it through the program of the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP).
The aim behind mesotherapy was to create a new technique, which favors the supplementation of needed agents directly and locally to the site of complaint. As previously mentioned, the proposed theory by Pistordepends mainly on the direct effect of the used drug on the tissue originating from the mesoderm [1, 2]. The mesoderm is one of the primary germ layers of the embryo that is responsible for the development of skin, connective tissue, muscles, tendons, and circulatory system. It is mainly responsible for skin vitality and health [3]. The injection technique of mesotherapy depends mainly on the anatomical, histological and geometrical landmarks of the target tissues. Mesointerface is the horizontal interface between the injected agents and the injected region. For maximum benefits, the injected surface is inversely proportional to the amount and molecular weight of the injected agent. The wider the mesointerface is, the greater the number of the dermal receptors that are activated [4].
\nOn the other hand, the vertical component depends on the depth of penetration. Mesotherapy could be injected in the epidermis, dermis, or subcutaneous [1]. The more superficial injection is, the longer the drug remains in the tissue. It permits sustained release of the drug with slow and progressive diffusion into the surrounding tissues [2, 5, 6].
\nThe technique depends on the skin characteristics and components. It determines the type of drug injected, the technique of injection, and the drug dosage. The skin has a natural sustained releasing property. Therefore, the nature of the skin determines the layers that are suitable for injection. The injection process must be in the superficial layers (intradermal) for the drug to remain as long as possible and for its clearance to become slower. If the drug is injected deeper, its clearance becomes faster. So the more superficial the injection is, the longer the drug remains in place (being far more powerful and efficient) [6].
\nThe FDA is the association concerning about the assurance of the food and drug safety. Although FDA did not approve the mesotherapy technique, it approved many drugs that have been used in mesotherapy as aminophylline, yohimbine, procaine, lidocaine, and marcaine [7]. Other drugs do not have the FDA approval for any purpose of usage as it is beyond the scope of FDA because they do not consider drugs as vitamins and minerals [8]. It also approved the delivery method using mesogun [1].
\nAll the drugs used in mesotherapy are considered by the FDA as off-label used drugs. The off-label approval includes the approved drug and the approved route of administration of this drug. The local anesthetic agents calcitonin, hyaluronidase, and collagenase are not approved by the FDA [9].
\nThe local treatment in mesotherapy has superior advantages over the systemic one either oral or parental. Firstly, it avoids the side effects resulted from drug metabolism and excretion in the stomach, intestine, liver, and kidneys. Secondly, the effectiveness of the local drug is directly administrated into the area of interest. Finally, it minimizes the dosage used into 1% of the dosage used systemically [1].
\nImprovement of blood flow, removal of fibrotic tissue, an increase in the connective tissue quality and amount, hair loss (mesohair), skin rejuvenation (mesoglow), excessive fat and cellulite removal, improvement of the lymphatic drainage, osteoarthritis, and pain relief are the main medical indications of mesotherapy [10]. On the financial point of view, it is a cost-effective modality that provides successful drug delivery using inexpensive equipment with short-term practice needed for the general practitioner [11].
\nOral mesotherapy is an old technique which was commonly applied in order to introduce various agents. Infiltration, intraligamentary, intramucosal, intralesional, and intraepidermic injection are common names for oral mesotherapy technique that have been used previously. The different names were more related to different layers and structures of the oral cavity.
\nLocal anesthesia is a reversible blockage of nerve conduction in a defined area that resulted in loss of sensation [12]. It can be performed using various techniques which differ according to the width of the area needed to be anesthetized as well as tissue depth and its relation to target nerve.
\nLocal infiltration is one of the techniques in which the local anesthetic solution is administrated submucosal, intradermal, or intraligamentary in order to anesthetize the nerve endings that innervate the target region. The submucosal injection involves the drug administration in the deep dermis layer reaching the lipid layer with 45 angulation and thicker needle, while the intradermal injection involves introduction of anesthetic agent into the superficial dermis (papillary dermis) with 10 to 15 degrees using fine needle [13, 14]. Intraligamentary (or periodontal) anesthesia is a type of the locally delivered anesthetic technique in which the needle is introduced in the mesiobuccal and distobuccal directions delivering the anesthetic agent in an apical direction. Its accuracy, easiness, minimal administration of anesthetic solution, efficiency, and the lack of harmful effects to the adjacent periodontal apparatus are the main advantages of this technique [15, 16]. The pressure needed for such technique is necessary, and it remains the main cause behind the development of local inflammation and pain which may last up to 7 days as well as bone and root resorption in relation to the injection site [17]. Defective enamel disorders were also detected following intraligamentary injection of local anesthesia. In hemophilic patients, intraligamentary injections are usually not recommended to avoid hematoma formation. It was also avoided in deciduous teeth [18] (Figure 1).
\nIntraligamentary injection [18].
On the other hand, the field block technique involves the introduction of the anesthetic agent in a circular configuration around the operative site [19].
\nThe interseptal technique is a simple technique which provides adequate control of pain and bleeding especially during emergency conditions. During infection and inflammatory conditions, interseptal technique is usually preferred. A 27 gauge needle is inserted at 45° at the center of the interdental papilla. Minimal amount (0.2–0.4 ml) of the anesthetic agent is injected. It was found that interseptal technique showed higher anesthetic efficiency than the intraligamentary and intraosseous injection [18, 19].
\nThe intrapulpal technique is one of the most common techniques that are used during endodontic treatment especially in acute phases of pulpal inflammation. Despite its rapid onset, effectiveness, and safeness, its action has shorter duration than other techniques [18]. Finally, the intraosseous technique provides rapid introduction, which is commonly used following failure of the field or nerve block technique. It depends on the direct introduction of the anesthetic agent to the interdental bone resulting in rapid delivery of the anesthetic agent to the blood circulation which should be avoided in cardiovascular patients [19] (Figure 2).
\nCorticosteroids and chronic gingival inflammation.
Corticosteroids are widely used for the management of numerous oral inflammatory conditions due to their anti-inflammatory and immune modulatory effects. They could be delivered either intramucosally (within the lesion), topically, or systemically [20].
\nIntralesional (intradermal) corticosteroid injection is a favorite method in delivering the drug directly to the target site resulting in rapid action as well as less systemic complications. Injectable steroids are clear fluids; their color and dose depend on the formulation of steroids used. It is commonly used in managing the longstanding oral lichen planus lesions and oral submucous fibrosis, but it has a localized side effect such as mucosal atrophy [21, 22]. Hydrocortisone and triamcinolone are the commonest formulas used in local delivery with weekly injections reaching up to 11 injections [22, 23].
\nAlthough surgical excision is considered the gold standard technique for treating mucocele and orofacial granulomatosis, the use of intralesional corticosteroid injection was also reported. However, some investigators have suggested that the intralesional corticosteroid could be used as a new modality in the treatment, but cases of relapse with corticosteroid have been reported [24, 25]. Great differences were detected in the used doses and the number of sessions according to the severity, extension, and the systemic condition of the patient [22, 23, 26, 27, 28].
\nAccording to literature, vitamins were usually introduced either by intraligamentary or intraepidermic techniques. The intraepidermic technique was conducted in 2016 by Yussif et al. [29].
\nAlthough vitamin D has a great role in maintaining the bone health and metabolism, it is just recently discovered that vitamin D deficiency has a great role in the occurrence and progression of various periodontal diseases. It is a steroid hormone that controls the bone metabolism and calcium homeostasis [30, 31, 32].
\nIt was detected that the level of vitamin D reaches its lowest levels during periodontal disease especially aggressive periodontitis. The daily supplementation is important to maintain the periodontal health [30, 31, 32, 33].
\nThe introduction of locally delivered vitamin D injections provides short treatment visits, non-traumatic, less patient morbidity, non-stressful procedure with no post-operative side effects. The procedure is not painful. There is also no need for preoperative local anesthesia. It could be either delivered alone [34] or in combination with calcium [35]. The promising improvement of the regenerative power was attributed to minimal trauma and preserving the periosteum adapted over the alveolar bone. Great reduction of the clinical attachment loss and the absence of bleeding on probing were also detected indicating the absence of inflammation. On the radiographic examination, improvement of the alveolar bone density as well as accentuation of lamina dura was also reported [34, 35].
\nIn orthodontic therapy, locally delivered vitamin D is commonly introduced in small doses using periodontal injection technique in order to accelerate the osteoclastic activity in the pressure site which in role accelerates the orthodontic movement. The dose and the number of the treatment sessions are determined according to the distance that the tooth needed to travel [34, 36] (Figure 3).
\nVitamin D injection and periodontitis [37].
Ascorbic acid is also an essential vitamin in the treatment of periodontal diseases. Its deficiency causes impaired wound healing with higher bleeding index. Lower levels of serum vitamin C were reported in periodontitis. The importance of vitamin C lies behind its powerful scavenging and antioxidant effect as it usually accumulates in the immune cells as PMNs and macrophages and significantly enhances chemotaxis, phagocytic, opsonization, degranulation, and killing functions of immune cells [33, 38]. It also has a great role in collagen biosynthesis [39]. It could be supplied orally, topically, or by intraepidermal injection [37, 40]. Vitamin C is widely used in dermal mesotherapy as it restores the tissue integrity and brightness by neutralizing the free radicals in the newly formed tissues, stimulates the collagen formation, and inhibits melanogenesis [10, 41].
\nGrowing evidence has suggested the role of vitamin C in enhancing the quality and outcome of the orthodontic treatment. This is proven when tooth movement was enhanced following systemic administration of vitamin C for 17 days [42, 43]. It was also noticed that its deficiency is accompanied with limited tooth movement and arrested osteogenesis [44].
\nVitamin C induces its action through modifying the osteoclastic activity, osteogenesis, tissue healing, and periodontal ligament organization. It increases the collagen I synthesis that represents the main component of bone matrix and periodontal ligament [45]. It also accelerates the bone mineralization, calcium absorption, formation of collagen type X, expression of alkaline phosphatase, and osteoblast growth and differentiation [46, 47] (Figure 4).
\nPre- and postoperative local vitamin C injection in impacted canine traction [37].
Furthermore, the depigmenting effect of vitamin C depends mainly on its antioxidant property. The efficiency of vitamin C in the treatment of physiologic or pathologic dermal problems such as hyperpigmentation, aging, and dryness was promising due to several factors that are not only related to its direct interaction with melanin and melanocytes but also due to the overall effect on the applied tissues. Once vitamin C is introduced to the target tissue, it binds efficiently to melanin because melanin is the main store of ROS, calcium, and copper content that causes intracellular deficiency of these items. Lower intracellular calcium level causes failure of melanocytes to perform cellular adhesion as calcium is essential to form cadherins [48, 49]. The contact to keratinocytes is important simulator to melanocytes to produce melanin, formation of dendrites and transfer the produced melanin to neighboring cells [48, 50]. Also, shortage of the intercellular copper limits the formation of tyrosine, tyrosinase enzyme, and peroxidase enzyme which in turn stops the melanin production [41].
\nPain and itching were regarded as painful stimuli. Itching may transit to pain due to increased discharge frequency of nociceptors (intensity theory) [51] (Figure 5).
\nPre- and postoperative histopathological photos of local vitamin C injection in treatment of gingival hyperpigmentation [29].
In 2016, Yussif et al. used the intraepidermic injection technique (oral mesotherapy technique) in order to treat physiological hyperpigmentation. Vitamin C injection is a safe, minimally invasive nonsurgical depigmenting technique which also improves health of gingival tissues. They concluded that the direct effect of vitamin C could be due to the affinity of melanin to react with it, which in turn affects the cellular junctions (causing the immediate fainting) and forces such cells to spell out their contents of melanin leading to tissue darkening after a while. Further investigations and studies are recommended to detect its long-term effect on the melanocytes and keratinocytes [29] (Figure 6).
\nPre- and postoperative local vitamin C injection in physiologic gingival hyperpigmentation [29].
During persistent gingival inflammation, Yussif et al. [45] have reported significant enhancement of the gingival health by the usage of the intraepidermic vitamin C injection as an adjunctive approach for the conventional nonsurgical treatment modality.
\nDuring inflammation, it was found that the tissue antioxidant level (as vitamin C, vitamin E, etc.) decreases rapidly indicating the need of its supplementation. On the other hand, the free radical production increases at the site of inflammation [52, 53]. Extra doses of antioxidants especially vitamin C are essential. In localized inflammatory conditions, the administration of the needed higher doses via systemic route (higher than 500 mg) cannot be absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, which is easily excreted through urine. Moreover, in order to reach this dose at the site of inflammation, it needs administration of very high systemic doses that could be harmful to the patient. The local injection provides the needed dose efficiently [54] (Figure 7).
\nPre- and postoperative local vitamin C injection in gingival inflammation [45].
In 2014, [55] reported that the switch of the gingival tissue to the thick biotype is important to gingival and periodontal health as well as esthetic outcome. Ascorbic acid enhances the periodontal ligament maturation and renewal by induction of the collagen formation especially collagen III (young collagen) and keeps the balance between collagen I (mature collagen) and III for tissue maturation. It also modifies the rate of fibroblast proliferation [56]. In 2016, Yussif et al. reported the improvement of the gingival biotype following the intraepidermic vitamin C injection ranging between 0.5 and 1 mm [29].
\nPlatelet-rich plasma (PRP) is defined as a portion of the plasma element of autologous blood having a platelet concentration above baseline [56, 57]. It is considered as a growth factor agonist [58] with both mitogenic and chemotactic properties [56].
\nIt was found that intralesional injection is a newly described method for application of PRP and represents an effective therapeutic option when dealing with non-healing wounds [59]. These findings open the door for using intralesional PRP in oral chronic ulcers. In 2015, El-Komy and his colleagues conducted a pilot study on seven patients suffering from resistant chronic oral pemphigus vulgaris (PV). All patients reported improvement in pain scores, ability to eat, and healing score [60].
\nIn orthodontic therapy, significant improvement was reported following the introduction of local submucosal PRP injection in the pressure side. A single injection of PRP was enough during active orthodontic treatment (just 2 injections; pre and after 6 months). Acceleration of orthodontic tooth movement was reported 1.7-fold when compared to the conventional traction technique [61] (Figure 8).
\nSubmucosal injection of PRP during orthodontic treatment [61].
Black triangles or insufficient interdental papillae are considered a serious esthetic problem especially in patients with high lip line [62, 63].
\nHyaluronic acid is an important component of the extracellular matrix, which has great role in maintaining the health of the oral tissues and healing and repair process. The mechanism of its action depends mainly on stimulating the cellular proliferation, migration, and vasculature and restoring the integrity of epidermal and dermal layer. It is also effective in stimulating collagen formation through enhancing the proliferation of fibroblasts. In dentistry, it is recently used to accelerate the healing of oral ulcers [64], extraction socket [65], and gingival inflammation [66] either through injection or topical application. It was also used in reconstruction of the interdental papilla as a minimally invasive technique instead of the conventional surgical intervention [67, 68].
\nParathyroid hormone is one of the essential hormones that affect the bone metabolism. It was found that its local injection provides acceleration of the orthodontic tooth movement 1.6 times faster than the normal movement range. A daily local injection of parathyroid hormone (PTH) was also used to induce local bone resorption by reducing the concentration of the gel medium using saline [69, 70].
\nRelaxin is a specialized hormone which was detected in the periodontal ligament providing proper remodeling of the soft tissue rather than the alveolar bone surrounding teeth. It provides the needed balance of the collagen content in the pressure and tension sites especially during application of forces as orthodontic treatment. It was found that the local injection of relaxin could provide an accelerated tooth movement by reducing the organization of the related periodontal ligaments and increasing the tooth mobility. A weekly injection of 50 μg of relaxin hormone was also found to accelerate tooth movement via soft tissue remodeling, rather than bone, through increasing the collagen at the tension side over its amount in the compression side. It also decreases the organization of the periodontal ligaments surrounding the tooth causing extra mobility [70, 71, 72].
\nProstaglandin is one of the most important inflammatory mediators that is usually secreted during the inflammatory process. It is also considered as a paracrine hormone which affects mainly bone resorption level around the teeth by affecting the osteoclastic activity. It was found that its local application provides 1.6-fold of accelerated tooth movement than the normal range. Formerly, exogenous single or multiple prostaglandin injections were used [70, 73, 74].
\nSimvastatin is a chemical agent that is usually used to reduce the serum cholesterol level. It was found that it has a positive, stimulatory effect to the bone by stimulation of bone growth factors (e.g., BMP-2). On local injection, it was found that simvastatin could efficiently treat the infrabony defects and furcation defects and be used for guided bone regeneration. The injection visits could range from one to three times with 0.5–2 ml per visit. It is considered a successful nonsurgical treatment approach [75] (Figure 9).
\nSimvastatin injection [75].
In orthopedics, recombinant BMPs were commonly used during distraction of long bones in order to accelerate osteogenic potentials, increase bone volume (both width and height), improve bone density, and reduce relapse possibilities. BMP-2 was commonly used with or without delivery systems as collagen sponge and chitosan hydrogel in sequential injections [75, 76] (Figure 10).
\nBone morphogenic protein injection [75].
Hyaluronidase is one of the proteolytic enzymes that are providing a physiologic limiting factor for intercellular cement substance, hyaluronic acid. It was used in the treatment of submucous fibrosis by promoting the lysis of accumulated fibrous tissues and relieving the stiffness of tissues by intralesional injection. It provides a rapid short-term improvement [29, 78]. In addition, corticosteroids could be combined with bisphosphonates in the treatment of central giant cell lesions with neither recurrence nor clinical side effects being detected [27].
\nSteroids are well-known immunosuppressive agents which offer a control of the inflammation. Up till now, different types of cortisone were used to undergo the needed outcome as triamcinolone and dexamethasone. Despite its potency, it was preferred because of its cost-effectiveness. Single-dose injection per week was needed till improvement is detected, which may extend to 4 months. Progression could be detected after two injections [29, 77].
\nThe usage of hyaluronidase and cortisone injection combination provides long-term improvement of the signs and symptoms associated with such diseases, bringing sensation, ulceration, and pain [29, 77].
\nAccording to literature, up till now there is no definite protocol for dermal mesotherapy. In the oral cavity, it was more difficult to add specific rules due to the presence of multiple geometry, types, and dimensions of tissues as gingiva, buccal mucosa, palate, tongue, etc.; we have tried to establish guidelines for general practitioners and beginners.
Oral mesotherapy technique needs longer time for practice in order to achieve better results.
Only minute quantities of injectable agent ranging between 0.05 and 0.1 ml/point are permissible according to the range of the injected tissue expansion.
In 1965, Woodard recommended that the pH of any injected material should range between 4.5 and 8.0. Local injections show lower rate of buffering capacity than intravenous and intramuscular route. During oral mesotherapy injection, higher pH is preferred.
The used needle has to be short, beveled. The needle’s gauge should range between 25 and 30.
Numerous sites for administration of different injectable products are still acceptable till now. The buccal mucosa, buccal vestibule, palate, labial gingival tissues, interdental papilla, and tongue are the most common sites for local injections.
On the contrary to the skin, oral mucosa is always wet. Surface cleaning and dryness using dry gauze is recommended without the usage of surface disinfectant. Local anesthetic or analgesic agent (specific for intraoral usage) is also recommended accompanying the usage of specific agents as vitamin C due to its nature as a weak acid. In general, the usage of any injectable agent causes local inflammation and induces pain and itching.
Preoperative treatment plan and patient preparation are the most important steps in the whole treatment procedure. Detailed patient’s medical history is an important issue. The target tissue should be free of infection and clean. Two visits for periodontal debridement are recommended; the first is preferred to be performed 2 weeks prior to the procedure, while the other is usually performed prior to the injection visit especially if the injection will be more related to the teeth. The patient should be instructed to keep away from vitamin E and aspirin 1 week before the injection session. After the session, the patient must be instructed that discomfort or burning could occur for 20 minutes. Analgesics are not permitted.
The main complications reported in this technique include ulceration, bleeding, infections, allergy, abscess, hyperpigmentation, and swelling related to the area to be injected [78, 79]. The main problems of mesotherapy are the lack of training of the practitioner, the difficulty to be evaluated except with biopsy, the inability to diagnose and treat a complication, and the lack of standardized dosage or formulation [1].
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\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
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\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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