Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9838",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Design of Cities and Buildings - Sustainability and Resilience in the Built Environment",title:"Design of Cities and Buildings",subtitle:"Sustainability and Resilience in the Built Environment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book envisions the most appropriate design strategies that guarantee the adequate environmental performance of buildings during phases of design and construction as well as use. It focuses on relevant issues related to the production of sustainable buildings and the socio-cultural integration aspects of new architectural designs in urban settings. The book also addresses the design features of historic buildings.",isbn:"978-1-78985-150-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-149-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-669-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87647",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"design-of-cities-and-buildings-sustainability-and-resilience-in-the-built-environment",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"39e7e64a7a19b139448107f1cea4e1d0",bookSignature:"Samad Sepasgozar, Sara Shirowzhan, Sharifeh Sargolzae and José David Bienvenido-Huertas",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9838.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4864,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",middleName:null,surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221172/images/system/221172.png",biography:"Dr. Samad M.E. Sepasgzoar is a senior lecturer and the co-convenor for the smart city and infrastructure cluster. He is also an associate editor, editorial board member, guest editor, or reviewer for more than thirty-five peer-reviewed journals. He has published 137 research articles. His research is cross-interdisciplinary, using mixed statistical, experimentation, and computational methods to analyse complex issues of digital technology development and implementation processes. Due to the quality of his research projects, Dr. Sepasgzoar has been recognised internationally by different industrial bodies with awards such as ‘Best Paper’. He was also a finalist for the ‘Australian Construction Awards’.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273838/images/system/273838.png",biography:"Dr. Sara Shirowzhan is a lecturer at the School of Built Environment (BE), University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, Australia, where she teaches the City Analytics and Construction programs. She also serves as the co-chair of BE\\'s Smart Cities and Infrastructure Cluster. Dr. Shirowzhan works as tomorrow\\'s leading champion for the Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB). Her research interests include sensing technologies, enhanced GIS, BIM, digital twins, and artificial intelligence in technologies pertinent to BE informatics. She teaches and supervises students at UNSW in the areas of GIS, BIM, digital twins, AI, machine learning, city analytics, urban informatics, smart cities, infrastructure, construction informatics, and other relevant topics. She now serves on the editorial boards of the journals MDPI and Advances in Civil Engineering. She is also a topic board member of the ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information as well as Buildings. Dr. Shirowzhan received her Ph.D. in Geomatics Engineering from the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW.",institutionString:"UNSW Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"319088",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharifeh",middleName:null,surname:"Sargolzae",slug:"sharifeh-sargolzae",fullName:"Sharifeh Sargolzae",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319088/images/system/319088.png",biography:"Dr. Sharifeh Sargolzae has a Ph.D. in Urban and Regional Planning and is a lecturer in the Department of Urban Planning, University of Zabol, Iran. Her expertise covers technology adoption and acceptance in urban management fields, especially in new technologies applied in municipalities. Her recent research project focused on adopting new technologies to improve urban areas\\' quality of life at both individual and organizational levels. Other experiences include working on issues such as smart cities, urban planning, disaster management, and emergency accommodation.",institutionString:"Zabol University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Isfahan University of Art",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"320815",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Bienvenido Huertas",slug:"david-bienvenido-huertas",fullName:"David Bienvenido Huertas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320815/images/system/320815.png",biography:"David Bienvenido-Huertas is an assistant professor in the Department of Building Construction, University of Granada, Spain. He is also a visiting professor at the University of La Coruña, Spain. His areas of expertise include climate change in the building sector, adaptive thermal comfort, heat transfer, fuel poverty, energy conservation measures, and the design of nearly zero-energy buildings. He is an author of more than fifty research papers and a recognized reviewer of various international indexed journals.",institutionString:"University of Granada",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"783",title:"Environmental Sustainability",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-environmental-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"76112",title:"Introductory Chapter: Intelligence, Sustainable and Post-COVID-19 Resilience Built Environment: An Agenda for Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97100",slug:"introductory-chapter-intelligence-sustainable-and-post-covid-19-resilience-built-environment-an-agen",totalDownloads:397,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Samad Sepasgozar, José David Bienvenido-Huertas, Sara Shirowzhan and Sharifeh Sargolzae",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76112",authors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar"}],corrections:null},{id:"74629",title:"Rebars for Durable Concrete Construction: Points to Ponder",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95401",slug:"rebars-for-durable-concrete-construction-points-to-ponder",totalDownloads:432,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Reinforced concrete is the number one medium of construction. It is important to have good quality concrete and reinforcing bar (rebar). It is equally important to have competent bond between rebar and concrete. About six decades ago ribbed rebars of high strength steel started replacing plain round bars of mild steel, the use of which had made reinforced concrete constructions durable. It was overlooked that ribbed rebars of carbon steel would be highly susceptible to corrosion at accelerated rates. That would not only make reinforced concrete constructions reach states of distress early, that could also destroy or reduce bond between ribbed rebars and concrete. The continued use of ribbed rebars of high strength carbon steel demonstrates a widespread lack of understanding of the phenomenon of bond between rebars and concrete. This lack of understanding of bond has led to the introduction of epoxy coated ribbed rebars, ribbed stainless steel bars and glass fiber reinforced and granite reinforced polymer rebars, all of which permit reinforced concrete carry static loads because of engagement between such rebars and concrete. But the load-carrying capacity of reinforced concrete elements is impaired, and such elements become vulnerable to local or even total failure during vibratory loads. The use of PSWC-BAR, characterized by its plain surface and wave-type configuration, permits the use of medium strength and high strength steel. In the absence of ribs, the rate of corrosion is greatly reduced. The use of PSWC-BARs, at no added effort or cost, in lieu of conventional ribbed bars, leads to enhancement of effective bond or engagement between such rebars and concrete, thereby leading to increased load-carrying capacity, several-fold higher life span, ductility and energy-absorbing capacity, and great reduction in life cycle cost and adverse impact of construction on the environment and the global climate. In keeping with a lack of understanding of bond between rebars and concrete, there is arbitrariness in the selection of the required level of percent elongation and ductility of rebars.",signatures:"Anil K. Kar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74629",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74629",authors:[{id:"331027",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",surname:"Kar",slug:"anil-kar",fullName:"Anil Kar"}],corrections:null},{id:"74716",title:"Climate Resilience, Megalopolis Vulnerability and Spatial Distribution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95253",slug:"climate-resilience-megalopolis-vulnerability-and-spatial-distribution",totalDownloads:388,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter takes three megalopolises including Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao, Yangtze River Delta and Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei as research objects, firstly analyzes the connection relationship and megalopolis vulnerability among core cities in the context of regional integration. Secondly, we calculate there megalopolises to obtain the vulnerability of each city in 2018 Sex index. The results show that the central cities and economically underdeveloped cities of the three megalopolises are relatively vulnerable areas in the urban agglomerations, and areas have low sensitivity and high response. Finally, policy suggestions for megalopolis are given to improve the adaptive capacity of tackling climate change. The innovation of this chapter is to use spatial data to comprehensively evaluate and analyze the vulnerability, and to realize visualization in the map, which better reflects the distribution law and proposes a response to megalopolis vulnerability.",signatures:"Tao Ma, Nairong Tan, Xiaolei Wang, Hao Wang and Mingxi Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74716",authors:[{id:"322664",title:"Prof.",name:"Tao",surname:"Ma",slug:"tao-ma",fullName:"Tao Ma"},{id:"328882",title:"MSc.",name:"Nairong",surname:"Tan",slug:"nairong-tan",fullName:"Nairong Tan"},{id:"328887",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaolei",surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaolei-wang",fullName:"Xiaolei Wang"},{id:"332546",title:"MSc.",name:"Hao",surname:"Wang",slug:"hao-wang",fullName:"Hao Wang"},{id:"332548",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhou",surname:"Mingxi",slug:"zhou-mingxi",fullName:"Zhou Mingxi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74463",title:"Organizational Analysis of Sustainable Building Certifications in Mexico City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95120",slug:"organizational-analysis-of-sustainable-building-certifications-in-mexico-city",totalDownloads:320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 2008, the Sustainable Building Certificate Program was implemented in order to identify and to foster sustainable buildings. The aim of the work is to analyze, since an organizational perspective, the contribution of the users’ “day a day” actions to archive sustainability. The principal variable is the building property actions to obtain the certification and the criteria defined at the Certification Program. The central significance of this work is to define how important is the implementation of strategies to introduce sustainable patterns to the building users in contrast with the facility features. The most interesting finding shows that certification design and punctuation assignation to each criteria influence in sustainable actions. The incorporation of technology devices primes over the sustainable actions by the users of the buildings. This condition represents a practical implication because the sustainable actions pattern presents a challenge to the sustainable vision. People do not assume the sustainability as a change in human actions, but a technological question. So, the central value of this research is to demonstrate the very low importance in the Mexico City certification program and stakeholders in sustainable user’s patterns. The principal limitation the research is many sustainable buildings, certificated by international programs were not includes. This consideration implies future studies, to identify a general tendency of sustainable actions related with the users’ activity.",signatures:"Sara Velasco-Baca and Fermín Cruz-Muñoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74463",authors:[{id:"324836",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermín Alí",surname:"Cruz-Muñoz",slug:"fermin-ali-cruz-munoz",fullName:"Fermín Alí Cruz-Muñoz"},{id:"324840",title:"MSc.",name:"Sara",surname:"Velasco",slug:"sara-velasco",fullName:"Sara Velasco"}],corrections:null},{id:"74218",title:"Energy-Efficient Landscape Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94904",slug:"energy-efficient-landscape-design",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Buildings that are carefully designed using passive strategies for natural ventilation and day lighting reduces our dependency on electrical energy meanwhile ensuring thermal comfort inside the building. Similarly, carefully planned vegetation around the building helps in reducing the urban heat island effect and electricity consumption. Methodology adopted for presenting this study as book chapter, first by understanding the concept of landscape with respect to typologies and components. Secondly discussing the physical parameters in terms of temperature, precipitations and humidity of varied prevailing climatic conditions and varied methods adopted through landscape interventions and techniques to overcome the extreme conditions throughout the year, which in turn helps in reducing the consumption of energy.",signatures:"Prashanti Rao and Janmejoy Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74218",authors:[{id:"330405",title:"Dr.",name:"Janmejoy",surname:"Gupta",slug:"janmejoy-gupta",fullName:"Janmejoy Gupta"},{id:"330407",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashanti",surname:"Rao",slug:"prashanti-rao",fullName:"Prashanti Rao"}],corrections:null},{id:"74421",title:"Towards Innovative and Sustainable Construction of Architectural Structures by Employing Self-Consolidating Concrete Reinforced with Polypropylene Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95091",slug:"towards-innovative-and-sustainable-construction-of-architectural-structures-by-employing-self-consol",totalDownloads:378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) has been successfully employed to reduce construction time and enhance the quality, performance, and esthetic appearance of concrete structures. This research aimed at developing environmentally friendly fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) consisting of SCC and recycled polypropylene (PP) fibers for sustainable construction of city buildings and transportation infrastructure. The addition of the PP fibers to SCC helps reducing shrinkage cracks and providing enhanced mechanical properties, durability, and ductility of the concrete materials. Several mix designs of self-consolidating fiber-reinforced concrete (SCFRC) were experimentally examined. Material and esthetic properties of the SCFRC mixtures that include micro silica, fly ash, and PP fibers were evaluated. Trial-and-adjustment method was employed to obtain practically optimum SCFRC mixtures, mixtures that are affordable and easy to make possessing enhanced compressive strength and esthetic properties. Slump flow and air content testing methods were used to determine the fresh properties of the SCFRC mixtures, and the esthetic properties of the mixtures were also evaluated. The hardened properties of the SCFRC mixtures were examined using three- and seven-day compression tests. The amount of fine/coarse aggregate, water, and other admixtures were varied while the Portland cement content in all mixtures was maintained unchanged. The maximum three-day compressive strength was 43.17 MPa and the largest slump flow was 736.6 mm. Test results showed enhanced material properties such as slump flow, air content and compressive strength values of the SCFRC mixtures and their excellent esthetic appearance. The favorable seven-day compressive strength of the SCFRC mixture, with 4.8 percent air content and 660.4 mm slump flow, is 39.26 MPa. The mixtures’ in this study are proven to be advantageous for potential SCFRC applications in architectural structures including building façades and esthetically-pleasing bridges.",signatures:"Wael Zatar and Hai Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74421",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74421",authors:[{id:"139672",title:"Prof.",name:"Wael",surname:"Zatar",slug:"wael-zatar",fullName:"Wael Zatar"},{id:"155533",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hai-nguyen",fullName:"Hai Nguyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"74158",title:"Extensive African Urbanization: The Case of the Mozambican Periphery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94540",slug:"extensive-african-urbanization-the-case-of-the-mozambican-periphery",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this article is to analyze African urbanization, looking specifically at the transformations of Mozambican urban peripheries. To do so, conduct a qualitative research of an exploratory nature, using bibliographic, documentary and photographic survey. The most interesting discoveries of this study started in the 1990s, a period marked by the end of “socialism”, civil war, centrally planned economy, which verified the opening of parents in the current Western capitalist world in the growth of foreign investments and financial transactions. Under the effect of market liberalization. At this moment, everything that is traded and the exchange value overlaps the use value and appropriation of space in exchange for money. In this context, as the peripheral urban cities are transformed into multiplying duplexes, elegant houses those call houses, true “Mozambican palaces” and closed condoms. The establishment of these houses will transform these spaces and gradually expel the low-income population that has existed for a long time, to places very far from the central area, this phenomenon is called gentrification. He concluded that the transformation of Mozambican urban peripheries is influenced by the increase in real estate capital, increase in individual income, ease of acquisition of space and construction material (provided by the expansion of the installation for the exhibition that makes it possible or cheaper). This research is important because it makes an important contribution to the empirical studies on the new neoliberal urbanism that is taking place in Mozambican cities. The limits of this research are due to the lack of funding to carry out a systematic survey of new ventures that will emerge in cities and places far from the center of large cities, such as: Maputo, Beira, Nampula and Matola. It is intended in the future study to demonstrate how to change the socioeconomic structure of the residents of the Mozambican peripheries, characterizing gentrification.",signatures:"Joaquim Miranda Maloa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74158",authors:[{id:"325603",title:"Ph.D.",name:"joaquim",surname:"Maloa",slug:"joaquim-maloa",fullName:"joaquim Maloa"}],corrections:null},{id:"75082",title:"Traffic Flow Analysis and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95087",slug:"traffic-flow-analysis-and-management",totalDownloads:696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This research is about joint government founded program between Japan and India or Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable development (SATREPS). The purpose of this research is to establish Low Carbon Transportation in developing countries and we choose one of major city in India, where it is Ahmedabad city of Gujarat state—west cost of India. In order to approach the target, we need to understand the current situation of traffic condition in the city. The current traffic condition in India is some chaotic because of their different driving behavior compared with the advanced countries. It is becoming the chaotic traffic condition in India by not only diving behavior during investigation of this research. The main reason of the traffic congestion comes from the unbalance between growing transportation demand and its insufficient infrastructure preparation. In this chapter, it introduces the current traffic condition based on four years monitoring of the traffic by the traffic monitoring cameras and comparison by the traffic flow theory at first. Then it introduces the new traffic analysis method especially for its traffic congestion analysis and its parameters. After the traffic congestion analysis, it summarizes conclusion and our next step from the experience.",signatures:"Tsutomu Tsuboi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75082",authors:[{id:"327074",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tsutomu",surname:"Tsuboi",slug:"tsutomu-tsuboi",fullName:"Tsutomu Tsuboi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74330",title:"Approach Based on Traditional Architecture Indicators to Strengthen Urban Identity in Diverse Cities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94746",slug:"approach-based-on-traditional-architecture-indicators-to-strengthen-urban-identity-in-diverse-cities",totalDownloads:366,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents an analytical study and a review of the contemporary architecture in Doha- The capital city of the State of Qatar. It demonstrates where ‘Traditional Criteria” are available in three recently developed cases study. The selected cases study has different values of traditional value that response to contemporary architecture trend. The assessment of traditional value is based on an analytical survey approach. This aim of the analysis is to develop a matrix for unifying local architecture with contemporary architecture in Doha city. The developed matrix will enable local authorities, investors, and architects to assess the value of local architecture language in contemporary architecture for diverse cities in general and for Doha city in particular. The study is valuable to be considered as one of the most attempts investigated work against an ever-increasing loss of local building trend that caused by an industrialized and standardized world. The significant of the study is the demonstration of what is learned and what is gained in understanding contemporary architecture in Doha city. The outcomes include an implementation of a scoring system of different local architecture variable. Future study is suggested to address the design typologies of buildings, and traditional elements to response to the local environment and the socioeconomic of the city.",signatures:"Hatem Ibrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74330",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74330",authors:[{id:"326508",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hatem",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hatem-ibrahim",fullName:"Hatem Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"74653",title:"Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern Sustainable Construction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95391",slug:"architectural-design-canons-from-middle-ages-and-before-an-inspiration-for-modern-sustainable-constr",totalDownloads:427,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The role of geometry and arithmetic in ancient building is common knowledge, but it has seldom been proved by measured drawing. This chapter looks for the remote origins of design criteria and ancient canons, and their application in representative antique and medieval architecture. Architectural design had to reflect the universal cosmic Order and Harmony and the ancient and medieval architect-designer had to rely on the same intangible instruments, i.e. the geometry and the arithmetic’s, created by the Divine Geometer. The geometry of forms and the numbers of quantities and dimensions served as a mayor instrument for developing coherent modulation in the design and the structure of the building and his environment. They also served as a symbol and an allegorical sign to convey intangible messages from the commissioner. Metric analysis reveals this evident design practices and their probable semantic content. This is illustrated in the analysis of six cases: the Cheops pyramid at Memphis, the Pantheon at Rome, the Charlemagne’s Palace Chapel at Aachen, the Our Lady’s Cathedral at Chartres, the S. Francis Basilica at Assisi and the Castel del Monte at Andria. This historic examples should inspire modern creative design and modern sustainable construction.",signatures:"André Frans De Naeyer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74653",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74653",authors:[{id:"331688",title:"Dr.",name:"André",surname:"De Naeyer",slug:"andre-de-naeyer",fullName:"André De Naeyer"}],corrections:null},{id:"74763",title:"An Urban Paradox: Urban Resilience or Human Needs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95271",slug:"an-urban-paradox-urban-resilience-or-human-needs",totalDownloads:457,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, metropolitan cities experience increasingly environmental problems as well as migration and urbanization pressure. As climate change, earthquake, flood, aridity and the last worldwide pandemic showed how cities are unprepared for these disasters. The ability of cities to cope with these disasters and survive depends on the existence and level of the city’s resilience to these disasters. Also, the change and transformation of social structure effects the process of adaptation. Generally, urban citizens with economic power who have to live in crowded cities have created their own living areas in the periphery of cities with the desire to live away from the city and in nature. The population increasing every day due to migration from the city centers, attractiveness of natural life lead to urbanization of natural areas as well as the transformation of landscapes. The aim of this study is to measure the urbanization pressure, which is one of the important factors of landscape changes and to determine the results of the pressure for the important areas for resilience. In the scope this, it is detected the pressure of urbanization on the area and examined the landscape changes between the years of 2000-2020 in Istanbul/Zekeriyakoy. Zekeriyakoy, when it was a village until the 1980s, has been in the process of a radical change especially since 1987 and it has become an important center of attraction especially after the Marmara Earthquake in 1999. Corine Land cover and Google satellite data have been used to detect changes in the research. The main outcome of this study is; the district, which was dominated by agriculture and forest areas until the early 1990s, is now under intense pressure to settle and if the transformation occurs at the same speed, especially agricultural areas will almost disappear. This study is important in terms of how the field has changed in the years and the problems that this change will cause for the future. 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1. Introduction
The twenty-first century marks the beginning of an unprecedented, fast-paced technological revolution of digitization. As a result, today’s digital followers, leaders, and ordinary citizens possess instant access to a vast amount of information, and there has been greater dissemination of knowledge than ever before. Furthermore, as information technology has opened up new opportunities for sharing knowledge, information, and work responsibilities, most traditional, hierarchical leadership theories and models have become outdated and irrelevant because they were not designed for the digital age. As artificial intelligent technologies and tools replace traditional managerial positions in organizations, and as company workers become increasingly engaged in multiple leading and following roles in today’s virtual organizations, there is a greater need for new models of leading and following in the virtual space, where participants may acquire different types of leading and following competencies that are more relevant for the digital age.
The emerging literature on leadership for the digital era can be categorized as leadership in the digital age, digital leadership, e-leadership, and cyber leadership. Leadership in the digital age deals with the consequences of the digitization on leadership conceptualization and practice the virtual space. Digital leadership as a relational, fluid, spontaneous, and role-based leadership redefines leadership behavior and practice through the use of digital tools in the virtual world. E-leadership, as the traditional leadership, faces similar issues of vision, motivation, and direction to overcome challenges of social influence processes through advanced information technology (AIT) in the areas of communication, trust, and relationships between leaders and followers in a virtual organizations. Lastly, cyber leadership, a digital version of military leadership, deals with complex and multifaceted issues of organizational safety and security such as information warfare, cyber-security threats, and cyber-attacks.
The above-mentioned literature on digital leadership shows a clear departure from the leadership paradigm established by Baby Boomer after the World War II.1 Since then, major cultural and generational changes have taken place in the areas of communication, relationships, and attitudes toward leadership, authority, and corporate loyalty [1]. The value and the philosophy of work have changed from working hard and making a profit at any cost (Boomer and Gen Xers) to working for personal satisfaction and for individual and environmental well-being (Millennials and Gen Zers). Additionally, the current research on leadership has moved from leader-centered to follower-inclusive and leader-follower relational models of leadership [2]. Nowadays, leadership education and training resources are no longer solely the privilege of company managers and leaders. More than 1570 leadership degree programs exist worldwide, most of which are in colleges and universities in the United States, that offer leadership certification and associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree programs [3]. As a result, the traditional understanding of positional leaders and followers in organizations has become blurrier and irrelevant for the contemporary leadership in the digital age because the latter is spontaneous and organic while the former is rigid and static.
However, the above-mentioned literature on digital leadership does not offer mechanisms for bridging the socio-cultural, theoretical, philosophical, and generational gaps that exists today between Boomers and Millennials. Nor does it proposal plans for transition from the traditional theories and practices of leadership to contemporary leader-followership processes in the age of information and technology. The following questions are worth exploring:
How does the digital leadership deal with the existing hierarchical relationships and power distances between leaders and followers in today’s organizations?
Since the traditional hierarchical leadership practiced in most organizations will not cease to exist any time soon and that the old and the new have to co-exist together for a time being until the old is replaced by the new organizational structures and relationships, what can be done today to bridge that gap for leadership continuity between different generations of the workforce?
To address these and related issues in the digital age, this chapter offers alternative approaches and a conceptual framework to bridge the discontinuity gap between pre-digital and digital leader-followership that emerged as the consequence of contextual differences between physical and virtual space for leadership, socio-cultural and value changes among leaders and followers, theoretical shifts in leadership studies, and changes in leadership education.
2. The context of the pre-digital leadership era
The history of the Western world marks the rise and the fall of the “cult of leadership” [4], also known as the “cult of personality.” Rooted in antiquity and common until the middle of the twentieth century, it cost countless human lives, societies, and civilizations. Long before social psychologists described the close relationship between authority and the “thirst for obedience” [5, 6], and how followers’ perceptions and beliefs toward prototypical leaders may turn them into “leader worshipers” [7], leaders and company managers have used manipulative tactics to gain followers and maintain their power.
History shows us that the consequences of the abuse of leadership power have been ferocious and destructive for both leaders and followers, as well as for organizations, societies, and nations. Major world problems seem to revolve around unethical and toxic leaders [8, 9], and social environments have given birth to such despotic leaders as Queen Mary, Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Augusto Pinochet, and others. Thus, it can be assumed that the leadership paradigm of the twentieth century did not help the majority of the world’s population overcome poverty and injustice to live a decent life.
Moreover, while the industrial era segregated individuals as masters and slaves, managers and subordinates, separate and parallel identities of leaders and followers, employers and employees [10, 11], the post-industrial era emboldened followers to take leadership roles and improve leader-follower relationships. For instance, in the United States, the second part of the twentieth century marks the era of followers and the beginning of a shift from the corporate mindset of profit for the few and “corporate rights” to a collective mindset of profit for all and “human rights” [12] due to the rise of the post-industrial generations, Xers and Millennials [1, 13], and environmental awareness. As a result, 90% of the value- and mission-driven organizations in the non-profit, charity, and public sectors, as well as in philanthropy and freelance entrepreneurship, that are currently in operation were created after the 1950s [14].
Since the turn of the twenty-first century, the world has continued to change. Currently, we live in the post-industrial era of the information and digital age [15]. Today’s college students and young professionals, who represent the Millennial and Z generations, have gained access to electronic information on science, art, history, entertainment, video games, and electronic education and are more informed about the world and their environment than ever before. These generations have even created their own digital and virtual communities and languages with district grammar and vocabulary. They have also begun to lead and follow each other through online platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube.
3. Socio-cultural and value changes
Sociologists and social psychologists have observed a major cultural and generational shift from Boomer to Millennial generations in the areas of communication styles, acquisition and dissemination of information, interpersonal relationships, the concept of physical and virtual space, and their attitude toward leadership authority, corporate loyalty, and commitment [16, 17, 18]. Scholars who have tried to bridge the generational divide between Boomers, Gen Xers, and Millennials have observed major differences between them [19]. Millennials, for instance, are team players, and having an organizational impact motivates them. They like open communication with their supervisors and are technologically savvy. Unlike Boomers, Millennials tend to have different perspectives on the world marketplace, supervisor-subordinate relationships, cultural diversity, task performance, communication styles, and information technologies [20]. Millennials lack the loyalty and work ethics established by Boomers and Gen Xers [19], and they tend to establish their own ethics and functional work relationships [21]. These and other empirical findings seem to suggest that there is a tension between pre- and post-digital generations. What will happen to current organizational structures when Boomers retire and Millennials take the lead?
Values and attitudes toward fellow human beings and the environment have also changed in the United States. The digital revolution and the advancement of digital technology have allowed environmental scientists to learn and process a vast amount of geospatial data about the planet Earth [22]. This data has shown that the climate is changing as a result of industrial pollutions [23]. The Digital Earth (DE) initiative, started by Vice President Al Gore in 1998, and rapid digitization gave birth to a new generation of global citizens, often referred to as digital natives, who tend to think and act digitally in a different way than previous generations, referred to digital immigrants [24]. The Boomers and some Xers are considered digital immigrants because they were either born or grew up before the digital revolution of the 1990s and 2000s. Millennials and the Zers, who were either born during or grew up after the digital revolution, are considered digital natives [25]. Digital natives seem to hold a very different vision and values about the world, the environment, the local and global economy, the concept of work, their personal and social well-being, and intercultural and international relations. An example of this is the March 2019 global march for climate change by Gen Zers.2 Ironically, more Gen Zers express concerns for the well-being of the Earth than Boomers or Xers. This value and cultural change seems to indicate that a new digital leadership (DL) and digital followership (DF) is in the making in today’s digital age.
4. Theoretical shift in leadership studies
Post-industrial leadership theories moved away from simplistic and cultic person-centered “great man” theories of leadership to system-based complexity of leadership theories (CLT) in the information and digital age [26, 27]. They offer new ways in which followers and non-followers may take more active and participative roles in leadership processes in society and organizations. Furthermore, value-based and relational leadership theories such as transformational, servant, ethical, collaborative, inclusive, distributed, shared, and adaptive seem to be more follower-centered. As a result, scholars’ attention shifted from the leader as a person to leading and following as a process. This shift provides a “foundation for theories that move beyond hierarchical, individualistic, one-directional and de-contextualized notions of leadership” [28].
Additionally, complexity leadership theorists (CLT) raise legitimate concerns about “how, in the context of bureaucratic organizing structures, can organizational leaders enable emergence of the new solutions and innovation needed to survive and thrive in today’s complex world?” [26]. The answer to this question may be sought in an ancient metaphor where one attempts to withstand a new wine in an old wineskin.3 The “old wineskin” here represents the bureaucratic organizing structures and leader-centered theories of the twentieth century that may not sustain the “new wine,” which represents the twenty-first century virtual organizations and leading-following complex processes in the digital world. Thus, in order for the leading-following interactive process to occur (the “new wine”) in today’s digital age, a new organizational mindset and design seems necessary (the “new wineskins”) because the environmentally conscious and responsible digital generation (the “new wine”) cannot fully function in corporate hierarchical structures with leader-centered leadership mindset (the “old wineskins”).
Furthermore, role identity theories and research indicate that multiple or interchangeable role identities may be beneficial for positional leaders, who lead under constant demands and pressure, to be willing to share leadership with followers and adopt leader-follower multiple identities. If leaders and followers trade their leading and following roles in organizations and interchangeably lead and follow in various situations [29, 30], it may minimize leadership power abuse, eliminate social identity stereotyping for followers [31], reduce psychological distress [32, 33, 34], and prevent physical illnesses [34, 35, 36].
5. Leadership education change
Unlike most organizational leaders of the Boomer generation, who did not get a formal education in leadership, Millennials were exposed to leadership and organizational studies in their undergraduate and graduate curricula across the United States in the last 30–40 years [37]. Nowadays, every college or university student, or any individual interested in acquiring knowledge or a degree in leadership, has access to such studies via university or online databases without restrictions or discrimination. For instance, according to the Higher Education Program Directory of International Leadership Association (ILA),4 there are more than 380 undergraduate and graduate certificate programs in leadership and more than 200 bachelor’s degrees in leadership in 13 countries, including the United States. Nearly 28 countries offer 800 graduate degrees, and 10 countries offer 350 doctoral programs in leadership. According to Guthrie et al. [7], the ILA directory hosts more than 1570 academic programs worldwide. However, followership has not been fully integrated with the leadership curriculum and leadership education in the United States, which means that colleges do not teach and students do not learn the importance of followership.
Furthermore, the allocation of leadership training resources solely to company managers and leaders to increase their effectiveness and productivity [38] has resulted in leader-favored and leader-focused research and further separation of followers from the leadership process [39]. However, studies in followership as an inseparable role of leadership are expanding. College courses on followership and followership education began to emerge at the turn of the twenty-first century. Students are now learning how to be courageous followers by standing up to and for their leaders [40], challenging toxic leaders [13], and exercising intelligent disobedience to resist unethical leaders [41].
6. The context of the digital era
The digitization of information on history, arts, science, business, health, and other subjects through information and communication technologies (ICT) has fundamentally transformed humans’ way of life. New virtual environments have been formed for socialization and work through the World Wide Web and social media. As a result, digitalization has caused the emergence of virtual organizations as new work environments, called e-environments, new patterns of leadership, called e-leadership, and new boundaries for leader-follower relationships [42]. Additionally, as traditional organizations increase their online presence, the roles, responsibilities, functions, and behaviors of followers and leaders are changing. The traditional gap between leaders and followers of the industrial era, leaders doing leadership and followers doing followership, does not exist anymore. Followers seem to act and behave as leaders in the virtual world. Conversely, the power dynamics between leaders and followers are changing due to distant and remote interactions. The digital platform seems to foster interdependent collaboration and has swiped away some of the organizational power and privileges from leaders and empowered and emboldened followers to lead [43].
The following contextual factors have contributed to the change of power dynamics between leaders and followers in virtual organizations.
First, physical reality has been replaced by virtual reality. What is real has become a philosophical debate in the digital age. Leadership attributes based on one’s physical appearance (e.g., physical strengths, manner and mannerism, age, race, gender, etc.) have less meaning in the leadership process than before.
Second, human interactions have moved from face-to-face to electronic communication. This has impacted the way traditional business and education is conducted. Virtual classrooms and workplaces have become the new norms for the digital age.
Third, digitization and automation have eliminated numerous managerial positions in today’s digital economy. Virtual company workers nowadays need less managerial and direct supervision. The 40-hour workweek and most HR ethical conduct policies for face-to-face interactions do not apply to virtual organizations anymore. As a result, business relationships between leaders and followers have changed from top-down, or vertically influenced, to horizontal mutual collaborations and interactions.
Fourth, the era of scientific management, of “I am my job,” has yielded to rapidly changing and evolving multi-tasking and collaborative job descriptions. Today’s employees are expected to use multiple skills for multiple tasks to remain competitive in the job market. For instance, as the coal and fossil fuel industries are being replaced by new alternative energy enterprises, coal miners are expected to develop new technical and soft skills to be able to perform jobs that are available in today’s digital economy.
Fifth, the replacement of the physical with digital interactions between leaders and followers in organizations has created new challenges for both parties. Holland et al. [44], who examined electronic leadership challenges in healthcare organizations, have learned that global virtual leaders and teams face challenges such as isolation, confusion, language barriers, cultural differences, and technological breakdowns. They seem to echo Antonakis and Atwater [45], who found that leader distance affects leadership outcome. Furthermore, a study conducted by Howell et al. showed that physical distance negatively moderates the relationship between transformational leaders and followers’ performance in a business unit [46].
Sixth, the roles and functional differences between organizational leaders and followers in virtual organizations have become blurrier. Nowadays, followers have opportunities to lead, and leaders are challenged to follow their supervisors, followers, and the constantly growing organizational policies and procedures in the workplace.
Seventh, digital natives and digital immigrants seem to speak different languages and represent different cultures. As a result, the worldview and communication gap between these generations has created new intergenerational tensions and challenges in the current digital age.
Above-mentioned seven contextual factors not only changed power dynamics between leaders and followers but also disrupted the “business as usual” mindset in organizations by created a discontinuity gap between the traditional and contemporary leadership understanding and practice. This disruptive phenomenon in mathematics is known as “jump discontinuity” within piecewise functions. Figure 1 below is an example of a function that is discontinuous at x = a, because there is a gap between L and M.5
Figure 1.
A jump discontinuity in piecewise function.
Both ends of the functional lines have limitations and different values.
Limfx=LandLimfx=ME1
x→a−x→a+E2
The discontinuity of Lim f(x) = L may represent the traditional leadership function, while Lim f(x) = M—the contemporary leadership in the digital age. To make the traditional leadership L and the contemporary leadership M work as a continuous function, the L-M gap must be bridged. See the use of the discontinuity gap in 9.1. Application of LFT model to Digital Leader-Followership.
7. Literature on digital leadership
Literature on leadership implemented with digital technology can be placed into four major categories: (1) leadership in the digital age, (2) digital leadership, (3) e-leadership, and (4) cyber leadership.
7.1 Leadership in the digital age
Leadership in the digital age refers to “leadership in any institution or sector embedded in the broader transitions toward a more knowledge intensive society” through the use of ICT [47]. This transition brings new constraints and opportunities to the traditional understanding and practices of leadership in various organizations. To understand leadership in the digital age, it is important to note the effect of digitization on leadership in the virtual space. Khan [48] distinguishes six characteristics of digitization:
Interconnectedness through digital communication and interactions that allow participants to share knowledge and practices for a structured environment while “unleashing creativity, innovation, dynamic networking, and participation in unstructured settings” [49].
Diminishing time lag and abundance of information through a shortened timeframe of decision-making and increased speed of information and forms of interaction.
Increased transparency and complexity. As organizational structures become more complex and interconnected, the virtual space requires increased transparency.
Hierarchy removal and dissolving of personal barriers as a result of organizations and relationships becoming more fluid. For instance, “reverse mentoring programs” [50] break the boundaries of corporate positions for top managers and senior executives (i.e., digital immigrants), who learn from or are led by the younger generation (i.e., digital natives).
Decision enabling and integrity enhancing. Digitization allows making leadership decisions much faster and fosters personal integrity to maintain trust among participants.
Humanising effect. Digitization enables virtual collaborators to freely interact and interlink through virtual platforms and tools in a symbiotic way “in which virtually everyone and everything are mutually interdependent” [51].
7.2 Digital leadership
Digital leadership refers to leadership in the core sectors of the knowledge society—the three “C’s of computing, communications and content (broadcasting and print), and now multi-media” [52]. Narbona defines digital leadership as “human quality of leadership exercised with digital tools in the virtual world” [53]. Others define it as “doing the right things for the strategic success of digitalization” for organizations that require different mindsets, skillsets, and workplaces [54]. Digital leadership is relational leadership because the relationships between leaders and followers in the social media platform (e.g., Twitter) occupy the prominent role [55]. Digital leadership is also occasional, unpredictable, and organic. In a matter of hours, days, or weeks, one may gain an enormous influence through verbal or visual messages via the World Wide Web. For instance, those who gain more followers in their Twitter, Facebook, or YouTube accounts rise to a level of influence that humans have never seen before. Thus, digital leadership is not static positional leadership but rather spontaneous, fluid, short-lived, and role-based.
7.3 E-leadership
Avolio et al. define e-leadership as “a social influence process mediated by AIT [advanced information technology] to produce a change in attitudes, feelings, thinking, behavior, and/or performance with individuals, groups, and/or organizations” [56]. According to DasGupta’s literature review on e-leadership, it has the same issues as traditional leadership (i.e., vision, direction, motivation, inspiration, trust). However, some challenges that e-leaders face are as follows: effective communication, conveying enthusiasm digitally, (b) building trust without face-to-face interactions, (c) creating presence, (d) inspiring, (e) mentoring, (f) monitoring and controlling social loafing, (g) fostering technical competence, and (h) finding work-life balance [57].
7.4 Cyber leadership
Cyber leadership refers to a responsibility that enhances the organizational mission, business processes, and functions “by leveraging resources, information and information technology to deliver solutions that are effective, efficient, and secure” [58]. The essence of cyber leadership is to deal with information warfare, cybersecurity threats, and defense against cyberattacks in the virtual world. In a sense, cyber leadership is a digital version of military leadership with an effort to transform military leaders into cyber-strategic leaders [59]. Francesca Spidalieri argues:
Cyber defense requires not only IT experts with computer science, electrical engineering, and software security skills, but also professionals with an understanding of political theory, institutional theory, behavioral psychology, ethics, international law, international relations, and additional social sciences…the pillars of our society…are often led by individuals with extremely limited exposure to cyber issues and the existential threats they pose [60].
8. Alternative approaches to digital leader-followership
The literature clearly indicates the leader-centeredness of all four characteristics of digital leadership, while little or no mention is given to the role of digital followers in the digital age. However, what is intriguing is that the digital environment, as a new organizational structure, abolishes the traditional hierarchical structures and relationships between static and positional leaders and followers by turning them into fluid leader-followers and authentic humans. Additionally, definitions and concepts of digital leadership seem to equally apply to those who lead and those who follow in virtual organizations. For instance, to overcome the challenges and paradoxes of e-leadership, such as the individual vs. the community, swiftness vs. mindfulness, top-down vs. grassroots, micro vs. macro perspectives, and flexible vs. steady, Pulley and Sessa suggest that people in organizations ought to participate in leadership at all levels [61]. This means that digital leadership (and followership) is and should be everyone’s business, not just the positional leader of the organization [62, 63].
Furthermore, Annunzio [64] seems to advocate for inter-generational collaborations between e-leaders among Boomers, Gen Xers, and Gen Yers to sustain the traditional structures of corporate America. As seen above, the digitization has already created a shared platform for intergenerational collaboration because digital immigrants (often employers) will always need the support of digital natives (often employees) to transform organizations to meet the challenges of the digital age.
There is a significant and growing body of literature on followership, multiple-role identities, and process-based, distributed, “shared,” “collective,” “collaborative,” “relational,” and “co-” leadership [65] that are more follower-inclusive and relational-based, including inclusive and adapted leadership. They will be considered below as alternative approaches to leader-followership in the digital age. These models seem to best apply to virtual and cyber situations that organizations and communities face in today’s digital age.
8.1 Followership
Followership research investigates “the nature and impact of followers and following in the leadership process” [66]. It emphasizes the importance of the role of the followers in organizations and how various types of followership behaviors can be observed in response to leader behaviors [8, 67, 68]. Other scholars discuss how follower identities and behaviors influence and shape leadership behaviors and outcomes [69, 70, 71]. Followers’ and leaders’ roles are not static. The static role of the “leader” and the “follower” seems unnatural because one does not lead like a lion or follow like a sheep at all times [8, 72]. One may lead in one and follow in another situation [30].
Thus, the followership research may explain how the digital followership may work in virtual context if it refuses to follow the same one-sided attitude of the leadership research that intentionally focused on the leader behavior and omitted the follower behavior as one continuum or the two sides of the one coin [73]. Rather, by studying the leading-following “tang” between leaders and followers,6 it offers a more balanced understanding of the leadership process, one that involves (1) “leading-following double interacts,” (2) stimulates “the construction of leader and follower identities,” and takes into account the fact that (3) leading-following interactions are developed “within an environment and context that are endogenous … to the leading-following process,” that (4) “the leading-following process is fluid,” and (5) that the dynamic environment plays a crucial role in nurturing fluid leading-following interactions [74].
8.2 Leader-follower multi-role identities
In today’s information and digital age, single identity (“I am a leader” or “I am a follower”) of the industrial leadership era has shifted to multiple-role identity paradigm of leader-followership (“I function as a leader and a follower”). Multiple-role identity theories explain how multiple roles may function in today’s multifunctional and diverse workforce. For instance, individuals often occupy more than one social position and play more than one role in society. Hence, people develop multiple identities (e.g., parent, worker, volunteer, etc.) that are naturally activated in various social interactions. Burke and Stets put it this way: “A person could be a student in one context, a friend in another, a mother, a daughter, a teacher, a blood donor, a homeowner, and so on” [75]. Multiple [role] identities, according to them, “function together within the self [through internal framework] and within the overall identity verification process [external framework]” [75]. Multiple identities exist within the person and across persons [76]. These multiple identities among multiple individuals may interact in a given situation (e.g., individuals working together to accomplish a group task). Thus, multiple-role identity theories explain how one may operate in both leader and follower roles and multiple competencies in organizations, especially in the digital age.
8.3 Process-based leadership
Leadership and organizational studies in the West moved from a leader-focused to a process-based understanding of leader-follower relationships in organizations in the last 20 years [69, 71, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83]. It is no longer about the leader but the process of leading and following, where individuals may function as both leaders and followers based on personal strengths or competencies. This shift may result in increased reciprocity or exchange of leading and following behaviors, roles, and functions and a decrease of static leader and follower positions in organizations. Thus, the process-based approach to leadership asserts that leadership is no longer about the positional leader, but the dynamic and dialectic process of leader-follower multi-dimensional human interactions [77, 84, 85]. This approach may well be applied to digital leadership in virtual organizations where the uncertainty and the unpredictability of situations may demand non-leaders engage in the leadership process by exercising their strengths or competencies for organizational goal achievement.
8.4 Distributed leadership
Distributed leadership “recognizes individual and collective agency, and the reciprocal nature of the practice of leadership” [86], which is more important than the particular leadership roles or the specific leadership function. It implies that “leadership tasks are dispersed rather than delegated and that such dispersal is widely enacted across organizations” [86]. Therefore, distributed leadership is best understood as a practice distributed over leaders, followers, and their situation, which incorporates the activities of multiple groups of individuals. Harris et al. argue, “where leadership is distributed then inevitably the forces of power, authority and control are also distributed and shared” [86].
Distributed leadership faces two challenges: (1) establishing collective trust toward a common goal and (2) actively engaging and guiding those who have yet to form mutual trusting relationships [86]. For distributed leadership to occur, trust and empathy are needed for authentic collaboration, information sharing, and interdependent idea generation [87]. Nevertheless, the distributed paradigm of leadership tolerates uncertainty, diversity of perspectives, flexibility, functionality, and role exchange between leading and following. It is open to global challenges and solutions, is eager to acquire new knowledge, exhibits a constant learning attitude, and, unlike earlier leadership approaches, maintains an egalitarian and results-oriented approach [47]. Thus, distributed leadership may be useful for digital native generations in the digital era. The challenge that distributed leadership may pose to complex digital teams is that it lacks fluidity between simultaneous leading and following actions in group and organizational settings [88].
8.5 Shared leadership
Shared leadership, viewed as “different individuals enact leader and follower roles at different points in time” [89], challenges the traditional understanding of leadership in teams where the focus has been shifted from a single static leader or follower and vertical, one-directional influence to multiple and dynamic leaders and followers and horizontal, leading-following, reciprocal influence processes and their impact on team outcomes [88, 89, 90, 91]. Unlike traditional leadership theories that focus on the role of formal, appointed leaders, shared leadership focuses on the leading and following processes of team members [92]. This is a shift in the leadership paradigm from an individual to a collective [93].
The digital age requires a team approach to complex leadership problems that often involve multiple organizations, societies, cultures, and nations sharing knowledge, skills, and expertise. No single leader possesses the necessary knowledge, skills, and disposition to address global leadership challenges in today’s virtual world. Thus, shared leadership allows the sharing of leading and following responsibilities not only among the team members, but also with other teams. For instance, team members with certain specialized skillsets might engage in leadership behavior in one domain and adopt a follower role in another domain [94, 95]. Thus, shared leadership, which also assumes shared followership [88], may meet the leading and following needs for the digital natives in virtual organizations, as they grew up in a sharing environment where knowledge, experiences, perspectives, and electronic files were freely shared for learning and business across the oceans [96].
8.6 Collective leadership
Collective leadership refers to “a dynamic leadership process in which a defined leader, or set of leaders, selectively utilize skills and expertise within a network, effectively distributing elements of the leadership role as the situation or problem at hand requires” [97]. Collective leadership assumes that each member of the team selectively performs leadership roles that match her or his skills and expertise and that when the situation or the problem at hand changes, members of the team effectively distribute elements of the leadership role to others [98].
Collective leadership, unlike the traditional hierarchical models of leadership, is also applicable to global leadership in the digital age. For instance, to address global issues such as climate change, where many international governmental agencies and private organizations are involved, a new model of leadership is expected. Goodchild and Associates are convinced that “any effort to develop a next-generation Digital Earth will require new governance models” [99].7
Collective leadership may be effectively used in cyber leadership where multiple and various skills and expertise are required to engage in cybersecurity or cyber defense.
8.7 Adaptive leadership
Adaptive leadership is another follower-centered approach to the leadership process. However, the earlier theories of adaptive leadership continue to be leader-centered. For example, adaptive leadership has portrayed the tasks of the static leader as helping static followers adapt to the challenges they encounter in a given situation, changing and adjusting to new circumstances, and grappling with the problems at hand [100]. Moreover, the adaptive leadership process incorporates four standpoints: systems, biological, service, and psychotherapy perspectives [101]. The task of the static leader, then, is to recognize the complexities of leadership situations and enable followers to adapt to complex leadership and organizational changes. Similarly, it is the leader who makes followers aware of biological changes for adaptation and, by using her or his positional leadership authority, serves followers’ needs by finding solutions to their problems. Finally, by using the psychotherapy perspective, the leader then creates a supportive environment for successful adaptation [100]. This approach is an old paradigm of the Boomer generation that does not fit with the demands of the digital age.
Thus, I propose DeRue’s adaptive leadership theory, which advocates for dynamic and fluid leading-following adaptive processes where individuals cultivate leader-follower identities through simultaneous and interchangeable leading and following actions within the group. This theory challenges the traditional “individualistic, hierarchical, one-directional and de-contextualized notions of leadership” [88]. Furthermore, DeRue rightly noted, “the nature of work in organizations is changing to include more interdependent work, more fluid and less centralized work structures, and a greater emphasis on the need for leadership at all levels of an organization” [28]. Thus, the aforementioned adaptive leadership theory seems most relevant to digital natives because it provides a theoretical basis to adapt and succeed in leading and following double interactions between and by all members of groups in virtual organizations.
9. A conceptual framework for the digital leader-followership
As seen above, current interdisciplinary studies on leader-follower relationships and identity formation provide new and fresh theoretical perspectives for individuals to develop multiple leader and follower role identities, becoming a leader in one situation and a follower in another. Thus, the industrial paradigm of the leader and the follower as static and separate social identities must be replaced by hybrid leader-follower multiple-role identities to make leadership (the process of leading and following) applicable for a digital environment. In other words, no one is a leader or a follower all the time and in all circumstances. Everyone is and should see herself or himself as a leader and a follower in different situations and contexts for the social construct of leadership to occur. Thus, leadership should not be perceived as a title for a privileged minority and followership as a title for a less-privileged majority in organizations, especially in today’s digital age.
The leader-follower trade (LFT) approach offers a conceptual framework to address the century-long social identity segregation between powerful leaders and powerless followers [30]. The model encourages everyone to cultivate leading and following multiple-role identities and acquire both skills to exercise fluidity in leading and following. Such a symbiotic process of leading and following between individuals with multiple roles may create dynamic and healthy work conditions for (1) situational and context-based leaders and followers to build mutual trust and respect; (2) a fair distribution of power and resources among the members of the organization based on mutual influence; (3) cultivating self-awareness and self-discovery of personal strengths among team members as hybrid individuals capable of leading and following; and (4) mutually accountable relationships between multiple teams and members through transparent and authentic organizational communication.
LFT is particularly effective in cyber leadership, where a shorter time is necessary for decision-making or responding to cyberattacks. Since leading and following responsibilities are shared and exchanged among team members based on their expertise, a hierarchical and top-down leadership becomes unnecessary, and the positional barriers may be easily dissolved to achieve the desired outcome. In this case, the one who makes the decision takes personal responsibility for the outcome of her or his decision.
The LFT approach may be realized in virtual organizations when there is a high level of willingness and competency to interchangeably shift roles from leading to following and from following to leading based on one’s expertise, personal preference, strengths, and organizational goals. Figure 2 illustrates the feasibility of the LFT approach from the perspectives of leading-following competencies and willingness to trade leading and following roles simultaneously or interchangeably.
Figure 2.
The feasibility quadrants of the LFT approach.
Quadrant 1: When leader-follower competencies are high but the willingness is low, it is more likely that digital leader-followers resist but do not avoid LFT. Thus, the LFT approach may be feasible.
Quadrant 2: When leader-follower willingness and competencies are low, it is more likely that digital leader-followers hesitate and avoid LFT. Thus, the LFT approach is infeasible.
Quadrant 3: When the leader-follower competencies are low but the willingness is high, it is more likely that leaders and followers are interested but avoid LFT. Thus, the LFT approach may be feasible.
Quadrant 4: When the leader-follower competencies and willingness are high, it is more likely that leaders and followers may enthusiastically engage in LFT. Thus, the LFT approach is feasible.
From the quadrant analysis, it is apparent that the LFT approach is achievable only if (1) digital leaders acquire following skills and digital followers acquire leadership skills and (2) both digital leaders and followers are willing to trade their roles by cultivating multiple leading-following identities.
What are the personal and group incentives for the applicability of the LFT approach in the digital age?
Leading and following competencies:
Many leaders fail. Thus, followers lose their trust in them. This factor may motivate followers to get involved in the leadership process and aspire to lead.
The culture has shifted emphasis from powerful leaders to powerful followers who elect and select their leaders through democratic processes (e.g., a vote of confidence or an election).
Leadership education and resources are available to today’s digital followers to learn how to lead effectively and ethically if they so choose. Similarly, the lack of digital competencies among digital immigrants may motivate them to follow and learn from digital natives.
Willingness to trade leading and following roles:
Leading roles are stressful and harmful to human health. The research on multiple-identity theories indicates that those who have multiple roles in society live healthier lives than those who have one role. Thus, the exchange of leading and following roles may prevent burnout and psychological distress.
Shared responsibilities assume shared accountability. Thus, it is not fair that organizational leaders take full responsibility for those who are not willing to participate in the leadership process. Followers should also be held accountable for participating in the decision-making processes.
Sharing leadership responsibilities also may mean sharing the profits and benefits of leadership. This may motivate followers and facilitate a fair distribution of wages and compensation.
9.1 Application of LFT model for digital leader-followership
As mentioned in “The Context of the Digital Era,” the emerging digital leadership defers from the traditional hierarchical leadership on many areas such as socio-cultural, theoretical, philosophical, and generational. The disruptive and unpredicted nature of the digital leadership seems to cause an on-going change and discontinuity among leading and following functional patterns in today’s organizations who are in a transition from industrial to information and digital age.
The LFT approach may well serve as a bridge model between the traditional and emerging leadership paradigms in the digital age. For instance, by fostering leader-follower competences and wiliness to trade leading and following roles between digital immigrant and digital native generations, the existing L-M gap may be bridged. Examples of bridge building:
Salkowitz offers to close the digital gap and build intergenerational bridges by empowering the younger generation to educate older workers in information technology [102].
Chaudhuri and Ghosh recommend reverse mentoring programs for Boomer and Millennial generations to keep the former engaged and the latter committed [103].
To bridge the gap between generations, Kornelsen suggests leading with Millennials in a VUCA-world (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous) [104].
10. Addressing leadership problems in the digital age
The number one problem in the digital age continues to be the abuse of power and position, which seem to nurture selfish and narcissistic human instincts that are destructive for leaders, society, and even for the world.8 Leadership should not focus on the person in the leadership position but rather on the process of leading and following with appropriate checks and balances.
The number two problem in the digital age is the lack of appreciation for following. We do not teach followership and what it means to be a good and responsible follower. As a result, followers are easily misled, manipulated, or even deceived by their leaders. Thus, followership must be taught and practiced in schools and universities because followers are the change-agents and the power holders in the digital age.
11. Conclusion
The post-industrial and post-structuralist era of leader-followership has set the stage for multiple leader-follower identities and new organizational structures to emerge. In today’s virtual reality, individuals should be able to freely exchange leading and following roles according to organizational or contextual needs. Such a mindset may lay the groundwork for mutual accountability between situational and role-based leaders and encourage multiple-role identity leader-followers to emerge [76]. In other words, followers can become leaders and leaders can become followers [105, 106, 107] because one does not exist without the other [30, 88]. Thus, a new generation of hybrid leader-followers and less-hierarchical organizational structures are on the horizon, where the members of virtual organizations may lead and follow not based on their static positions or positional authority but according to their skills, expertise, and competencies.
11.1 Limitations
This study has source and topical limitations. The sources used in this chapter are limited to available peer-reviewed and research-based articles, books, thesis, and dissertations in the following digital databases: Google.com, Scholar.google.com, ABI/INFORM Complete (ProQuest), Academic Search Complete (EBSCO), Business Source Premier (EBSCO), Communication & Mass Media Complete, JSTOR Business Collection, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, SAGE Premier, and Springer e-Journals. Additionally, due to the chapter limitation, the following topics have not been addressed in this study: cybersecurity leadership, leadership in game-based environments, leadership in the Second Life, leader identity in the virtual world (avatars vs. authentic leaders), automation, robotization, and leadership, artificial intelligence and leadership.
11.2 Implications for future research
Literature on all four categories of digital leadership discussed in this chapter is scarce particularly when it comes to comparing theoretical and practical differences between leadership in pre-digital and digital age. More empirical data is necessary to measure the effectiveness of contemporary models of leadership such distributed, shared, collective, and adaptive approaches for the digital age. Also, further research is needed in the following areas:
The power dynamics among e-leaders and e-followers in virtual organizations.
How leader and follower identities are formed in the virtual world and their sustainability over time.
Whether or not the process-based understudying of leadership is more applicable and relevant to leadership in the digital age.
Feasibility of the LFT conceptual framework in cyber leadership for maximum fluidity and flexibility in decision-making processes.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"leader-followership, digital leadership, virtual organizations, digital natives, digital immigrants",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69669.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69669.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69669",totalDownloads:989,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:88,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 20th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 2nd 2019",datePublished:"April 1st 2020",dateFinished:"October 22nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter examines the emerging literature on contemporary leadership, particularly leadership in the digital age, digital leadership, e-leadership, and cyber leadership, in the context of socio-cultural changes, theoretical shifts in leadership studies, and leadership education changes observed in the United States in the last two decades. Although the above literature shows a shift from leader-centered and hierarchical to follower-centered and relational leadership, it is not clear how the old may yield to the new paradigm of leadership. There seem to be no discussion in the leadership literature on how to transition from pre-digital to digital era of leadership. While this study acknowledges the discontinuity and tension between the contemporary and the traditional leadership approaches, it offers theoretical and practical alternatives for transitioning from traditional to contemporary leadership in the digital age. Since leadership research has already shifted from single-role identity to multiple-role identities, which enables individuals to acquire and master both leading and following skills in today’s organizations, this study is optimistic that the leader-follower trade (LFT) or similar approaches may build bridges between digital native and digital immigrant generations of leader-followers for a smoother transition from hierarchical to distributed, shared, collective, and adaptive leadership for the digital age.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69669",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69669",book:{id:"7799",slug:"digital-leadership-a-new-leadership-style-for-the-21st-century"},signatures:"Petros G. Malakyan",authors:[{id:"308316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Petros",middleName:null,surname:"Malakyan",fullName:"Petros Malakyan",slug:"petros-malakyan",email:"malakyan@rmu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The context of the pre-digital leadership era",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Socio-cultural and value changes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Theoretical shift in leadership studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Leadership education change",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The context of the digital era",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Literature on digital leadership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"7.1 Leadership in the digital age",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"7.2 Digital leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"7.3 E-leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.4 Cyber leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Alternative approaches to digital leader-followership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"8.1 Followership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"8.2 Leader-follower multi-role identities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"8.3 Process-based leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"8.4 Distributed leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"8.5 Shared leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"8.6 Collective leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"8.7 Adaptive leadership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"9. A conceptual framework for the digital leader-followership",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"9.1 Application of LFT model for digital leader-followership",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"10. Addressing leadership problems in the digital age",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"11. 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International Journal of Human Resource Studies. 2012;22:71-83. DOI: 10.5296/ijhrs.v2i2.1568'},{id:"B106",body:'Howell JP, Bowen DE, Dorfman PW, Kerr S, Podsakoff PM. Substitutes for leadership: Effective alternatives to ineffective leadership. Organizational Dynamics. 1990;191:21-38. DOI: 10.1016/0090-2616(90)90046-R'},{id:"B107",body:'Kerr S, Jermier JM. Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 1978;223:375-403. DOI: 10.1016/0030-5073(78)90023-5'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"In this chapter, different generations of American society are presented:Baby Boomers—born between 1944 and 1964Gen X—born between 1965 and 1979Millennial—born between 1980 and 1994. Some researchers refer to Millennials as Generation Y or Yers [13].Gen Z—born between 1995 and 2015"},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Retrieved on August 15, 2019. Available from: https://350.org/global-climate-march/."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"The “old wineskin” and “new wine” metaphor is taken from Matthew 9: 16–17 (NRSV): “No one sews a piece of unshrunk cloth on an old cloak … Neither is new wine put into old wineskins; otherwise, the skins burst and the wine is spilled, and the skins are destroyed; but new wine is put into fresh wineskins, and so both are preserved.”"},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Retrieved on February 12, 2019. Available from: http://www.ila-net.org/Resources/LPD/index.htm."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Read more at https://www.mathwarehouse.com/calculus/continuity/what-are-types-of-discontinuities.php#ixzz5zkep0JfR"},{id:"fn6",explanation:"Watch a video on “Leadership and followership: What tango teaches us about these roles in life” at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cswrnc1dggg."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"Michael F. Goodchild and Associates (Huadong Guob, Alessandro Annoni, Ling Bian, Kees de Bie, Frederick Campbell, Max Craglia, Manfred Ehlers, John van Genderen, Davina Jackson, Anthony J. Lewis, Martino Pesaresi, Gábor Remetey-Fülopp, Richard Simpson, Andrew Skidmore, Changlin Wang, and Peter Woodgate) produced a paper in 2012 entitled “Next-generation digital earth”, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, as the outcome of the workshop on next-generation Digital Earth held in Beijing in March 2011 hosted by the Center for Earth Observation and Digital Earth of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Secretariat of the International Society for Digital Earth (ISDE)."},{id:"fn8",explanation:"Examples of destructive leadership: Spartacus’s slave rebellion from 73 to 71 BCE; Crusades from 1096 to 1192; Protestants Reformation from 1517 to 1648; French Revolution from 1789 to 1799; American Civil War from 1861 to 1865; World War I from 1914 to 1918; Russian Bolshevik Revolution from 1917 to 1918; World War II from 1941 to 1945."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Petros G. Malakyan",address:"malakyan@rmu.edu",affiliation:'
Robert Morris University, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, USA
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1. Introduction
The booming global businesses have largely facilitated the cross-border flow of goods, but meanwhile are threatened by the dramatically increased intellectual property (IP) crimes nowadays. According to the study by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the value of counterfeit and pirated products is amounted to USD 464 billion in 2019, equal to 2.5% of world trade and more than half of the total value is carried by containerships between countries [1, 2]. The illicit trade hits company profits and nation tax revenue and endangers public health when pharmaceuticals and medical equipment are involved. For these reasons, advanced technologies that combat fake products demand prompt development to ensure reliable flow of goods while maintain its convenience.
Anti-counterfeiting idea was early raised by Philadelphia printer Benjamin Franklin in the 1700s [3], at that time colonies in North America were troubled by the circulation of counterfeit bills. Franklin deliberately misspelled Pennsylvania in the printed bills to baffle less-literate criminals. Meanwhile, he engraved the fine detail of copper on the leaf vein at the back of each bill, making these bills hard to be reproduced by counterfeiters. The unique copper engraving created by blocky lead printer has been regarded as a prototype for contemporary anti-counterfeiting patterning technologies. Since the 1950s, the development of holograms [4, 5, 6, 7], ink printing [8, 9, 10, 11], and exquisite laser engraving [12, 13, 14] have offered practical solutions to protect the market from malicious third parties.
Halide perovskites as an emerging family of semiconductor materials have achieved notable success in photovoltaics and other optoelectronics over the past decade [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. The intriguing photophysical property of perovskites, such as widely tunable bandgaps [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26], high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) [27, 28, 29], and narrow emission width [30, 31, 32], are making them promising candidates for fabricating luminescent security tags. Meanwhile, the solution/ink processability of perovskites imparts them feasibility with a variety of printing technologies, enabling high-throughput generation of customized labels with enhanced encoding capacity and lowered processing cost [33, 34, 35].
Here, we give a retrospect to the recent advances of halide perovskite-based materials for anti-counterfeiting applications. Low-dimensional perovskites and double perovskites that are structural analogs to three-dimensional (3D) ones as well as other perovskite-like materials are included in the discussion. We summarize the patterning techniques that can lead to precise control of tag fabrication at high dim either flat surface or closed space. The luminescent security tags of perovskites are categorized by different encryption principles, with detailed phase transformation or compositional variation of materials being provided for each chromic case. Integration of luminescent properties that gives rise to multimodal anti-counterfeiting is discussed in respect of goods being strictly confidential. We then survey the special optical readout of security tags that is enabled by the exciton relaxation behavior and carrier dynamic of perovskites.
2. Perovskites for anti-counterfeiting applications
Taking advantage of the high PLQY of halide perovskites, security information in a luminescent tag can be easily and rapidly identified by the human eye or spectrum. The excitation-dependent emission of perovskites can also be tuned from the monochromatic to broadband white light [36, 37, 38], giving an added complexity to the optical readout of tags. Combined with versatile encryption and decryption strategies, the security level of an individual tag can be enhanced multidimensionally and output in a simplified digital form [39]. The anti-counterfeiting mechanism of security tags during the flow of goods is illustrated in Figure 1, where the authentication is implemented by the communication between preloaded database and third parties.
Figure 1.
Anti-counterfeiting mechanism of security tags during the flow of goods.
2.1 Fundamental structure of perovskites and their luminescent properties
Perovskite mineral (calcium titanium oxide, CaTiO3) was discovered in the Ural Mountains by German mineralogist Gustav Rose in 1839 [40]. The crystal structure of perovskite oxide was not determined by X-ray diffraction until nearly a century later [41] and was proved to comprise three fundamental phases, i.e. cubic, tetragonal, and orthorhombic based on the rigid 3D lattice. Halide perovskites share the similar crystal structure to perovskite oxide, of which the compounds were first synthesized in the late nineteenth century by H. L. Wells [42]. Typically, 3D perovskites (defined by a chemical formula of ABX3, where A is a monovalent cation, B is a divalent cation, and X is a halide anion) have direct bandgaps that can be widely tuned by altering the composition of A- and B-site cations and halide anions [21, 24, 43, 44]. Besides, 3D perovskites normally feature low exciton binding energy (Eb) of dozens of millielectronvolts. Relaxation of an exciting photon in 3D perovskites normally releases a photon with equal energy, making the band maximum of PL spectra representative of their bandgaps. These properties are important for accurate encryption of perovskite patterns for wide-color-gamut luminescence.
Two-dimensional (2D) perovskites feature corner-sharing metal-halide octahedra intercalated by the bulky cations. Emission spectra of 2D perovskites can be structurally correlated with the interlayer spacing, quantum well (QW) thickness, and its distribution [45, 46]. Strong electron-photon coupling that originated from the deformable lattice was previously demonstrated for some 2D perovskite single crystals, which introduces permanent trap states [47]. The self-trapped excitons (STEs) were later revealed to be a type of transient defect driven by the electron-photon coupling and will contribute to the broadband emission of 2D perovskites [48, 49]. Further lowering the dimensionality of 2D perovskites leads to one-dimensional (1D) and zero-dimensional (0D) perovskites whose octahedra are shared by edge or face. STEs can also be responsible for the broadband emission of these materials with large Stokes shift [50, 51, 52, 53]. The white light or dual−/multiband emissions under different excitations are favorable for those luminescent tags that demand a high security level.
Double perovskites are defined by a chemical formula of A2BB’X6, where B is a monovalent cation and B′ is a trivalent cation and feature a rock salt arrangement of BX6 and B’X6 octahedra. In addition, A2B(IV)X6 compounds are also grouped as double perovskites because of their vacancy-ordered structure [54, 55]. The phase-pure double perovskites usually have room-temperature (RT) indirect bandgaps and exhibit band-to-band or downshifting emissions that can be strongly influenced by the specific metal dopants [55, 56, 57, 58, 59]. The in-depth reason was ascribed to lattice distortion since metal dopants will basically affect the length and angle of B − X − B′ bonds and hence change the electronic wave function coupling of metal cations [60].
2.2 Patterning techniques for perovskite security tags
Halide perovskites possess a high compatibility with printing techniques, since both the precursor solution and synthesized colloidal nanocrystals (NCs) can serve as inks. Using CsPbX3:Mn2+ (X = Cl, Br, I) NCs inks, Wang et al. [34] previously reported the fabrication of various patterns by screen, inkjet, and roll-to-roll printing techniques on flexible substrate (e.g. paper, polyethylene terephthalate, and banknotes). The patterns showed fluorescence as response to 254-nm and 365-nm ultraviolet (UV) light, and the CsPbBr3:Mn2+-based on maintained bright fluorescence after continuous UV irradiation for 60 days. Shi et al. [61] demonstrated an in situ growth of MAPbX3 (MA = methylammonium, X = Cl, Br, I) quantum dots (QDs) in polymer scaffold by directly inkjet printing precursor solution on polymer layer. The microdisk arrays of perovskite QDs showed high PLQY up to 80% and can be integrated for a variety of luminescent patterns. Specifically, the 2D code pattern fabricated on polyvinylidene chloride showed excellent water endurance and was still luminescent after being dipping in water for 100 days.
Nanoscale 3D printing technique was recently reported to fabricate perovskite nanopixels with programmed vertical height, location, and emission characteristics [35], which overcomes the low-resolution problem of conventional printing techniques. The authors of this study used femtoliter meniscus to guide the out-of-plane growth of MAPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) crystals from precursor solution, enabling ultrahigh integration density of red, green, and blue (RGB) nanopixel arrays with spacing of ~5 μm while maintaining its lateral resolution (Figure 2a). Numbers can be encoded for each discrete height of nanopixels and thus adds an additional level for encryption. Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing as another advanced printing technique was also reported to fabricate high-resolution CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) dot arrays with full-color display (Figure 2b) [62]. The size of a single dot was precisely controlled by the frequency and peak values of pulse voltage for precursor solution, and a minimum size of 5 μm can be achieved.
Figure 2.
(a) Schematic illustration of 3D printing of perovskite nanopixels. (b) Schematic illustration of EHD printing technique for perovskite patterning. (c) Representative laser processing system for perovskite patterning. Reprinted with permission from ref. [35, 62, 63]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society; copyright 2019 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim; copyright 2020 Royal Society of Chemistry.
Laser beam was previously used to trigger the ultrafast crystallization of perovskite for both patterning and photovoltaic applications [64]. Figure 2c shows a typical laser processing system for perovskite patterning. Without any heat treatment, Zhang et al. [63] demonstrated the fabrication of CsPbBr3/CsPb2Br5-polymer nanocomposites fluorescent pattern by 532-nm femtosecond laser irradiation. Localized crystallization of perovskite was observed in the irradiated pathway, which was accompanied by the laser-induced polymerization of γ-butyrolactone solvent. The width of perovskite line was lowered down to 1.2 μm, and both the crystal quality and luminescent intensity can be fine-tuned by the power and moving speed of laser beam. In addition, laser engraving was introduced to directly create patterns on CsPbBr3 microplates [65]. The hidden security information provides a guidance for encryption on a miniaturized pattern.
Most recently, Sun et al. [66] reported the use of 3D lithography technique to fabricated separated CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) NCs in glass matrix. The strong thermal accumulation at the laser-irradiated region of borophosphate glass leads to local pressure and temperature above the liquidus of materials, which induces liquid nanophase separation of glass and perovskite. By tailoring the parameters of pulse duration, repetition rate, pulse energy, and irradiation time, the emission color of pattern was tuned from blue to red under 405-nm excitation. Perovskite NCs in glass matrix exhibited notable phase stability against long-term UV irradiation, organic solution, and high temperature. The patterns were used for both 3D multicolor and dynamic holographic displays, showing huge potential for stereoscopic optical storage and authentication. Accordingly, we provide an overall assessment of existing printing and laser processing techniques for perovskite security tags in Table 1.
High-energy laser source required, sophisticated optical paths and machines
Table 1.
Technical assessment of patterning methods.
2.3 Encryption principles of perovskite security tags
With the assistance of advanced patterning techniques, the intriguing luminescent properties found on perovskites can be transformed into security information for encryption and decryption of tags. Normally, these tags are invisible under visible light but can emit light under UV, visible, or near-infrared (NIR) excitations. In this section, we provide an overview of encryption principle of perovskite security tags, including pattern, thermochromism, solvatochromism, photochromism, and multimodal luminescence. Other optical readout, such as long-lived emission (afterglow) phenomenon and carrier lifetime gating, are discussed as special encryption methods for delicate authentication of goods. Figure 3 shows the representative cases of encryption principles being reported over the past few years.
Figure 3.
Timeline of pioneering works with new encryption principles being reported for perovskite security tags.
2.3.1 Pattern
Shape design of a pattern is a fundamental approach to encode the security data relative to the complexity of contours. Printing or laser processing techniques have been developed to create customized pattern shapes whose resolution now reach a few micropixels or below. Lin et al. [33] raised the concept of clonable shape, while unclonable texture for anti-counterfeiting tags is based on CsPbBr3 patterns. A large amount of patterns that grown on laser-engraved lyophilic 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyltriethoxysilane (POTS) layer are grouped by the number of edges for both polygon and complex contour design. Using portable microscope and ShaptexMatch authentication software, the authors of this study matched the shape and texture of patterns, respectively, from the establishing database of 61st type of graphics. The effective encoding capacity of patterns was estimated up to 2.1 × 10623, and the authentication time was only 12.17 s for 4000 samples.
The vertical height of a single perovskite pixel can be also encoded as specific numbers [35], which is regarded as a complementary encryption strategy to lateral shape design of a pattern (Figure 4a and b). 3D confocal PL imaging was applied to recognize the height variation of perovskite pixels with the height interval of 5 μm. The height values were further converted into binary information matrix for digitalized decryption. As we have mentioned in Section 2.2, the pattern design at three dimensionalities enabled by 3D lithography technique allows more complex encryption on a security tag (Figure 4c–e) [66]. Random 3D luminescent patterns can therefore be spatially and temporally identified, offering an innovative platform for smart authentication of goods.
Figure 4.
(a) Tilt-view SEM image of as-printed perovskite nanopixel arrays. (b) Multicolor display of perovskite nanopixel arrays with different halide components under UV light. (c) Multicolor pattern with CsPbClxBr3 − x nanophases in glass under UV light. (d) 3D microhelix arrays of CsPbClxBr3 − x under UV light. (e) Dynamic holographic display of as-patterned “ZJUUSST” characters under 532-nm light. Reprinted with permission from ref. [35, 66] copyright 2021 American Chemical Society; copyright 2022 American Association for the Advancement of Science.
2.3.2 Thermochromism
Halide perovskites, especially organic–inorganic hybrid ones, feature considerably large thermal expansion coefficients [68, 69]. The thermochromic property of perovskites was first observed in thin film due to the phase transition between transparent hydrated phase (MA4PbI6·2H2O) and dark perovskite phase (MAPbI3) [70]. This phenomenon can be reversible by exposing perovskite film to ambient moisture at RT or heating condition at 60°C repeatably and was explored as the switchable photovoltaic performance for perovskite solar cells. The discoloration mechanism was recently developed for smart window applications based on hydrated MAPbClxI3 − x [71]. Similarly, Lin et al. [72] demonstrated the reversible thermochromic property of CsPbBrxI3 − x film coupled with dynamic transition of RT non-perovskite phase and high-temperature perovskite phase, which is also switched by the moisture and thermal annealing.
Above cases show the thermochromic phenomena of perovskites in the presence of moisture but may not be applicable to anti-counterfeiting tags that are fully encapsulated. Taking advantage of the inverse temperature crystallization (ITC) of hybrid perovskites, Bastiani et al. [73] reported the chromatic inks with wide color variation that depend on the halide constituent of perovskite precipitate. The RT yellow inks turned to orange, red, and black when temperature reached 60°C, 90°C, and 120°C, corresponding to the extrapolated absorption edges of MAPbBr2.7I0.3 at 597 nm, MAPbBr2.4I0.6 at 615 nm, and MAPbBr1.8I1.2 at 651 nm, respectively. The thermochromic behavior of perovskite inks showed consecutive cycling between RT and 60°C for several times.
The reversible thermochromic phenomena was also observed in diphasic perovskite material (CsPbBr3/Cs4PbBr6) wrapped by silica nanosphere [74]. The strong RT PL emission (at 525 nm) of composited patterns gradually decreased when temperature was elevated and almost disappeared at 150°C. Temperature-dependent PL spectra revealed the relatively low activation energy (Ea, 38 meV) of thermal quenching of composites, being ascribed to the thermal-sensitive nature of Cs4PbBr6 and should be responsible for the thermal-switchable PL emission. In addition, thermochromism can be found in both lead-based and lead-free 2D perovskites and double perovskites. Octahedral distortion and interlayer distance of 2D perovskites are strongly related to temperature and hence will result in phase transition during thermal heating or cooling [75, 76]. The structural change is accompanied by the bandgap variation of materials, leading to thermochromic behavior that can be identified by CIE coordinates. Ning et al. [77] reported the thermochromism of double-perovskite single crystal and thin film from RT to 250°C. The synergistic effect of anharmonic fluctuation and electron–phonon coupling as well as the spin-orbit coupling effect were unveiled to explain the thermochromic behavior of Cs2AgBiBr6 upon the bond length change of Ag-Br and Bi-Br. Security tags based on thermochromic perovskites enable the decryption through the information of discoloration or photoexcited emission relative to temperature.
2.3.3 Solvatochromism
Solvatochromism refers to chromic behavior of materials as response to water or other organic solvents. As we mentioned in Section 2.3.2, hybrid perovskites feature hydrochromism due to the formation of hydrated or non-perovskite phases in moisture atmosphere [70, 72]. Reversibly decomposition-induced hydrochromism was recently reported for CsPbBr3 NCs confined in mesoporous silica nanospheres (MSNs) [78]. Orthorhombic CsPbBr3 will decompose into nonluminescent tetragonal CsPb2Br5 and CsBr in the presence of water, and the dissolved CsBr component can be confined in MSNs. As a result, the green emission pattern turned to dark in moisture condition and recovered when water was removed (Figure 5a). Similar hydrochromic mechanism was also reported for CsPbBr3/Cs4PbBr6 nanocomposites, which maintained about half of its initial PL intensity after 10 wetting-drying cycles [80]. Cs3Cu2I5 as lead-free perovskite-like material was recently exploited for hydrochromism-based encryption and decryption of security tags [81, 82, 83]. Water functions as a switch of phase transition between blue emission Cs3Cu2I5 and yellow emission CsCu2I3 under UV excitation. Combined with water-resistant polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) coating layer, moreover, the microarray patterns can be tailored for dual-color emission toward various shapes and characters in moisture atmosphere [82].
Figure 5.
(a) Reversible hydrochromism of CsPbBr3 pattern under 365-nm UV light and the corresponding phase transformation. (b) Reversible DMF-induced solvatochromism of InCl6(C4H10SN)4·Cl:Sb3+ pattern under 365-nm UV light and the corresponding phase transformation. Reprinted with permission from refs. [78, 79]. Copyright 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim; copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.
Besides water, methanol (MeOH) was previously demonstrated capable to trigger the solvatochromism of MAPbBr3 NCs that are converted from lead-based metal–organic framework (MOF) [84]. The authors of this study found that MeOH impregnation can remove the organic perovskite species while leave lead ions in MOF matrix. The green emission of pattern under UV excitation therefore quickly quenched after impregnation but can be recovered by loading MABr solution (10 mg mL−1 in n-butanol) on top. Using n-butylamine (n-BA) and acetic acid (AcOH) as encryption and decryption reagents, respectively, Sun et al. [85] reported the solvatochromism of patterns based on CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) QDs. The RGB emission colors disappeared after n-BA treatment and then recovered by AcOH treatment. Specifically, the as-fabricated multicolor quick response (QR) code still showed clear optical readout after 100 times crumpling. Isopropanol (IPA)-induced solvatochromism was observed in 1D CsMnBr3 NCs which underwent phase decomposition to 0D Cs3MnBr5 and MnBr2 [86]. The pattern showed emission color changing from red to green under 365-nm UV light.
Solvatochromism can also be induced by new phase formation where solvent molecules are incorporated into perovskite lattice [79]. The 0D InCl6(C4H10SN)4·Cl:Sb3+ showed red-shifted emission peak from 550 nm to 580 nm and 600 nm when being exposed to ethanol (EtOH) and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) vapor, corresponding to the new phases of InCl6(C4H10SN)3·EtOH:Sb3+ and InCl5(C4H10SN)2·DMF:Sb3+, respectively. Pattern based on this environmentally friendly material displayed reversible emission colors between yellow and orange under 365-nm excitation, which was enabled by the alternate incorporation and release of DMF species (Figure 5b). Considering the peculiar chemical reaction between perovskites and solvents, solvatochromism of perovskite security tags provides an additional route for authentication of goods.
2.3.4 Photochromism
Photochromic property has been found in a variety of organics and organic–metal complexes in the case of light-mediated configuration change of molecules [87]. By anchoring the diarylethene (DAE) derivative onto CsPbBr3 QDs surface, Mokhtar et al. [88] observed the reversible photoswitchable luminescence of QDs-DAE hybrids. The open-ring isomer of DAE underwent cyclization under UV light and quickly turned off the green emission of printed pattern, while the green emission can be switched on again by exposing the pattern to visible light for DAE cycloreversion (Figure 6a). Similar photochromic behavior was reported for DAE derivative whose triethoxysilane (TEOS) moiety is altered by alkyl amine [90]. Following this strategy, a majority of photochromic molecules may be introduced as the surfactant to achieve the photochromism of perovskite QDs/NCs.
Figure 6.
(a) Photoswitchable cyclization and cycloreversion of DAE surfactant and the resultant photochromism of pattern based on CsPbBr3-DAE hybrids. (b) UV irradiation-induced reversible halide exchange at CsPbCl1.5Br1.5/MYE interface and the photochromism of QR code patterned by CsPbCl1.5Br1.5/MYE composites. Reprinted with permission from refs. [88, 89]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society; copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.
Photochromism also occurs under the circumstance of photoinduced compositional variation of perovskites. The emission color of CsPbCl1.5Br1.5 NCs that confined in macroporous Y2O3:Eu3+ (MYE) changed from red to green under continuous UV irradiation, which was explained by the halide migration between perovskite NCs and MYE matrix [89]. The small Ea of halide vacancy defects allows bromine ions to segregate to NCs domain, while the chlorine ions are fixed on MYE surface due to the stable Y-Cl bond. Therefore, the red emission is contributed by MYE matrix at the first stage, and the subsequent strong green emission that originated from Br-rich perovskite NCs will dominate the composites (Figure 6b). The QR code fabricated by stereolithography printing technique maintained 61% of the maximum green emission intensity after 25 encryption/decryption cycles. Yang et al. [91] reported the irreversible photochromism of CsPbCl1.5Br1.5@Ca0.9Eu0.1MoO4 (CEMO) composites enabled by interfacial redox reaction of Eu3+ + Pb0 → Eu2+ + Pb2+. The emission peak at 615 nm dominated the composites at the initial stage for a few seconds but was quickly overwhelmed by the emission peak at 519 nm during continuous UV irradiation, and patterns based on such composites ultimately displayed a mixed color of cyan.
The bandgap of perovskites is structurally dependent on the QW thickness; in this view, photochromism can be achieved in dimensionality-mixed perovskites whose QW thickness and distribution are self-adapted to light stimulus. The emission behavior of layered FAn + 2PbnBr3n + 2 (FA = formamidinium) was recently studied with respect to its structural transformation under light irradiation [92]. The authors of this study demonstrated the UV damage to perovskite that can convert wide-bandgap 2D phase to narrow-bandgap 3D phase. Accordingly, perovskite film showed emission color changed from blue to green as response to the elongated irradiation time. The metastable 2D phase can meanwhile be transformed back by dark storage, showing reversible photochromism that is applicable for anti-counterfeiting patterns.
2.3.5 Multimodal luminescence
Unlike unidirectional authentication methods, multimodal luminescence of perovskites allows the encryption and decryption to be conducted through multiple excited sources. Xu et al. [74] first demonstrated the triple-modal anti-counterfeiting of CsPbBr3@Cs4PbBr6/SiO2 composites in 2017, since the as-patterned codes showed reversible and switchable luminescence to heating, UV, and NIR irradiation. In addition, the dual-color emission of green and red of MAPbBr3@Eu-MOF composites was reported under 365-nm and 254-nm UV lamp [93], respectively, where the red emission under 254-nm excitation primarily comes from the photon upconversion (UC) of Eu-MOF species (Figure 7a and b). Solvatochromism was also observed for the composites, and the written pattern on paper showed reversible green emission via water and MABr treatment. Notably, the UC luminescent component of perovskites can be further tuned by rational doping of lanthanides [94].
Figure 7.
(a) The dependence of PL spectra of MAPbBr3@Eu-MOF composites on the UV excitation wavelength. (b) Hydrochromism of “USTB” characters based on MAPbBr3@Eu-MOF composites and the MABr-induced recovery under 254-nm and 365-nm UV light. (c) Photographs of Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4InCl6:Yb3+/Er3+/Bi3+ (RE-1) under different excitations. (d) XEL, DS-PL, and UC-PL spectra of RE-1. (e) Photographs of RE-1 pattern under visible and 365 nm UV light. Reprinted with permission from refs. [58, 93]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society; copyright 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Overcoming the limited response range of conventional perovskite materials, the excitation source of Yb3+/Er3+/Bi3+ co-doped Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4InCl6 double perovskite was reported to be extended to X-ray, as a complementary to UV and NIR [58]. Bi3+ ions were demonstrated to reduce the structural disorder, promote the exciton localization, and lead to strong Jahn-Teller effect that would benefit both UC and X-ray excited luminescence (XEL) (Figure 7c and d). The as-synthesized double-perovskite single crystals were ground and dispersed in organic solvent for ink printing, and the patterns showed exceptional luminescent stability in thermal heating (up to 400°C), moisture, and high-dosage radiation conditions (Figure 7e). The combination of X-ray excited luminescence (XEL), downshifting (DS), UC luminescence, and other routine encryption methods enhance the confidential level of tags considerably, which offers a reliable solution for customized authentication of high-value products.
2.3.6 Other optical readout
Some special optical readout of perovskites can be transformed into security information for anti-counterfeiting applications. Here, we exemplify the encryption principles of patterns based on afterglow phenomenon and carrier lifetime gating. The RT afterglow of perovskites was first reported for 2D PEA2PbCl4 (PEA = phenylethylammonium) perovskite doped with 1,8-naphthalimide (NI) spacers [95]. The as-printed pattern on paper showed UV-excited white emission in nitrogen atmosphere that comprises blue fluorescence from perovskite and yellow phosphorescence from NI organic cations. After UV light off, however, the blue fluorescence (PLQY: 25.6%) quenched quickly, while the yellow phosphorescence (PLQY: 56.1%) can maintain for a few seconds. This property caused the yellow afterglow of pattern that can be identified by both spectrum and human eye. Wei et al. [96] recently found the RT greenish afterglow of 0D BAPPIn1.996Sb0.004Cl10 (BAPP = C10H28N4) perovskite-like material after UV light off, where the relaxation of excitons from BAPP organic cations were demonstrated to be responsible for the afterglow (Figure 8a–d). For CsPbBr3 NCs doped by lanthanide ions (Ln3+), the persistent time of afterglow is even up to 1800 s [98]. In addition, X-ray-induced afterglow was also reported for 0D Cs4EuX6 (X = Br, I) perovskite single crystals, despite the case did not involve anti-counterfeiting applications [99].
Figure 8.
(a) Molecular configuration of BAPP4+ cation and crystal structure of BAPPIn2Cl10. (b–d) Photographs of BAPPIn1.996Sb0.004Cl10 pattern under visible light, 365-nm UV light, and 365-nm UV light off (afterglow), respectively. (e) FLIM image and (f) time-correlated single-photon counting fluorescence lifetime imaging (TCSPC-FLI) image of tag patterned by CsPbBr3 and {en}FAPbBr3 NCs inks. (g) Fast-lifetime histograms of as-patterned inks and (h) binarization of lifetime for QR code generation. Reprinted with permission from refs. [96, 97]. Copyright 2021 American Association for the Advancement of Science; copyright 2021 Springer Nature.
The carrier lifetime of perovskites is influenced by a variety of factors, among which the composition of perovskite can be the deterministic one. The EHD-printed security tags were reported to be encrypted based on the different carrier lifetime of CsPbBr3 and hollowed {en}FAPbBr3 NCs, which can then be decrypted by either fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) or time-of-flight fluorescence-lifetime imaging (ToF-FLI) (Figure 8e–h) [97]. These two imaging techniques enabled machine-readable lifetime of QR code that cannot be readily decoded by routine methods. Moreover, the system is highly reconfigurable due to the compositional versatility of perovskite NCs. The enhancement and Purcell factors of CsPbClxBr3 − x QDs that coupled to plasmonic silver cavity were also extracted for the encryption of QR code, where the factors are defined by the relationship among excitation efficiency, light extraction efficiency, quantum efficiency, and radiative rate [100].
3. Challenges of anti-counterfeiting technology based on halide perovskites
We hereby briefly discuss the current challenges encountered by perovskite fluorescent tags prior to their real-world applications, including the potential overuse of toxic lead, the poor durability, and many clonable functions that can be easily reproduced by counterfeiters. Possible solutions are also provided with respect to each challenging case.
3.1 Lead contamination
Lead’s toxicity has been widely recognized due to its damage to the nervous system of biological individuals. Therefore, lead-based wastes are now under strict control in many developed countries. Despite perovskite security tags made by lead compounds feature many intriguing fluorescent properties, they can be highly risky when adhere to daily goods and cause potential lead leakage. Alternatively, more environmental-friendly perovskites (e.g. tin-, antimony-, bismuth-, and copper-based) can be developed to replace lead-based ones while maintaining the bright luminescence and high processability of tags [55, 57, 58, 79, 82, 83, 96].
3.2 Poor durability
The phase stability of halide perovskites, especially 3D ones, can be susceptible to environmental perturbations and hence fail to work during long term or repeated authentication. Lowering down the dimensionality of perovskites as well as composite strategies enable more robust perovskite phase, yet the stability of fluorescent tags can hardly rival the simple-patterned tags (e.g. QR code). Advanced sealing techniques alleviate this problem by isolating perovskites from environment; however, they are limit for those tags that need direct exposure to atmosphere, chemicals, or solvents. Inert matrix has been demonstrated to enhance the durability of both common and special perovskite fluorescent tags. Beside glass, silica, and polymers [66, 82, 101], other durable matrix materials remain to be exploited.
3.3 Clonable functions
Single-mode perovskite fluorescent tags work as response to certain stimulus, making their functions clonable by commercial phosphors or other functionalized luminescent materials. A safer communication between users and server database requires physically unclonable functions (PUFs) that generated by irregular encryption and decryption methods. In this view, multimodal anti-counterfeiting that combines two or more encoding and decoding pathways (see Section 2.3) is prompt to be developed for highly confidential security tags. In addition, authentication based on the digital readout of sophisticated machines can also fulfill the demands of PUFs [97, 100].
4. Summary
Increasingly rich encryption principles have been exploited for halide perovskite-based security tags owning to their intriguing luminescent properties as response to a wide range of stimuli. Apart from the existing cases, the mechanochromism upon mechanical stress as well as the magnetochromism under altered magnetic field can be studied for perovskites with the aim of further enriching the diversity of authentication methods [102, 103]. Perovskite memristors as a new rising technology was also demonstrated to deliver switching electronic signals relative to the charged defects and halide motions inside the materials, providing an additional solution toward the design of PUF system [104]. All these unique optical and digital readout may overcome the limit of conventional clonable tags such as QR codes, watermarks, and raised print.
Future development of perovskite security tags is supposed to follow the taxonomy of predominant PUFs, including high encoding capacity, tunable security level, logically/physically reconfigurable functions, and switchable access between private and public. Based on the rational screening strategy of perovskite materials, micro- and nanoscale patterning techniques allow these functions to be multidimensionally integrated in a minimized tag, making security information more robust against third parties. Halide perovskites are bound to play a more important role in anti-counterfeiting arena and contribute to future smart flow of goods in a more fair and orderly global market.
Acknowledgments
YH thanks the support by National Ten Thousand Talent Program for Young Topnotch Talent.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"halide perovskites, luminescence, security tags, anti-counterfeiting, smart flow",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82287.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82287.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82287",totalDownloads:8,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 12th 2022",dateReviewed:"May 24th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 29th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 17th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The counterfeiting of goods is a fast-growing issue worldwide, being a risk to human health, financial safety, and national security. Customized anti-counterfeiting patterning technologies enable unclonable tags on products, which ensure the reliable and convenient flow of goods such as daily foods, prescription medicines, and value-added components. In this chapter, we start with the introduction of recent advances of anti-counterfeiting technologies that generate unique physical tags on products for encryption and information storage. Various halide perovskite-based materials and their fabrication techniques for unreplicable luminescent patterns are then discussed, with a particular focus on the intelligent encoding principles that correlate with the chromism and other special optical readout of materials. The multilevel anti-counterfeiting functions that allow high-throughput authentication of products within a single tag are also exemplified, through which the increasing security demands can be fulfilled. We finally discuss the current issues encountered by perovskite anti-counterfeiting technologies and outline their future directions toward smarter and safer flow of goods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82287",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82287",signatures:"Ziren Zhou, Jin Xie and Yu Hou",book:{id:"11189",type:"book",title:"Smart Mobility - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Mobility - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Arif Sarwat, Dr. Asadullah Khalid and Dr. Ahmed Hasnain Jalal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11189.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-712-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-711-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-713-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"440920",title:"Dr.",name:"Arif",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwat",slug:"arif-sarwat",fullName:"Arif Sarwat"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Perovskites for anti-counterfeiting applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Fundamental structure of perovskites and their luminescent properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Patterning techniques for perovskite security tags",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Encryption principles of perovskite security tags",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Pattern",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Thermochromism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.3 Solvatochromism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.4 Photochromism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.3.5 Multimodal luminescence",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.6 Other optical readout",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Challenges of anti-counterfeiting technology based on halide perovskites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Lead contamination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Poor durability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 Clonable functions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'OECD, European Union Intellectual Property Office. Trends in Trade in Counterfeit and Pirated Goods, Illicit Trade. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2019. DOI: 10.1787/g2g9f533-en'},{id:"B2",body:'OECD, European Union Intellectual Property Office. Misuse of Containerized Maritime Shipping in the Global Trade of Counterfeits, Illicit Trade. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2021. DOI: 10.1787/e39d8939-en'},{id:"B3",body:'Glyn D. A History of Money. 4th ed. Cardiff: University of Wales Press; 2016 p. 800'},{id:"B4",body:'Grier DG. A revolution in optical manipulation. 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DOI: 10.1002/adom.202000585'},{id:"B99",body:'Wu Y, Han D, Chakoumakos BC, Shi H, Chen S, Du M-H, et al. Zero-dimensional Cs4EuX6 (X = Br, I) all-inorganic perovskite single crystals for gamma-ray spectroscopy. Journal of Materials Chemistry C. 2018;6:6647-6655. DOI: 10.1039/c8tc01458b'},{id:"B100",body:'Li HM, He FT, Ji CK, Zhu WW, Xu YQ , Zhang WK, et al. Purcell-enhanced spontaneous emission from perovskite quantum dots coupled to plasmonic crystal. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2019;123:25359-25365. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b06919'},{id:"B101",body:'Pan A, Li Y, Wu Y, Yan K, Jurow MJ, Liu Y, et al. Stable luminous nanocomposites of CsPbX3 perovskite nanocrystals anchored on silica for multicolor anti-counterfeit ink and white-LEDs. Materials Chemistry Frontiers. 2019;3:414-419. DOI: 10.1039/c8qm00591e'},{id:"B102",body:'Ben Haj Salah M, Mercier N, Dittmer J, Zouari N, Botta C. The key role of the interface in the highly sensitive mechanochromic luminescence properties of hybrid perovskites. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2021;60:834-839. DOI: 10.1002/anie.202006184'},{id:"B103",body:'Xu XS, Brinzari TV, Lee S, Chu YH, Martin LW, Kumar A, et al. Optical properties and magnetochromism in multiferroic BiFeO3. Physical Review B. 2009;79:134425. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.79.134425'},{id:"B104",body:'John RA, Shah N, Vishwanath SK, Ng SE, Febriansyah B, Jagadeeswararao M, et al. Halide perovskite memristors as flexible and reconfigurable physical unclonable functions. Nature Communications. 2021;12:3681. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24057-0'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ziren Zhou",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology (IFM), Linköping University, Sweden
Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, China
Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, China
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IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11676",title:"Recent Advances in Homeostasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 15th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12213",title:"New Advances in Photosynthesis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12213.jpg",hash:"2eece9ed4f67de4eb73da424321fc455",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 15th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11399,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",slug:"jose-gutierrez-fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",slug:"maria-teresa-mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",slug:"monica-alexandra-sousa-oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"82701",title:"Pathology of Streptococcal Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105814",signatures:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",slug:"pathology-of-streptococcal-infections",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Yutaka",surname:"Tsutsumi"}],book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82634",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105747",signatures:"Lebeza Alemu Tenaw",slug:"bacterial-sexually-transmitted-disease",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - 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