Psychometrics of key variables; N = 406 for all variables.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-501-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-500-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-502-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4cbb2249cfca82e925cd46bee62b5b24",bookSignature:"Prof. Bernhard Resch",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10487.jpg",keywords:"Neonatal Infections, Early Onset Sepsis, Late-Onset Sepsis, Respiratory Tract Infections, Gastrointestinal Infections, Bacterial Meningitis, Viral Meningitis, Encephalitis, Measles, Rotavirus, Varicella, Pneumococcal Invasive Infection",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 27th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Pediatrics specialized in neonatal intensive care medicine and neonatal infections, deputy head of the Division of Neonatology at Medical University Graz, international well-known clinical researcher, editor, book author, and reviewer for all pediatric high ranking journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"66173",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Resch",slug:"bernhard-resch",fullName:"Bernhard Resch",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66173/images/system/66173.png",biography:'Born in Graz, Austria, Prof. Resch received his medical degree at the Karl-Franzens-University Graz in 1988. Following post-doc studies at the Division of Neonatology, and the Department of Pediatric Surgery of the University Hospital Graz, he became consultant of Pediatrics in 1997 and consultant of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine in 2000. Since 2004, he is Professor of Pediatrics and since 2008, Head of the Research Unit of Neonatal Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology of the Medical University Graz. Since 2012 he is Deputy Head of the Division of Neonatology of the Medical University of Graz. 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Since then, that idea evolved into a global community of scientists, dedicated to understanding science at the interactions of chemistry and biology. The work of this community has greatly contributed to the development of medical science.
\nAmong these studies, the molecular studies (molecular biology branch) have traditionally played a very important role in chemical biology research. From a panel of experts, the Nature Chemical Biology editors [1], the need for covering the remaining greatest knowledge gap facing biology today has been underlined: the one between the atomic level and the cellular level.
\nIn fact, since molecules are made of atoms, the new frontier should be to study the influence of atomic structure on biological activity. This may be considered a natural evolution of medical science development. This development has made impressive progresses through centuries, moving from considering humans as an entire entity to considering organ system, organ, cell, cell components and, nowadays, molecules (molecular biology). In this trend, the missing additional part is the atom, and as a consequence, this new branch of medicine should be based on what we could call “atomic biology” (Figure 1).
\nTrend of medical science from its beginning to now. With time (see from right to left), medicine has been developing considering first humans as unity and then made by organs, tissues, cells, until arriving to the present time of molecular biology. Since molecules are made of atoms, the next frontier should be the connection between atomic and biological levels.
This opens a fascinating scientific adventure: we strongly believe that Physics has to play an important role for the reasons better explained below. The development of a new branch of medical science that, in analogy with Chemical Biology, we can call Physical Biology, can have the main objective to study the influence of atomic structure on the characteristics of the biochemical reactions influencing cell life. A most important contribution is requested to elucidate phenomena at the base of biomolecular activity, influencing the genetic pathways that regulate cell life in genetically based illnesses, like cancer.
\nFor this typology of illnesses, in fact, Chemical Biology and its branch Molecular Biology have been unable to help Medicine to obtain completely satisfactory therapeutic results. More selective treatments to avoid important adverse effects are needed.
\nThe fundamental laws of physics have the capability of describing the very tiny processes that are at the core of life in matter. Because of this, we know for example that using magnetic fields with specific characteristics we can influence spin energy levels. This, for example, gives the possibility to medical doctors to use magnetic resonance imaging to have a very powerful clue of what happens at molecular/atomic levels of the biological structure and function, having consequently the possibility of making diagnosis with an accuracy not possible before.
\nWe know from chemistry that electron spin state has a pivotal role in all the reduction-oxidation reactions that are at the core of the cellular metabolic pathway, governing the behavior of the biological system, influencing genetic stability. The synthesis of many complex molecules often requires the oxidation of their precursor, via the use of molecular oxygen. Availability of electrons to transfer changes when electron spins assume specific energy levels. These energy levels are known from quantum physics to be easily influenced by magnetic fields. Physics allows the use of specific static magnetic fields like those used in magnetic resonance imaging, but almost two/three order of magnitude (100–1000 times) less intense, not thermal, to influence electron spin state.
\nAim of this chapter is to analyze the scientific reasons why a more physics standpoint approach to biological processes, or in other words an atomic-level-based approach to biological processes, may contribute to cancer therapy. We will consider biological processes from an atomic-level prospective, analyzing first the correlation between the atomic structure, its influence on availability of electrons, and key biological functions connected to cancer genetics and consequently the available literature reporting results obtained in different laboratories on the use of magnetic fields to influence cancer biology.
\nConsidering the three particles (electron, proton and neutron) constituting the atomic structure, the electron is the only elementary particle and it plays a pivotal role in chemical/biochemical reactions. Electron exchange allows chemical reactions to take place and electron transfer reactions are critical steps in diverse arrays of biological transformations, ranging from photosynthesis to aerobic respiration. Electrons are classified inside all the elementary particles according to their spin value that, being half integer, collocate them inside one of the two families of elementary particles, the fermions [2]. So, the spin has a fundamental role in the nature of matter’s structure. Spin is an intrinsic property (form of angular momentum) of particles connected to their behavior in the presence of magnetic fields, where they seem to act as small magnets. In classical physics, a charged spinning object has magnetic properties that are very much like those exhibited by these elementary particles (Figure 2). Similarly, physics describes elementary particles in terms of their “spin.” Despite this, spin is a purely quantum-mechanical phenomenon; it does not have a counterpart in classical mechanics and obeys quantum physics laws.
\nElectron while traveling around nuclei or between atoms/molecule rotates about its axis producing a magnetic field (from physics in fact we know that any moving charge produces a magnetic field) called angular momentum or spin. The electron spin value is ±½ depending on the direction of its rotation.
Fermions and then electrons obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that two identical electrons cannot exist in the same state, that is, electrons paired in the atomic structure in a way to have opposite spin value. Without Pauli exclusion principle, chemistry would not have the Periodic Table. For these reasons, spin is an essential property influencing the order of electrons and nuclei in atoms and molecules, thus having great physical significance in chemistry. Therefore, we may consider the spin a very important physical entity when studying biomolecular processes. The spin, although being purely quantum-physical, has profound implications for real-world, large-scale systems like, for example, living tissue. In most cases, according to Pauli principle, electrons need to pair up to allow the system, to which they belong, to reach a lower level of energy. This process of electron pairing up facilitates stability in the system (i.e., chemical stability in a biological environment), but it is possible only when, as above states, electron spins have opposite values. This favorable situation depends on the electron origin as well as on the conditions of the chemical environment. When the electron pairing up is not possible, the system accumulates an excess of unpaired electrons. This process leads to the formation of different spin states of individual electrons as well as of molecular species containing unpaired electrons.
\nChemically, any molecule containing a single, unpaired electron is defined as free radical. Free radicals are often highly unstable elements which in fact are chemically highly reactive (Figure 3). In many cases, the spin state has been found to be a key factor governing the behavior of the biological system since their influence in chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry [3].
\nAtoms that do have an unpaired electron, like the atom here presented with atomic number of 7 (nitrogen), are called free radical. Because of their uncoupled spin, they have a not nulled magnetic moment and, in agreement with Pauli principle, they look for a counterpart to reach physical/chemical stability. For these reasons, free radicals are highly chemically reactive.
The spin state has a pivotal role in all the reduction-oxidation (or redox) reactions that are at the core of our metabolic machinery. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another. This kind of reactions is so important that our life depends on them. The synthesis of many complex molecules often requires the oxidation of their precursor, via the use of molecular oxygen. The utilization of molecular oxygen is vital in many biological pathways. The ability of aerobic organisms to harness the power of molecular oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor in their respiratory cycles has revolutionized the evolution of life. Oxygen itself is a diradical: Oxygen-based radicals are also often referred to as radical reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anion (O2−) and hydroxyl radical (OH.). Electrons constituting molecules generally have opposite spins. These electrons stay in different orbitals and may take part to the bond formation. A peculiar characteristic of the oxygen structure is that it has two electrons that are not spin-paired, lying in different orbitals, and each of them is looking for an additional electron to pair up. In this case, the process of electron pairing-up, making two pair per atoms or four pairs per molecule, is oriented to produce water molecules to reach a state of lower free energy. Redox reactions are facilitated by enzymes since they have binding sites that can keep oxygen in contact with oxidizable substrates for a long time. This contact time, longer than that made possible only by collision, substantially improves the chance of spin reversal and allows the two electrons to pair up, process that otherwise would be not possible due to limited energy, below the kinetic barrier that would be provided by only collisions. Another important aspect is that enzymes may have such characteristics to catch and withhold available energy from oxidation processes, activity very useful and important in ATP high-energy-related compounds. In addition to this, we know that redox reactions affect signaling between molecules bound to DNA with potentially key effect on cell cycle. It has been shown that oxidative stress conditions may control the very important tumor suppressor protein p53 activity on different promoters using DNA-mediated electron transport [4, 5, 6]. One of the most challenging endeavors from both experimental and theoretical point-of-view is to elucidate the role and effect of different spin states on the properties of a biological system, even deciding which spin-state occurs naturally. There is in fact a growing interest in spin states in biochemistry from a chemical standpoint [3]. It can be supposed that a more physics-dependent approach may contribute significantly to this elucidation. In fact, being the spin a purely physical entity (localized magnetic moment/field), its energy states can be theoretically better influenced by physical means than by chemical reactions. In fact, starting from the 1980s, magnetic fields have been widely used to influence the free radical chemistry, thanks to their influence on electron spin state energy levels [7].
\nThe maintenance of redox balance is considered a key factor for the cancer cell metabolism [8, 9, 10, 11]. Adaption requires for these cells to be able to respond to the proliferative signals that are delivered by oncogenic signaling pathways. After malignant transformation, many cancer cells show a sustained increase in intrinsic generation of ROS which maintains the oncogenic phenotype and drives tumor progression throughout chemical reactions that are electron spin state dependent. Redox adaption through upregulation of antiapoptotic and antioxidant molecules allows cancer cells to promote survival and to develop resistance to anticancer drugs [12].
\nThe dependence of tumor cells and cancer stem cells on their antioxidant capacity makes them vulnerable to agents that dampen antioxidant systems. There is a realistic prospect for treatments aimed to dramatically increase intracellular ROS to kill cancer cells by decreasing their antioxidant capacity. This may be obtained using compounds that inhibit antioxidant systems or through inhibition of specific signaling pathways that upregulate antioxidants in cancer cells. The resulting increase in reactive oxygen species may then induce tumor cell death either through random damaging functions of ROS or by specific induction of apoptosis via death signaling pathways. The advantage of such a strategy is that normal cells are not significantly affected since they have lower basal ROS levels and therefore are less dependent on up−/downregulation of oxidative stress [13]. A supposedly more simpler strategy would be to selectively influence the ROS concentration and then redox activity in cancer cell by directly influencing the spin state energy levels by using appropriate magnetic fields.
\nIt is important to note that dealing with ROS concentration we have to consider the double-edge sword of ROS action. In fact, for example, a chemopreventive and an antitumor action have been reported by the use of nutraceuticals derived from fruits, vegetables, spices, and other natural products used in traditional medicine that show antioxidant efficacy. This lasts in agreement with observations [14, 15], suggesting that antioxidant enzymes like the mitochondrial antioxidant manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) may function as new type of tumor-suppressor gene. The above suggest both “upside” (cancer-suppressing) and “downside” (cancer-promoting) actions of the ROS. Thus, similar to tumor necrosis factor-α, inflammation, and NF-κB, ROS act as a double-edged sword.
\nThe fascinating aspect of spin states is that the formation of spin-correlated radical pair states between enzyme and oxygen radicals is magnetic field sensitive. In fact, the use of appropriate magnetic fields is capable of changing the spin states of radical pairs modifying the rate of conversion between singlet (S) and triplet (T) and consequently influencing the free radical recombination rate and finally their concentration with downstream biological consequences [16].
\nLet us now see more in detail the mechanism through which magnetic fields influence spin states and consequently free radical chemistry. Radical pairs are typically formed by electron transfer or photolytic bond cleavage from a molecular precursor. The radical characteristics and then their chemical reactivity depend on their spin states of their unpaired electrons that, like all electrons, present an intrinsic spin angular momentum (quantum number s = ½) characterized by two states, known as spin up and spin down. These two states are labeled by the magnetic quantum numbers ms = ±½ (ms specifies the projection of the spin angular momentum on a fixed axis). Spin-correlated radical pairs are generated according to the physical law that implies the conservation of total spin angular momentum, a singlet molecular precursor leads to a singlet born radical pair, while a triplet precursor leads to a triplet born radical pair. The correspondent two spins of the born radicals will be aligned antiparallel and parallel for the singled and triplet born, respectively. S0 is generally used for the singlet state, its total spin quantum number S is zero as well as its overall spin angular momentum, so their energy is independent of any applied magnetic fields. Vice versa, the three triplet states T0, T+ and T− are defined by a total spin S = 1 and spin projection numbers equal to 0, +1 and −1, respectively. In the presence of an applied static magnetic field, the energy of the T0 state is therefore also field independent, whereas how the energies of the T+ and T− states are shifted by the Zeeman interaction is proportional to the strength of the external applied static magnetic field (Figure 4). In the absence of an external static magnetic field, interconversion between the singlet and triplet states of the radical pair is driven by internal electron-nuclear hyperfine interactions.
\nEffect of the Zeeman splitting on the singlet (S0) and triplet (T0, T+ and T−) states. As we can see, increasing magnetic field intensity, the degenerative energy levels of triplet separate to reach a value (circle) at which we observe the crossing between T− and S0.
The use of an external static magnetic field influences the interconversion between singlet and triplet states (see circle in Figure 4), influencing the rate of recombination of radical pair and consequently influencing free radical concentration. Even if the energy released by the magnetic field to the electron spin is significantly less than the thermal energy, the interesting aspect is that the spin-correlated radical pair, being in a nonequilibrium state, allows a kinetic effect if subsequent radical reactions are spin selective.
\nThe frequency, amplitude and orientation of the magnetic field that perturbs the radical pair dynamics depend significantly on the local enzymatic chemical environment [17]. Specifically, the use of magnetic fields of moderate intensity (milli Tesla, or mT, range), static and/or at extremely low frequency, (frequency up to 300 Hz, down to 3.3 milliseconds) acts through the Zeeman effect removing the degenerative triplet energy levels. Considering the very short life span of a free radical (from microseconds to nanoseconds), it sees the extremely low-frequency magnetic fields as static, which intensity is time dependent.
\nIt results, as discussed above, in the splitting of three levels of different energies, decreasing the probability of transaction from triplet to singlet spin states. The rate of free radical recombination, at a frequency from low to zero, depends on the intensity of magnetic fields that regulates the conversion from triplet to singlet state (Figure 4 crossing between T− and S0).
\nMagnetic fields at much higher frequency (a mega Hz, or MHz, order of magnitude) used in combination with static magnetic fields can also have importance in influencing the spin states and then the correspondent chemical reactions. There are in fact multiple interactions in which weak magnetic fields (intensity on the order micro Tesla, or μT) at higher frequency can change the population distribution in the various spin states, among them the electron-nuclear hyperfine interaction. External static in combination with high frequency magnetic fields can alter radical pair spin dynamics by Zeeman and HFI resonance effects and thereby change the relative yields of reaction products that derive, alternatively, from singlet and triplet radical pair states [18, 19, 20]. Many biological molecules exhibit hyperfine splitting constant that ranges from 0.1 to 35 MHz [20, 21, 22], so fields of this frequency may be used to influence hyperfine coupling resonance. Magnetic fields at this higher frequency and very low intensity have been used, together with static magnetic fields, to influence hyperfine resonance, decreasing the intracellular superoxide concentration to selectively increase rat pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation [23].
\nOne can then suppose that appropriate magnetic fields may be used to perturb spin energy levels influencing the singlet-triplet and vice versa transaction probability and therefore controlling specific biochemical reactions and metabolic pathways. Different experimental data support the above hypothesis that magnetic fields, mainly static and extremely low-frequency fields, influence the ROS chemistry. This hypothesis is in agreement with the conclusion of a survey conducted, considering 41 scientific original publications showing that the use of this type of fields is capable of influencing the ROS chemistry in biology [24].
\nIn addition, data coming from one multiannual, multicenter, multidisciplinary cancer research project have been reviewed [25]. In this project, static and extremely low-frequency magnetic fields having intensity on the mT range were used to influence electron spin energy levels and consequently ROS chemistry and related redox cellular signals showing promising results. In fact, important anticancer effects have been reported in vitro as well as in vivo through an influence on the genetic pathway that increases apoptosis via the p53 protein with no adverse effects in different human cancer models.
\nIn the last decades, there has been a growing interest in the use of magnetic fields, in studying their influence on different biological systems, considering their effect on electron spin energy levels and consequently on redox-related cellular changes and on genetic instability [25].
\nDifferent authors have studied the use of static and extremely low-frequency magnetic fields as a potential antitumor agent as well as an adjuvant agent to chemotherapy and radiotherapy with promising results. Overall, the published data support the presence of antitumor efficacy in many types of cancers including adenocarcinoma, breast cancer, melanoma and neuroblastoma.
\nDifferent Italian Health Institutions and Universities have realized the importance of this potential new approach to cancer treatment by starting, years ago, a multiannual, multidisciplinary, multicenter research project, conducted, for the laboratory part, mainly in a GLP-certified laboratory. The project aim was to validate the hypothesis that an atomic-level-based approach to biological processes may help to improve cancer therapy. The project has produced a variety of results published in different Journals. Later, the research activity, which can be considered a continuation of the project, restarted in the Medical School of a Chinese University.
\nDifferent from other projects, the considered one provides an entire set of data obtained from a series of multiple in vitro and in vivo laboratory trials, as well as a pilot study conducted on humans. Project carried out with this logic have yielded a corpus of data, organized and linked together in a logical fashion to allow organic and more complete, articulated analysis than with those coming from a single study. These characteristics are even more important in the fields of bioelectromagnetisms, where different authors have been using different magnetic fields and different biological means, providing a huge set of data difficult to correlate and then to interpret. These are the reasons why in analyzing the published data, supporting the efficacy of magnetic fields to induce antitumor effects, in agreement with the hypothesis that an atomic-level-based approach to biological processes may contribute to improve cancer therapy, we start with those coming from the above-cited project. Analysis of data coming from other project will follow (see the paragraph “Scientific consensus on the anticancer efficacy of magnetic fields”).
\nThe multicenter project first objective was to find a connection between the fundamental law regulating the structure of matter and key biological function(s) regulating the stability of genetic machinery and the conservation of the species. First the atomic structure was analyzed, realizing that the key parameter governing the formation of matter as well as its stability is the (electron) spin state as above reported.
\nIn fact, let us consider the biological processes at the base of our life. The human body is constituted by almost 37,000 billion cells, and as an average, billion cells replicate every day; for each replica, almost a thousand billion of DNA bases replicate for every cell division. These incredible numbers tell us how complex and at the same time fascinating is the biological life as we know it. Which incredible organization Nature has set up to avoid as much as possible diseases due to the inevitable mistake during such huge number of copies of DNA basis. This organization allows that most of these errors will remain silent, but also minor errors can have a serious impact. In addition, despite its essential role in storing genetic information, the DNA molecule has limited chemical stability and is subject to spontaneous decay [26].
\nProcesses such as hydrolysis and oxidation occur at significant levels in vivo, in part due to reactive metabolites continuously generated in various physiological processes. In addition, external factors like radiation and genotoxic chemicals will further stimulate DNA damage formation. The inherent instability of DNA constitutes both an opportunity and a threat. DNA lesions can block important cellular processes such as DNA replication and transcription, cause genome instability and impair gene expression. Lesions can also be mutagenic and change the coding capacity of the genome, which can lead to devastating diseases and conditions associated with genome instability, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and biological aging. At the same time, without mutations, Darwinian evolution would not be possible.
\nCells use different biological processes like DNA repair, apoptosis and others like autophagy working in a well-defined and coordinated manner to contrast genome instability and prevent much as possible the onset of serious diseases.
\nAnalyzing these processes, apoptosis appeared the most interesting one to be connected with the key physical parameter governing the stability of matter, that is, electron spin. In fact, apoptosis is the process set by cells to control genetic machinery in order to avoid replication of cell having an altered DNA. Thousands of proteins take part in a well-organized manner into this process that will send to death the cell with altered DNA before replication. In case of cancer, among thousands of proteins, the p53 protein, called the “DNA guardian,” seems to have a key role since, in mutated form, it is present in most cases of human cancers. This protein is considered so important that its encoding genes taken together are the most studied protein and genes in literature, with a total of more than 80,000 entries in PubMed [27].
\nAs seen before, different papers relate to p53 activity with redox machinery and ROS formation [4, 5, 6]. Accordingly, an intriguing hypothesis is to consider the possibility of selectively affected tumor cell growth using appropriate magnetic fields such as to influence redox signaling via an effect on electron spin state energy levels of ROS/enzymes that are connected with p53 activity/status (scheme of Figure 5) [28].
\nBiophysical model used to produce antitumor effects. Magnetic fields’ effect on free radical recombination rate, activating redox signaling that influence mutant p53 activity and inhibit tumor growth via apoptosis.
According to the above-reported effect on the influence of magnetic fields on electron spin state, characteristics of the fields that are more suitable to influence cancer cell redox activity and p53-dependent apoptosis should result in agreement with known theory [7, 16, 28, 29, 30]. A series of about 100 in vitro trials exposing three different cell lines (MCF-7 human breast adenocarcinoma, WiDr human colon adenocarcinoma and MRC-5 human embryonal lung fibroblast) have been performed and apoptosis as a function of magnetic field exposure characteristics (intensity and frequency) has been assessed [31]. The magnetic field characteristics that gave best results were constituted by a combination of static and extremely low frequency, to form an extremely low-frequency modulated static magnetic field with intensity varying between 1 and 8 mT, as shown in Figure 6. The total time average intensity of this magnetic field was 5.5 mT. The characteristics of this field, experimentally selected, were in agreement with what was predicted by theory. The efficacy of this field has been confirmed in an animal trial exposing different group of nude mice bearing a WiDr human colon adenocarcinoma, each group with different magnetic field exposure regime, assessing tumor growth inhibition and apoptosis [31].
\nMagnetic field treatment characteristics. The magnetic fields were obtained with superimposition of a static magnetic field with an alternating 50-Hz (0.02 s) magnetic field forming an intensity-modulated magnetic fields which total intensity ranges from 1 to 8 mT with a time total average of 5.5 mT. The total treatment time for daily session is 70 min.
The in vitro results, obtained using different magnetic field frequency as well as intensity, show that magnetic fields are able to induce apoptosis like death, only in the considered tumor cells, when their intensity is higher than 1 mT and this does not depend upon magnetic field frequency in the studied frequency range (0–300 Hz). This suggested to the authors that, in agreement with the theory at the base of the entire project, the biophysical mechanism connected to the apoptosis like death induction may be more related to free radical recombination processes than to ion resonance like mechanisms. Free radical recombination processes are activated by a direct action of magnetic fields on electron spin energy state levels of atoms and molecules with unpaired electrons. It was in fact known that free radical recombination processes occur in a timescale of nanoseconds to microseconds, and in this timescale, the extremely low-frequency (0–300 Hz) magnetic fields are seen as static [32, 33]. In addition, the authors noted that the need for amplitude-modulated fields (the one that gave the best tumor growth inhibition) to increase the effect otherwise obtained using only static or extremely low-frequency magnetic fields observed in vitro and in vivo [31] is in agreement with the need for establishing optimal condition(s) for the singlet-triplet spin state conversion required for the free radical recombination processes [34]. Safety analysis, in agreement with the theoretical biophysical mechanism, shows no toxic morphological changes induced by the magnetic field exposure in renewing, slowly proliferating, or static normal cells.
\nTreatment time may exert also an important role: a 70 min per day treatment for 5 days a week for 4 weeks has shown an inhibition of tumor growth of about 50%. The same 70-min treatment used two times a day gave a tumor growth inhibition of almost 70%, suggesting that in analogy with a chemical treatment this type of physical treatment exerts a form of dose-response efficacy, considering the time treatment connected to dose response.
\nIn another animal trial using the same tumor model, nude mice were exposed, once a day, 5 days a week for the entire life to study survival, tumor growth inhibition and immune-reactive p53 [35]. After almost 1 year of treatment, the treated mice improved significantly their life span and the correspondent Survival Index was 1.31, that is, 31% survival time increase (Figure 7).
\nSurvival time (days) of nude mice bearing human adenocarcinoma cancer and magnetic field treated (continue line) versus survival time (days) of nude mice bearing human tumor and not magnetic fields treated (dotted line). The magnetic field increases significantly the life span of nude mice bearing human cancer.
Specimens from each experimental mouse (magnetic fields exposed and not magnetic fields exposed) after weighted underwent histopathology, immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy analysis. The results show that exposure to magnetic fields inhibits tumor growth of mice bearing a subcutaneous WiDr human colon adenocarcinoma, in agreement with the previous study. In addition, significant variation (by about 50%) in mitotic index (decrease), apoptosis (increase) and mutant p53 protein (decrease) (Figure 8) in tumor tissue is analyzed at the end of exposure time.
\nInfluence of the magnetic field treatment on mutant p53 concentration (A) that markedly decreases, and on apoptosis (B) that markedly increases.
The observed tumor growth inhibition appears to be associated with morphological changes only in transformed cells. No morphological changes in renewing (i.e., bone marrow cells), slowly proliferating (i.e., hepatocytes) and static (i.e., terminally differentiated neurons) normal cells were observed. In addition, no significant differences in the number and morphology of blood corpuscular elements, emunctory function of liver and kidney, and bone metabolism were detected, between the exposed and not-exposed animals. Authors’ comments were that the lack of adverse responses in normal cells and tissues suggests that the safety of this physical treatment may be related to its ability to interfere preferentially selectively with transformed cells. About p53 results they commented that from literature it is known that a loss of p53 functional status, due to either lack of gene expression or overexpression of its mutant form, leads to genomic instability and cancer [36]. The most frequently encountered mutations of p53 reduce its thermodynamic stability, determining the loss of the DNA binding conformation indispensable to the transcription regulation and tumor suppressor activity [37]. Pharmacological rescue of mutant p53 conformation and function has been also reported [38]. Others demonstrated that metal ions play a regulatory role in the control of p53 folding and DNA binding activity [39]. Specific DNA binding is influenced by redox regulation of p53, and binding of metal ions may directly affect p53 redox potential, either at the zinc binding cysteine residues or at other cysteine residue on the protein surface [40]. Thus, based on these data, authors suggest that the observed decrease of mutant p53 after magnetic field exposure, together with the increased apoptotic index and the slower growth of experimental tumors, could be explained by a rescue of wild-type p53. This phenomenon could be related to the effect of magnetic field exposure redox chemistry connected with metal ions.
\nAnother important parameter to be evaluated in the assessment of potential antitumor efficacy of a treatment is its capability to inhibit the metastatic process. For this reason, a subsequent animal trial was conducted to evaluate the influence of the magnetic field treatment in the inhibition of metastatic spread and growth in a breast cancer model [41]. More specifically, a highly metastatic (in the lung) human cancer (MDA-MB-435) model, transplanted in nude mice, was used. Mice were exposed at the same magnetic field treatment regime (70 min a day for 5 days a week) for 6 consecutive weeks. To allow a more complete evaluation of the potential antitumor efficacy of the magnetic field treatment, a positive control group treated with a chemotherapeutic agent (cyclophosphamide) was also used. At the end of the experiment, separate sections from each lung were examined at the microscope to determine the incidence of the different treatments (magnetic fields and cyclophosphamide) on number and sizes of metastases. Lung metastases were histologically counted, and each one was scored on the basis of the number of tumor cells. The size of each metastasis was evaluated by classifying the metastases in three categories (<10, 10–100, and >100) according to the total number of cells contained. As shown in Figure 9, both magnetic fields and cyclophosphamide treatments significantly decreased the number of lung metastases, classified according to the number of cell contained. In addition, the magnetic field treatment performed significantly better than cyclophosphamide.
\nEffect of magnetic field (MF) in spread and growth of lung metastasis in nude mice bearing human metastatic breast cancer. Results are compared with those coming from the same experiment where the other group, of the same nude mice bearing the same human cancer, was treated with cyclophosphamide, a known chemotherapeutic agent. Results, in terms of small-size metastasis (black bars), medium-size metastasis (white bars) and large-size metastasis (black and white bars), show that the magnetic field treatment is more efficient than cyclophosphamide in inhibiting spread and growth of metastasis.
In fact, while magnetic field treatment and cyclophosphamide-treated mice reported almost the same number of metastases in the lowest cell content category (<10 cells), magnetic field-treated and cyclophosphamide-treated mice in the medium cell-content category (10–100 cells) reported 98% and 50% reduction in the number of metastases, respectively, while in the high cell-content category (>100 cells) was 100% and 90% for the magnetic field treated and cyclophosphamide-treated mice, respectively, compared to the control mice. Safety analysis was performed in all experimental animals. Results were in agreement with those observed in the previous trials confirming the safety of the treatment. In fact, gross pathology at necroscopy, hematoclinical/hematological, and histological examination did not show any toxic or abnormal effects.
\nThe following trial was conducted to enquire about the possible synergism between magnetic field treatment and chemotherapeutic agents in terms of their influence on survival time [42]. Two animal models were tested, and immune-competent mice bearing murine Lewis Lung Carcinoma (LLCs) or B16 melanotic melanoma were exposed to magnetic fields treated with two commonly used anticancer drugs. The chemotherapeutic agents under investigation were cis-platin and cyclophosphamide, for the first and second models, respectively. The mice were exposed to the same magnetic fields used in the previous trials (static with the superimposition of extremely low-frequency magnetic field having a total time average intensity of 5.5 mT), provided daily (7 days a week) for the entire life. Synergistic activity was found only with cis-platin. In fact, the cis-platin antitumor efficacy was increased by magnetic field exposure, leading to significantly prolonged animal survival. The magnetic field treatment almost tripled the efficacy of cis-platin since the effect of cis-platin low dose (3 mg/Kg) used in combination with magnetic field exposure was similar to that of cis-platin high dose (10 mg/Kg) alone. Unfortunately, it is not possible to make a direct comparison between the presence/absence of synergism between magnetic fields and the anticancer activity of cis-platin and cyclophosphamide because the two drugs were tested on two completely different animal models (different mouse strains and tumors). The authors’ comments were that the synergistic activity observed between magnetic field exposure and cis-platin can be explained by the hypothesized ability to influence free radical chemistry exerted by the magnetic field treatment [28]. Two mechanisms, alone or combined, may be at the base of the observed results. First the platinum ion stimulates superoxide radical production [43, 44], and the magnetic field exposure enhances active oxygen production. When this production occurs at the cell membranes, the respective permeability changes, influencing the cell drug intake [44]. Second, it has been shown that the rate of conversion of cis-platin to reactive species, able to bind to DNA, is increased by localized production (in our case possibly due to the magnetic field exposure) of free radicals [45].
\nThis magnetic fields treatment was then used in a pilot study where, according with the authorization of the Ethical Committee instituted by law, patients with advanced neoplasm were exposed to magnetic fields to assess safety and acute toxicity [46]. Eleven patients were treated with the same magnetic field characteristics we used in animal trials (static with the superimposition of extremely low-frequency magnetic field having a total time average intensity of 5–5 mT). Treatment included neck, thoracic and abdomen areas. Two treatment protocols that differed in the length of daily exposure to magnetic fields were set. In the first, patients were treated for 20 min/day, 5 days a week, over 4 weeks; in the second, patients were treated for 70 min/day, 5 days/week, over 4 weeks. A minimum of two patients was introduced in each treatment plan; if intolerable toxicity was not observed, two to five additional were treated. The reported results show that human exposure to the used magnetic fields treatment is not associated with important toxic and adverse side effects. Different exposure regimes, exposing 20–70 min daily, respectively, appear to be associated only to small changes in some laboratory parameters. Authors of the study conclude that the overall data of this clinical study on safety in humans seem to be in agreement with safety and toxicity data from animal trials, showing no toxic or abnormal effects when gross pathology at necroscopy, blood and histological examination were performed [28, 31, 35, 41, 42]. In conclusion, the findings of this pilot study carried out in a small number of cancer patients support the possibility that the human exposure to magnetic fields with specific physical characteristics is associated with a favorable safety profile and good tolerability.
\nBased on all above-reported laboratory studies, it has been possible to confirm the antitumor efficacy of this new physical treatment that uses specific magnetic field characteristics. In fact, the reported data confirm the capability by magnetic fields to exert significant antitumor effects in different laboratory animal models as well as synergistic activity with chemotherapy without significant adverse effects. This may support the validity of this new approach to biological processes. More studies are necessary, mainly at the clinical level, to understand the real potential of this atomic approach in improving availability of cancer therapy. In addition, this approach may contribute to fulfill a knowledge gap facing biomedical science today, the one between the atomic level and the cellular level.
\nThe antitumor efficacy reported in the above illustrated papers was confirmed, years later, in a different laboratory, located within the Medical School of the Zhejiang University, China. This replica performed in a different laboratory located in a different continent, using the same exposure machine as well as the same magnetic field characteristics, gives to the old/previous project results the necessary scientific validity, scientific validity that is confirmed when the same results are reported in different laboratory using the same methodology. In this university, the antitumor efficacy of magnetic fields treatment has been studied in two pediatric tumors, nephroblastoma and neuroblastoma [47]. The antitumor efficacy exerted by this magnetic field treatment as well as its combined effect with cis-platin was studied in vitro and in vivo. In this Chinese study, the time-average intensity of the magnetic fields was slightly different from the previous studies, 5.1 mT instead of 5.5 mT. This is due to the modification of the time duration of each of the eight rounds constituting, as in the old project, one magnetic fields treatment session. In the old project, each round lasted different times [48]. Now, each round lasted 3.5 min, and consequently each exposure session of treatment lasted 28 min. One or more treatment sessions (up to 4) were administered daily. In addition to the use of the standard static with the superimposition of extremely low-frequency magnetic field having a total time average intensity of 5.1 mT, alternatively, only static magnetic fields were used, while the total time-average field intensity was kept to 5.1 mT to help understanding the biophysical mechanisms.
\nFor the in vivo part of the study in China, mice magnetic field exposure was based on the same exposure system and with the same protocol except that each round lasted 10 min; thus, each session lasted 80 min instead of 70 min as in the old project. Mice received one session of treatment daily for 15 consecutive days. In vitro results show that after daily exposure of 2 h the cell number of nephroblastoma and neuroblastoma cell lines (G401, CHLA255, N2a) decreased significantly from day 2, and the inhibition rate reached to about 20% after 3 days of exposure. The inhibitory effect was positively associated with exposure time, and subtraction of the AC field decreased the inhibition rate. Furthermore, it was found that the field decreased cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. Combining of the field with chemotherapeutic cisplatin further increased the inhibition rate compared with single use of either cisplatin or MF. In G401 nephroblastoma tumor model in nude mice, daily exposure of 80 min per day combined with cisplatin resulted in significant decrease of the tumor mass. The side effect of combinational treatment was limited to mild liver injury (an increase in aminotransferase levels), while magnetic field exposure did not hamper liver and kidney functions by itself. In conclusion, this 50 Hz, static modulated magnetic field exhibited antitumor effect on neuroblastoma and nephroblastoma and had the potential to be used in combination with cis-platin for increased efficacy and reduced side effects in these two childhood malignancies.
\nThese results from Zhejiang University are completely in agreement with the previous results of the multiannual, multi-disciplinary, multicenter research project, confirming the antitumor efficacy of the magnetic field treatment exerted in two new human cancers (nephroblastoma and neuroblastoma), its synergistic activity with the studied chemotherapeutic agent cis-platin, with no induction or trivial induction of adverse effects. This agreement confirms the scientific validity of the potential antitumor efficacy of this new physical treatment that uses magnetic fields (electromagnetic energy) and that comes from a new approach of biological processes based on quantum physics, and such approach considers the atomic structure as a key aspect in studying the biological activity possibly introducing to a new additional branch of medical science that might be called atomic biology in analogy with molecular biology.
\nThere has been a growing scientific consensus on the anticancer activity of static and extremely low-frequency magnetic fields. In the last decade, many authors have published different papers, reporting results that are in agreement with those analyzed above. We now will shortly analyze the content of these papers.
\nSpecifically, tumor growth inhibition has been studied on nude mice bearing metastatic mouse breast tumor cells exposed to 100 mT, 1 Hz magnetic fields for different times a day (60, 180, and 360 min/day) for 4 weeks, observing a tumor growth inhibition as a function of the exposure time reaching the suppression of tumor growth when exposure was 360 min/day [49]. Tumor growth inhibition as well as metastasis inhibition was observed in mice bearing hepatocarcinoma cells exposed to 400 mT, 7.5 Hz magnetic fields, 120 min/day for 30 days, observing an inhibitory effect on tumor growth [50]. In another study, the application of 4.5 mT, 120 Hz magnetic fields, 50 min/day for 32 days inhibited preneoplastic lesions chemically induced in the liver of male rats by reducing cell proliferation [51]. The synergistic effect with anticancer drugs has been studied in vivo and in vitro by different authors. In vivo, El- Bialy et al. [52] studied female mice bearing an ascites carcinoma treated with 3 mg/Kg i.p. cis-platin and exposed to 10 mT, 50 Hz magnetic fields 60 min/day for 2 weeks, showing that extremely low-frequency magnetic fields enhanced the cytotoxic activity of cisplatin and potentiate the benefit of using a combination of low-dose cisplatin and extremely low-frequency magnetic fields in the treatment of ascites carcinoma. Chen W.F. et al. [53] studied human leukemic cells (K562) exposed in vitro to 8.8 mT static magnetic fields, treated with cis-platin at concentrations from 20 to 10 microg/ml, and the results suggest that the mechanism is correlated with the DNA damage model. Hao Q. et al. [54] reported results showing that an 8.8 mT static magnetic fields enhanced the cytotoxic potency of adriamycin (25 ng/ml) on K562 cells, and a decrease in P-gp expression may be one reason underlying this effect. Kakikawa M. et al. [55] reported results showing that 50 mT, 60 Hz magnetic fields enhanced the cytotoxicity both of mitomycin C and of cis-platin on E. coli bacterium; these results suggest that magnetic fields change the permeability of the cell membrane and affect drug intake. Results of a clinical trial devoted to studying the effects on palliation of general symptoms as well as survival were reported by C. Sun et al. [56] in 13 advanced nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with 400 mT, 0–50 Hz magnetic fields 120 min/day for 6–10 weeks. The authors observed prolonged survival and moderately improved general symptoms without any severe toxicity or side effects. More recently other three studies have been published enlarging the above scenario. Two hours of treatment with 50 Hz, 20 mT magnetic fields makes resistant cells of human ovarian carcinoma sensitive to cisplatin via p53 activation [57]. A metastatic melanoma mouse model exposed 400 mT, 7.5 Hz magnetic fields, 120 min/day for 27 days reported a significant growth inhibition of metastatic tumor burden of lung, showing that extremely low-frequency magnetic field exposure promoted the inhibitory effect of ROS on AKT pathway and decreased Foxp3 expression [58]. Three-hour exposure to 1 mT 50 Hz magnetic fields induces apoptosis on osteosarcoma cells via oxidative stress [59].
\nPart of the above-cited studies has been also considered in two reviews published in 2013, one devoted to analyze if radiotherapy could be enhanced by electromagnetic field treatment [60]. The first review concludes that the analyzed studies reflect encouraging results and corroborate the hypothesis that combined exposure to some chemical agents ionizing radiation should be used to increase DNA damage and help cancer treatment. The other review covers three areas of investigation connected to the use of magnetic fields, in particular free radical generation and oxidative stress, apoptosis, genotoxicity and cancer [61], concluding that magnetic field causes oxidative stress and, as a result, damages ion channels, leading to changes in cell morphology and expression of different genes and proteins and also changes in apoptosis and proliferation. In addition, about the use of magnetic fields in combination with other external factors, such as ionizing radiation and some chemicals, there is evidence strongly suggesting that magnetic fields modify their effects, improving cancer treatment. Finally, the authors stated that the analyzed studies provide valuable insight into the phenomenon of biomagnetism and open new avenues for the development of new medical applications. More recently, L. Montagnier, the 2008 Nobel Prize for Medicine assignee, has stressed, also on the base of the above scientific scenario, the importance of the use of magnetic fields in cancer treatment [62].
\nAll the reported reviews conclude that additional studies are necessary to better clarifying the biomolecular mechanism(s) and understand the real potential of this new possible medical treatment. The call for additional studies, included clinical ones, has been also suggested by the more recent review dealing with the capability of magnetic fields to influence genetic stability and the potentiality of their use in cancer treatment [25]. This last concludes that a number of papers reports on the correlation between static and extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and genetic instability. This correlation has been found in studies on gene expression and DNA damage due to oxidative stress, including double–strand breaks, chromosomal aberrations and micronucleus induction. This review also underlines that the analyzed literature makes it plausible to apply an atomic-level approach to biological processes (atomic biology approach) using electromagnetic energy as a bridge between the atomic level (spin energy levels) and the cellular level (oxidative stress, DNA damage, genetic instability, p53 status and apoptosis).
\nThe content of present chapter, together with the consensus among the analyzed literature, supports the capability by magnetic fields to exert significant antitumor effects in different laboratory animal models as well as synergistic activity with chemotherapy. This, without significant adverse effects observed in the laboratory animal trials as well as in the limited human studies, highlights the potential validity of this new atomic based approach to biological processes.
\nWe are only at the beginning of a scientific adventure of this new potential branch on biological/medical research that may be called atomic biology. The atomic (electron spin) based approach to cancer treatment has given promising results to foresee great potentiality of this approach to open new frontiers of biomolecular research and medical application, since magnetic fields, different from chemical products, have the capability of influencing in a very selective way only the desired spin state of a given biomolecule. The expected clinical results for this type of approach would hopefully be more selective, that is, with less adverse effects. More studies are necessary, mainly at the clinical level, to understand the real potential of this atomic approach in improving availability of cancer therapy.
\nThe author wishes to express his gratitude to the many people who have helped in this long-lasting development of the project, among others: his wife Laura for her closeness and continuous encouragement during the entire project; his two sons Federico and Alessandro for having accepted some of their father’s carelessness due to his activity in the project; Fausto Lanfranco for the continuous advice and helps and his wife Deanna whose farsightedness inspired the beginning of the project; Piero Ossola and Michele Berardelli for their important contributions for the physical aspects of the project; Flavio Ronchetto, Domenico Barone, Renzo Orlassino and Marcella Cintorino for their important contributions for the biological and medical aspects of the project; Xi Chen, for her commitment to continue the project at the Zhejiang University, China; Andrea Peruzzo for his encouragement and discussions; and Emanuela Noascone for her technical assistance during chapter preparation.
\nPositive illusions, the tendency to view self, others, or other phenomena more positively than objective criteria suggest, is common to the human experience. This study explores the impact of positive illusions in the context of personal relationships. How one views ones’ partner (positive illusion or objectively) has important consequences on the success of that relationship.
When Taylor and Brown [1] presented research evidence that positive illusions—the belief that I rate higher in any given domain than objective evidence would suggest—have a beneficial influence on a person’s life satisfaction, well-being, and relational success; heated debate followed. Early on Colvin and Block [2], Colvin et al. [3] were the primary antagonists questioning both Taylor and Brown’s methodology and conclusions and went on to cite research that demonstrated the benefits of perceptual accuracy (e.g., [4, 5]).
A good deal of research has provided support for the Taylor and Brown perspective (e.g., [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]), but other researchers have demonstrated the opposite. For instance, Robins and Beer [11] found that positive illusions may produce short term benefit but often result in long-term negative consequences. Other studies also demonstrated challenges with positive illusions and the benefits of greater accuracy of perception (e.g., [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]).
Since there appears to be evidence on both sides of the issue, this study attempts to unravel the dynamics of when illusion or accuracy produces better results. Baumeister [7] has already demonstrated that as the magnitude of illusion increases, the benefit diminishes. But we extend beyond Baumeister’s efforts to explore a number of factors that may influence when illusion (or enhancement) is beneficial or harmful.
To accomplish this, three different types of ratings are employed: subject ratings, partner ratings and test results.
Subject ratings. The subjects rate themselves on six traits, four temperaments and 15 personal characteristics on 7-point scales.
Partner ratings. The partners rate the subjects on the same six traits, four temperaments and 15 personal characteristics on the same scale.
Tests. The subjects take personality or temperament tests (details provided later) that measure the six traits and four temperaments.
Then the influence of enhancement or congruence on relational satisfaction is explored. Specifically, the study addresses congruence or enhancement in three different settings:
Self-enhancement: do Subjects rate themselves higher than test results;
Partner-test enhancement: do the Partners rate the Subject higher than test results; and
Partner-Subject enhancement: do Partners rate the Subjects higher than the Subjects rate themselves.
We pause a moment to operationalize several terms or phrases. The term Subject (always capitalized) refers to the primary participant who self-rates on a number of qualities and then takes tests for comparison with the self-ratings. The Partner (always capitalized) refers to the other member of the dyad who assesses how he or she thinks the Subject rates on the same personal qualities. Enhancement refers to positive differences among test results, Subject ratings, and the Partner ratings. Deviation refers to the differences (absolute values) among the same three. The term relational satisfaction is the score on the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, [17]) and represents the primary dependent variable. To avoid redundancy we form two abbreviations: Subject RS and Partner RS.
A second issue explored is what George and George [18] call “essence qualities”. It parallels Erikson’s view of personal identity [19, 20], but differs in that essence qualities identify specific areas in which an individual is heavily defined. In the questionnaire, 15 different personal qualities are Presented and Subjects rate to what extent they are defined by each of the 15 on 7-point scales. The Partners then rate the Subjects on the same 15 qualities.
The inclusion of essence qualities allows two additional types of exploration:
First, since Subjects rate themselves and Partners rate the Subjects on essence qualities, contrasts between Subject- and Partner-ratings can be employed to measure the impact of these differences on relational satisfaction. This broadens the overall investigation to 25 different personal characteristics to test enhancement or congruence between Subjects and Partners Twenty-five is far more extensive than most studies in this area.
Second, the influence of the strength of essence qualities on relational satisfaction can also be measured. Linville [21] research allows some interesting parallels. She found that self-complexity has a significant positive impact on relational success and overall life satisfaction. It is anticipated that strength of essence qualities would have a similar effect.
Positive illusions: do they exist and how are they measured. There is little controversy about the existence of positive illusions. The tendency to view one’s self and important people in one’s environment more positively than reality is common to the human experience (e.g., [1, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]).
Several methods have been used to measure positive illusions: A common one is to measure one’s self on a particular quality then measure hypothetical others on the same quality (e.g., [1, 26, 27]). In relationships, illusion may be measured by comparing an individual’s perception with the perception of their partner (e.g., [9]). Lewinsohn et al. [28] contrasted the opinion of experts with the opinion of the subjects. In the objective world, there is often opportunity to compare with actual standards (e.g., [29]). Example: I think I’m really smart. A test reveals an IQ of 87. My perception is illusion. In the medical world, one’s perception of likelihood or speed of recovery can also be contrasted with actual results (e.g., [26]). Example: A cancer patient thinks he will live another six months. He actually lives another four months. His opinion was illusion. In the present study we employ the method of research found in the objective domain: Self-perception is contrasted with results of an assessment instrument.
In addition to illusion about self, there is also a significant literature that deals with illusion about someone else. In the context of romantic relationships, the illusion applies to one’s partner. The phrase “love is blind” dates back 650 years [30]. The meaning then and now is identical, and refers to the tendency to view one’s partner with an unrealistically positive bias. Gagné and Lydon [31] and Solomon and Vazire [32] both address this phenomenon and argue that it is possible for one to have both positive bias and realistic appraisals of their romantic partner. In the present study, equal attention is devoted to both self-bias and partner-bias.
Positive illusions are associated with greater relational satisfaction. The logic of beneficial positive illusions was suggested by Bandura [33] who stated that if everyone viewed themselves entirely accurately they would only attempt tasks they could easily accomplish. Those who view themselves more positively often put in “the extra effort needed to surpass their ordinary performances” (p. 1176).
In addition to Taylor and Brown’s work [1, 26], Murray, Holmes and Griffin’s [10] longitudinal research with a sample of dating couples revealed that good relationships were a combination of accepting certain negative qualities and idealizing (positive illusions) the strengths of their Partners. A year later, Murray and Holmes [9] included married couples into their study with similar results. Neff and Karney [34] and George et al. [35] found that people with higher relational satisfaction tend to see their Partners in a more positive light, to idealize their positive qualities and to view their own relationship as superior to others. Babincak [6] with a sample of 154 undergraduates found that those with an inflated view of themselves experienced greater personal and relational satisfaction. Morry, Reich, and Kito [8] found that with a sample of 92 cross-sex friendships, 90 dating couples and 94 married couples partner enhancement resulted in greater feelings of being understood, validated and overall relationship quality. This is only a sampling of an extensive literature on this topic (e.g., [36, 37]).
Partner enhancement is associated with poorer relational satisfaction. The logic of a negative impact of a Partner having positive illusions about a Subject, is suggested by the marriage proposal. Many times, agreement to marry is concomitant with the rosy glow that renders inflated perception (positive illusions) of personal characteristics of their partner and ends down the line with divorce.
Robins and Beer [11] revealed that in personal relationships, positive illusions about one’s partner may produce immediate happiness but result in long term diminishment of well-being, self-esteem and poorer relational success. Tucker and Anders [16] found that anxiously attached married men experienced poorer marital satisfaction due to their inability to accurately perceive their Partner’s feelings. Cooper, Chassin, and Zeiss [13] found that congruence between the husband’s self-concept and the wife’s perception of the husband’s self-concept was associated with greater relational satisfaction. An older study [15] found that greater relational satisfaction was associated with congruence between the husband’s expectations and the wife’s perception of those expectations.
Personal qualities. The influence of personal qualities on relational satisfaction has been explored in many studies. Research has found that four of the six qualities used in this study are related to greater relational satisfaction: emotional stability (e.g., [38, 39]); agreeableness (e.g., [38]); social skills (e.g., [40, 41]); and spirituality (e.g., [42, 43, 44, 45]; Shaffer, 2008). Hostility and depressiveness are predictors of lower relational satisfaction (e.g., [46, 47]).
The present research is exploratory. Since there is such a diversity of research outcomes in this field, hypotheses are difficult to form. What this study does contribute is a more objective assessment of enhancement or congruence by including comparisons with test results. Then, greater validity is achieved because of 25 personal qualities are used in these comparisons (see [48] for a discussion of these issues). Finally, the ability to include enhancement, congruence, diminishment, or deviation as predictors (of relational satisfaction) allows greater comprehensiveness.
The dependent variable is relational satisfaction as measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). As mentioned earlier, subject relationship satisfaction is designated “Subject RS”; partner relationship satisfaction is designated “Partner RS”. This study explores whether enhancement (Subject-test, Partner-test, Partner-Subject), congruence (Subject-test, Partner-test, Partner-Subject), deviation—the absolute value of differences between the same three contrasts, and strength of essence qualities has a significant impact on relational satisfaction. These comparisons are measured for the entire sample (N = 406) and for the three subsets of the sample: Married couples (N = 203), dating or engaged couples (N = 100) and same-sex roommates (N = 103).
A total of 812 subjects participated. They were assessed as dyads and were identified as the Subject and the Partner. Thus, there were 406 Subject-Partner pairs: 203 were married couples, 100 were dating or engaged couples, and 103 were same-sex roommates. The married couples were defined as legally married or cohabiting for at least one year. Dating and engaged couples were self-identified. Roommates were defined as living in the same dorm room or house and were restricted to same-sex roommates in a non-romantic relationship. All romantically involved couples were heterosexual.
Gender breakdown included 432 women (53%) and 380 men (47%). The ethnic composition of the group was 56% Caucasian, 11% Black, 11% Asian, 15% Hispanic and 7% other. The mean age of the married couples was 43.1 years (range 21–85); mean age of the dating/engaged couples was 25.1 years (range 18–59) and the mean age of roommates was 22.8 (range 18–61). Other demographics included religious affiliation, amount of education, and duration of the relationship. Married couples averaged: 3.4 years of college and 16.7 years married (range: 2–47 years). Dating couples: 2.6 years of college, 2.0 years dating (range: 1 month – 5 years). Same-sex roommates: 2.6 years of college, 1.6 years as roommates (range: 1 month – 3.4 years).
Materials included separate questionnaires for the Subjects and the Partners. The Subject questionnaire was four pages (2-sided) and the Partner questionnaire was two pages (2-sided). The questionnaires were identical for married and dating/engaged couples. They were also identical for roommates except for the relationship-satisfaction questions, which were adapted to measure satisfaction in the context of a non-romantic relationship.
The questionnaires. The Subject questionnaire began with 2/3 page of instructions, including the sponsoring organization, brief description of the study, assurance of confidentiality, informed consent, debriefing and further instructions about how to complete the hardcopy or the online versions. This was followed by six demographic items, 18 items that measured Essence Qualities, 10 items that allowed Subjects to make a self-rating on each of 10 personal qualities, and 60 items assessed social skills, agreeableness, depression, hostility, emotional stability and spirituality. Next followed a 24-item test adapted from the DISC that measured temperament types, and the final page measured relationship satisfaction with the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, [17]).
The Partner questionnaire included the same instructions and the demographic items. However, for the 18 Essence Qualities, the six personality measures, and the four DISC temperament measure, rather than rating themselves, they rated the Subject. The Partner questionnaire concluded with the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) to measure their own relational satisfaction.
Students from an undergraduate research-methods class at a university in Central Alberta, collected data for partial class credit. They were provided with a script to use when approaching potential participants. The method of approach included face-to-face, telephone, email, and a variety of social media resources—always using the pre-prepared script.
Two different methods of assessment were used: Hard-copy and online versions of the questionnaire: 180 dyads completed the hard copy; 226 completed the online version. After hard-copy forms were completed, Subjects sealed the survey in a coded envelope and returned it to one of several collection boxes on campus. For online forms, when Subjects completed all questions, results were automatically forwarded to the central database.
All data were entered and analyzed. Irregular or incomplete forms were discarded prior to data entry. The most common type of discarded form was when one individual from the dyad responded but their Partner did not. More specifically, there were 812 valid forms. An additional 50 forms were discarded due to being incomplete or irregular. A depressing 292 forms were valid but were unpaired with a Partner and thus were unusable in the present study.
Overview. The study is complex and includes several different classes of variables and several types of analyses or manipulations of those variables. Because of this, the following road map will provide context.
Classes of variables include:
Demographics: Subjects and Partners each report their own demographics.
Six different personality traits: Three types of measures occur here: (a) a single self-rating by the Subject, (b) a single Subject-rating by the Partner, and (c) a test to measure each trait— completed by the Subject only.
Four different temperament types: Three types of measures occur here: (a) a single self-rating by the Subject, (b) a single Subject-rating by the Partner, and (c) a test to measure each temperament—completed by the Subject only.
The Essence Qualities: Two types of measures occur here: (a) a single self-rating for each of the 15 by the Subject, (b) a single Subject-rating for each of the 15 by the Partner.
Four broad classes of analysis include:
The direct influence of all variables on RS (Relational Satisfaction).
The influence of three types of enhancement (Subject-test, Partner-test, Subject-Partner) on RS.
The influence of three types of deviation (Subject-test, Partner-test, and Subject-Partner) on RS.
The Profile Similarity Correlation (described later) computes the similarity of ratings among test results, Subject ratings, and Partner ratings.
Demographics. Included are gender, ethnicity (Black, White, Asian, Hispanic, Other), age, religious affiliation (several prominent Protestant denominations, Catholic, agnostic, atheist, other) amount of education (scale ranging from less than high school to doctorate), and duration of the relationship.
The self-ratings. Subjects were asked to rate themselves on the six personal qualities: agreeableness, emotional stability, social skills, spirituality, depressiveness, and hostility and the four DISC temperaments: Dominant, Influencer, Supportive, Conscientious. Each of the self-ratings was scored on a 7-point scale. For trait measures, the upper and lower anchors varied based on the qualities being measured. The middle score was 4 (about as much as others) or an equivalent phrase. For temperament measures, the anchors were identical: 1 (not in the slightest) to 7 (yes, that’s me!).
Appreciate that a self-rating on a trait is attempting to measure a single quality. Temperament, by contrast, is multi-faceted and statements appear to be not only double-barreled, but multi-barreled. The unique value of temperament measures (in a counseling or seminar context) and the difficulty of measuring these constructs for use in research, is fully appreciated. Because of this, the temperament measures see only limited use in this study. Two examples follow:
[trait—social skills] I have excellent social skills in a wide array of situations. 1 (very poor social skills), 4 (about as good as others), 7 (excellent social skills).
[temperament—“S” Supportive] I am cooperative, kind, loyal, patient, and enjoy encouraging and supporting others 1 (not in the slightest), 4 (to some extent), 7 (yes, that’s me!)
Personality trait measures from assessment instruments. The choice of the six traits was based on the experience of the authors and their colleagues in a counseling context. All six personality variables have demonstrated their influence in the success and non-success of relationships. All variables produced a final measure ranging from 1 to 7 with 1 representing low levels of a particular quality and 7 associated with high levels.
Spirituality. Personal spirituality was assessed by 12 questions selected from the 18-item George-Mabb-Walsh Spirituality Scale [49]. All questions were measured on 7-point scales; anchors varied depending on the nature of the question. Three of the items were reverse coded. The final spirituality measure was the mean of the 12 items with 1 representing low levels of spirituality and 7 high levels.
Agreeableness, Emotional stability. Two predictors were selected from the Big Five Personality Inventory [50]: Agreeableness (9 items) and Neuroticism/emotional stability (8 items) were rated on 7-point scales that ranged from 1 (Strongly disagree), to 4 (Neutral) and 7 (strongly agree). The final measure for both variables was the mean of the relevant items.
Social Skills. Social skills was measured by 11 questions selected from the Carlsmith Social Skills Scale [40]. Items were rated on 7-point scales. Anchors varied based on the nature of the questions. Three of the items were reverse coded. The final measure was the mean of the 11 ratings.
Depression. Depression was assessed by 11 statements that measured depression from the Anxiety and Stress Scale [47]. Scales, scoring and the final measure were identical to those for Social skills. Thus, 1 represents low levels of depression and 7 high levels.
Hostility. Hostility was measured with 10 items selected from the State Hostility Scale [46]. Subjects indicated to what extent they agreed or disagreed with each of ten statements. Each statement was scored on a 7-point scale with the same anchors as those used in the Big 5. The final Hostility measure was the mean of the 10 items with 1 representing low levels of hostility and 7 indicating high levels.
DISC Temperament Scale measures. Four temperament qualities were assessed by an adaptation of an on-line version of the DISC Temperament Scale. Each of the four temperaments is associated with one of the four letters of D-I-S-C (Dominant, Influencer, Supportive, Conscientious). For instance, the description of the S (supportive) temperament is “I am cooperative, kind, loyal, patient, and enjoy encouraging and supporting others.”
The DISC assessment instrument included 24 lines of four randomly distributed words. In each line one of the words reflected the D (dominant) perspective; one of the words was associated with I (influencer); one with S (supportive) and the fourth word related to C (conscientious). Participants selected one word in each of the 24 sets. The raw score for D, I, S, and C was the sum of words that were circled. For this data set, D-scores ranged from 0 to 20; I-scores from 0 to 16; S-scores from 0 to 17; and C-scores from 0 to 17. To create metrics similar to other variables, raw scores were converted to 7-point scales based on a normal distribution of values utilizing the IBM SPSS® “Rv.Lnormal” procedure.
Essence qualities. Essence Qualities were assessed by Subjects rating to what extent 15 different attributes, widely found to be common defining qualities [18], were central to their identity. The items included: understanding, social, perceptive, generous, cherish family and family events, love of learning, deeply spiritual, ever growing, creative, disciplined, neat and orderly, musical, logical, and enthusiastic pursuit of fitness. The 15th item asked their profession and three additional lines were provided to include other options. These additional lines were heavily used as 67% of participants included at least one additional quality; 39% identified three additional qualities. All 18 items were rated on 7-point scales. The lower and middle anchors varied based on the quality described. The high anchor was 7 (central to my identity) for all 18. An example follows:
1. Disciplined. 1 (follow my urges), 4 (when necessary), 7 (central to my identity).
To reduce bias, the Partners also rated the Subjects on the same 15 measures. The final measure of the strength of each of the 15 Essence Qualities was the mean of the Subject’s and the Partner’s rating. This “criss-cross” method of reducing bias is widely employed in couples’ research (see [51]). The overall measure was the mean of the 15 criss-crossed scores. A score near 1 represents many low ratings across the 15 contrasting qualities; a score near 7 indicates many high ratings across these diverse qualities. The variable being measured is: “To what extent am I heavily defined across a number of contrasting qualities.”
Relational satisfaction, the primary dependent variable. Relational satisfaction was assessed by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, [17]) and was scored in the manner specified by the authors. For the roommates (in non-romantic relationships), some of the questions did not fit their setting, such as “quality of sexual relationships.” Because of this, three of the 32 questions were deleted and one was adapted to better reflect a roommate setting (instead of “likelihood of divorce or separation,” roommates’ version was “likelihood of finding another roommate”).
Both Subjects and Partners completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) so the study could assess how different variables influenced both the Subjects’ relational satisfaction (Subject RS) and the Partners’ relational satisfaction (Partner RS).
Enhancement measures. The measures of enhancement and congruence in the present study involved difference scores. These differences were calculated between (a) Subject self-ratings and test results (to measure self-enhancement), (b) Partner’s ratings of the Subject and test results (to measure Partner enhancement), and (c) Partner’s rating and the Subject’s rating (to measure whether Partners rated Subjects higher than Subjects rated themselves). Also included was (d) Essence qualities. Since there were only Subject and Partner ratings only Partner-Subject enhancement could be measured
Once differences were calculated, they were changed to z scores to create metrics similar to other variables. Correlations or regressions between the difference scores and relational satisfaction identified whether enhancement benefits, had no effect, or diminishes relational satisfaction.
Congruence measures. There were also four different congruence measures. The congruence measures are simply the absolute value of the four types of enhancement measures listed above. Congruence measures assessed to what extent participants deviated from congruence either with test scores or with the Subject self-ratings. A score near zero suggests high congruence whereas larger scores suggest deviation from congruence—whether enhancement or diminishment.
The Profile Similarity Correlation measure is increasingly used in couples’ research (e.g., [52, 53]) but shows promise as a tool to better understand the dynamics of relational satisfaction. The PSC is designed to measure similarity of profiles between two members of a dyad. In the present study, PSCs were computed across 10 variables, the six personality variables and the four temperaments.
Four PSC measures were computed in the present study: (a) the correlations between the Subject’s 10 self-ratings and the Subject’s test results; (b) the correlation between the Partner’s 10 Subject-ratings and the Subject’s test results; (c) the correlation between the Partner’s 10 Subject-ratings and the Subject’s self-ratings; and (d) the correlation between Subject’s ratings of 15 Essence Qualities and the Partner’s rating of the Subject’s 15 Essence Qualities.
An example illustrates the usefulness of PSC. Let us say the Subject rates himself 4 s and 5 s on the 10 of the Essence Qualities and 1 s and 2 s on the other five. A hypothetical Partner rates the Subject 5 s and 6 s on the same 10 Essence Qualities and 2 s and 3 s on the other five. This profile illustrates two separate outcomes: Enhancement of the Subject by the Partner (the Partner consistently rates the Subject higher than the Subject rates himself) and a strong correlation between the two sets of values (a high PSC) due to the similarity of profile (high and low ratings by the Subject are matched by high and low ratings by the Partner).
If correlations between PSC and relational satisfaction are computed, a high correlation suggests that similarity of ratings is associated with relational satisfaction.
The primary purpose of the study is to determine the influence of enhancement, congruence or diminishment on relational satisfaction among couples. In addition, we explore some related findings such as the influence of personal qualities and strength of Essence Qualities on relational satisfaction. We begin by reporting the psychometric validity of our variables and comparing our results with Baumeister’s.
All the primary criterion and predictor variables displayed good to excellent psychometrics. Table 1 provides a complete assemblage of essentially all variables used in the study and includes standard psychometrics plus measures of internal consistency (α).
Variable | Computation | Scale | Mean (95% CI) | SD | Skewness, Kurtosis | Alpha |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent Variables (Dyadic Adjustment Scale) | ||||||
RS-Subject (DAS) | * | varies | 4.64 (± .06) | .67 | -.94 1.20 | |
RS-Partner (DAS) | * | varies | 4.64 (± .06) | .64 | -.71.78 | |
Essence Qualities | ||||||
Essence qualities (criss-cross) | Σ[(S + P)/2]/18 | 7-pt | 4.62 (± .06) | .66 | .05 -.27 | |
Essence qualities (Subject) | ΣS/18 | 7-pt | 4.48 (± .07) | .70 | .23-.26 | |
Essence qualities (Partner) | ΣP/18 | 7-pt | 4.75 (± .08) | .85 | -.13-.30 | |
Personality Measures | ||||||
AGREEABLENESS | Σ(S indictors)/9 | 7-pt | 5.21 (± .07) | .77 | -.18-.29 | .77 |
Agreeableness | S single rating | 7-pt | 5.11 (± .11) | 1.12 | -.27-.27 | |
Agreeableness | P single rating | 7-pt | 5.34 (± .13) | 1.32 | -.38-.61 | |
EMOTIONAL STABILITY | Σ(S indictors)/8 | 7-pt | 4.68 (± .09) | .97 | -.06-.47 | .79 |
Emotional stability | S single rating | 7-pt | 4.80 (± .13) | 1.31 | -.46-.15 | |
Emotional stability | P single rating | 7-pt | 4.80 (± .15) | 1.56 | -.52-.22 | |
SPIRITUALITY | Σ(S indictors)/12 | 7-pt | 4.94 (± .13) | 1.37 | -.94.49 | .93 |
Spirituality | S single rating | 7-pt | 4.78 (± .15) | 1.52 | -.59-.24 | |
Spirituality | P single rating | 7-pt | 5.08 (± .16) | 1.60 | -.68-.10 | |
SOCIAL SKILLS | Σ(S indictors)/11 | 7-pt | 5.40 (± .07) | .70 | -.27-.51 | .76 |
Social skills | S single rating | 7-pt | 4.81 (± .12) | 1.24 | -.19-.20 | |
Social skills | P single rating | 7-pt | 5.09 (± .15) | 1.30 | -.03-.10 | |
DEPRESSION | Σ(S indictors)/11 | 7-pt | 2.25 (± .08) | .86 | 1.00.42 | .89 |
Depression | S single rating | 7-pt | 3.14 (± .14) | 1.41 | .40-.53 | |
Depression | P single rating | 7-pt | 3.18 (± .14) | 1.48 | .43-.45 | |
HOSTILITY | Σ(S indictors)/10 | 7-pt | 2.72 (± .10) | 1.05 | .60-.27 | .85 |
Hostility | S single rating | 7-pt | 2.63 (± .14) | 1.45 | .61-.54 | |
Hostility | P single rating | 7-pt | 2.71 (± .15) | 1.50 | .53-.54 | |
DISC measures | ||||||
DOMINANT | ΣD ratings | 7-pt | 3.62 (± .15) | 1.56 | .58-.45 | |
Dominant | S single rating | 7-pt | 4.70 (± .13) | 1.30 | -.06.00 | |
Dominant | P single rating | 7-pt | 4.72 (± .14) | 1.47 | -.23-.31 | |
INFLUENCER | ΣI ratings | 7-pt | 3.23 (± .15) | 1.55 | .42-.43 | |
Influencer | S single rating | 7-pt | 4.46 (± .14) | 1.40 | -.09-.15 | |
Influencer | P single rating | 7-pt | 4.51 (± .14) | 1.46 | -.04-.53 | |
SUPPORTIVE | ΣS ratings | 7-pt | 4.48 (± .15) | 1.56 | .03-.81 | |
Supportive | S single rating | 7-pt | 5.59 (± .10) | 1.07 | -.49.00 | |
Supportive | P single rating | 7-pt | 5.62 (± .12) | 1.21 | -.59-.41 | |
CONSCIENTIOUS | ΣC ratings | 7-pt | 3.86 (± .15) | 1.50 | .25-.63 | |
Conscientious | S single rating | 7-pt | 5.10 (± .12) | 1.23 | -.14-.63 | |
Conscientious | P single rating | 7-pt | 5.28 (± .14) | 1.43 | -.45-.60 | |
Discrepancy variables (for the six personality variables) | ||||||
Subject - test (z) | Σ(S-test)/6 | Z | .00 (± .05) | .48 | .29.90 | |
|Subject - test| (abs, z, ln) | ln{abs[Σ(S-test)/6]} | Z | 1.47 (± .01) | .07 | 1.171.50 | |
Partner - test (z) | Σ(P-test)/6 | Z | .00 (± .07) | .68 | .21-.03 | |
|Partner - test| (abs, z) | abs[Σ(P-test)/6] | Z | .54 (± .04) | .41 | .98.49 | |
Partner - Subject (z) | Σ(P-S)/6 | Z | .00 (± .06) | .57 | .06.36 | |
|Partner - Subject| (abs, z) | abs[Σ(P-S)/6] | Z | .45 (± .04) | .36 | 1.161.58 |
Psychometrics of key variables; N = 406 for all variables.
DAS scored according to instructions of the authors. Missing values for all variables were low (0–3% range) and were replaced by predicted values from regression equations. S = Subject rating. P = Partner rating.
A comparison of the 360 (44%) participants who completed the hard-copy questionnaires with the 452 (56%) who completed the online version found few systematic differences between the two sets. The authors judged that the two groups were sufficiently similar to combine into a single data set.
First, present results partially confirmed the Baumeister findings that more extreme illusions are less beneficial. However, there was only one setting where enhancement increased relational satisfaction: The Partner’s RS was higher if the Partner rated the Subject higher than the Subject rated him or herself (r[404] = .21, p < .001). However when the squared term was added in a stepwise regression analysis, the benefit dropped off significantly as the enhancement becomes greater: β = −.19, R = .40, R2 = .16, R2 change = .024, F-change (1, 403) = 11.523, p = .001. See Figure 1 that illustrates a positive linear relationship and a negative curvilinear relationship.
Diminishment of benefit as enhancement becomes greater.
A brief overview of the central issue now takes place. The degrees of freedom for all correlations is 404 unless otherwise specified. Self-enhancement diminished both the Subjects’ (r = −.21, p < .001) and the Partners’ (r = −.14, p = .005) RS. The Partner-test enhancement resulted in lower Subject RS (r = −.18, p < .001) and had no effect on Partner RS (r = .08, p = .10). The Partner-Subject enhancement showed no effect for Subjects (r = −.03, ns) and, the one instance of support for Taylor and Brown, enhanced RS for Partners (r = .21, p < .001).
A different pattern emerged when considering enhancement of Essence Qualities. Since no instrument measures Essence Qualities, the only enhancement possibility is a comparison of Subject ratings on each of the 15 with the Partner rating of the Subjects’ Essence Qualities. The results found that Partner-Subject EQ enhancement was associated with greater relational satisfaction for the Subject (r = .14, p = .005) and even more so for Partner (r = .34, p < .001). Greater detail may be found in Table 2. Thus, with the exception of Partner-Subject enhancement, there was a consistent pattern of enhancement being associated with lower relational satisfaction.
Relational Satisfaction | All (N = 406) | Marrieds (N = 203) | Dating (N = 100) | Roommates (N = 103) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strength of essence qualities | |||||
Subject-RS | .30 (<.001) | .28 (<.001) | .14 (ns) | .30 (.002) | |
Partner-RS | .37 (<.001) | .32 (<.001) | .21 (.034) | .47 (<.001) | |
Essence qualities: subject-partner comparisons | |||||
Partner enhance | Subject-RS | .14 (.005) | .13 (.071) | .00 (ns) | .19 (.052) |
Partner-RS | .34 (<.001) | .37 (<.001) | .23 (.020) | .35 (<.001) | |
Partner deviate* from Subject | Subject-RS | -.13 (.010) | −.12 (.094) | .03 (ns) | −.11 (ns) |
Partner-RS | −.14 (.007) | −.18 (.011) | .14 (ns) | −.13 (ns) | |
PSC | Subject-RS | .11 (.032) | .05 (ns) | .10 (ns) | .10 (ns) |
Partner-RS | .11 (.035) | −.01 (ns) | .20 (.021) | .12 (ns) | |
Subject-test comparisons | |||||
Self-enhance | Subject-RS | −.21 (<.001) | −.10 (ns) | −.21 (.039) | −.24 (.015) |
Partner-RS | −.14 (.005) | .02 (ns) | −.22 (.031) | −.20 (.040) | |
Self deviate* from test | Subject-RS | −.15 (.002) | −.10 (ns) | −.05 (ns) | −.22 (.027) |
Partner-RS | −.17 (.001) | −.16 (.023) | −.05 (ns) | −.17 (.079) | |
PSC | Subject-RS | .26 (<.001) | .17 (.015) | .13 (ns) | .43 (<.001) |
Partner-RS | .22 (<.001) | .16 (.026) | .11 (ns) | .34 (.001) | |
Partner-test comparisons | |||||
Partner/test enhance | Subject-RS | −.18 (<.001) | −.12 (.083) | −.19 (.065) | −.19 (.054) |
Partner-RS | .08 (<.001) | .15 (.032) | .05 (ns) | .10 (ns) | |
Partner deviate* from test | Subject-RS | −.17 (.001) | −.16 (.027) | −.21 (.040) | −.10 (ns) |
Partner-RS | −.16 (.001) | −.17 (.015) | −.16 (ns) | −.08 (ns) | |
PSC | Subject-RS | .27 (<.001) | .28 (<.001) | .25 (.011) | .13 (ns) |
Partner-RS | .34 (<.001) | .32 (<.001) | .32 (.001) | .27 (.007) | |
Subject-partner comparisons | |||||
Partner/Subject enhance | Subject-RS | −.03 (ns) | −.06 (ns) | −.06 (ns) | −.02 (ns) |
Partner-RS | .21 (<.001) | .16 (.020) | .24 (.018) | .27 (.006) | |
Partner deviate* from Subject | Subject-RS | −.10 (.056) | −.11 (ns) | −.04 (ns) | .03 (ns) |
Partner-RS | −.12 (.016) | −.08 (ns) | −.11 (ns) | −.08 (ns) | |
PSC | Subject-RS | .31 (<.001) | .24 (.001) | .13 (ns) | .32 (.001) |
Partner-RS | .33 (<.001) | .23 (.001) | .16 (ns) | .46 (<.001) |
Bivariate correlations between key variables and subject and partner relational satisfaction; 2-tail significance in parentheses (p > .10 = “ns”); degrees of freedom, N – 2.
Deviate: Absolute value of the enhance score. Positive correlation: greater deviation associated with greater RS. Negative correlation: greater deviation associated with lower RS.
Recall that deviation from congruence is the absolute value of (a) subject minus test, (b) partner minus test, and (c) partner minus subject. A score of zero indicates no deviation whereas a larger score indicates greater deviation.
The Subject-test deviation was associated with poorer RS for the Subjects (r = −.15, p = .002) and the Partners (r = −.17, p = .001). The Partner-test deviation predicted lower RS for the Subjects (r = −.17, p = .001) and the Partners (r = −.16, p = .001). Partner-Subject deviation was associated with lower RS (marginal) for the Subjects (r = −.10, p = .056) and the Partners (r = −.12, p = .016). Finally Subject-Partner Essence-Quality deviation showed a similar trend: lower RS for the Subjects (r = −.13, p = .010) and the Partners (r = −.14, p = .007). While no results were particularly robust, there was a consistent pattern of deviation being associated with lower relational satisfaction. Table 2 contains additional detail on how Marrieds, Dating, and Roommates fared on the same comparisons.
Profile Similarity Correlations (for the entire data set) included:
Subject-test PSC. A high PSC predicted greater Subject RS (r = .26, p < .001) and Partner RS (r = .22, p < .001). A similar pattern emerged for all subsets except for the dating couples.
Partner-test PSC. A high PSC predicted greater Subject RS (r = .27, p < .001) and Partner RS (r = .34, p < .001). A similar pattern of significance emerged for all subsets.
Partner-Subject PSC. A high PSC predicted greater Subject RS (r = .31, p < .001) and Partner RS (r = .33, p < .001). A similar pattern emerged for all subsets except for dating couples.
Subject-Partner PSC for Essence Qualities. A high PSC predicted greater Subject RS (r = .11, p = .032) and Partner RS (r = .11, p = .035). Although results in the context of Essence Qualities are barely significant, the pattern is consistent with other PSC measures.
Thus in all four setting similarity of correlations (high PSC) is associated with greater relational satisfaction for both subjects and partners. See Table 2 for detail.
The influence of Essence-Quality strength on relational satisfaction was consistent with Erikson’s theory. Stronger Essence Qualities on the part of the primary Subject was associated with greater RS for both the Subjects (r = .30, p < .001) and even more so for the Partners (r = .37, p < .001). A similar pattern of results was observed for all subsets.
Both Subjects’ and Partners’ relational satisfaction was enhanced if they were more emotionally stable, agreeable, socially skilled, and spiritual, and was diminished if they were more hostile or depressed. The r-values ranged from .22 to .43 for the Subjects; from .12 to .28 for the Partners (all significance values were p < .001). It is interesting to note that the pattern of relationships was the same for both Subjects and Partners but the effect for Subjects was more robust in every instance.
This data set is not primarily designed for regression analysis or structural equation modeling. The study addresses several specific factors associated with relational satisfaction and there is no intent for it to be comprehensive. The objective of the regressions in this setting is not so much to attain high R2 values but rather to test the relative importance of the predictor variables and also partial correlations after other variables are accounted for.
Two analyses were conducted: the first included a criterion variable of Subject RS, the second a criterion variable of Partner RS. Predictors for both analyses included six discrepancy variables (the last six variables in Table 1), four PSC variables (subject-test, partner-test, subject partner, subject-partner essence qualities), essence qualities (single combined variable), and the six tested personality variables. For all analyses, Stepwise Multiple regression was conducted with a p to enter of .07 and a p to drop of .10. Note: Additional regressions were conducted with subsets of these variables; contact the first author for additional information.
Analysis 1. The regression on Subject RS found four variables entering the equation: Depression, β = −.27; Partner-Subject PSC, β = .12; Essence Qualities, β = .11; and hostility β = −.11. This generated R, R2 and DF values of: .47, .23, 1, 401.
Analysis 2. The regression on Partner RS also found four variables entering the equation: Essence Qualities, β = .23; Partner enhance Subject, β = .21; hostility, β = −.17; and Partner-Subject PSC, β = .14. This generated R, R2 and DF values of: .50, .25, 1, 401.
Thus, three qualities significantly influenced both Subject and Partner relational satisfaction: Strength of essence qualities, congruence between subjects and partners on the ten self- and partner-ratings (Subject – Partner PSC), and the negative impact of hostility. Depression was the greatest single predictor (negative) of the subjects’ relational satisfaction. The partner viewing the subject higher than subject self-ratings was the second-ranked predictor of the partners’ relational satisfaction.
Analysis of gender differences were remarkable more for the similarity between men and women than for any differences. When contrasting type of relationships, for both Subjects and Partners, dating couples had the greatest RS (Ms = 4.86, 4.85), marrieds were next (Ms = 4.71, 4.67), and roommates were lowest (Ms = 4.32, 4.37). All pairwise comparisons were significantly different (α = .05).
As the discussion progresses, the reader is reminded of the overall perspective of this study. Taylor and Brown [1] research supported the benefits of positive illusions in many settings. Subsequent research has instances of support or non-support for the Taylor and Brown Theory. Present findings are discussed in the context of identifying the influence of enhancement or congruence on relational satisfaction in several contexts.
Three types of enhancement are explored in this study: Subject-test, Partner-test, and Partner-Subject. In contrast with the Taylor and Brown theory in almost all instances enhancement (positive illusions) is detrimental to relational satisfaction; both for the Subjects and the Partners. The only instance of support for Taylor and Brown is when Partners rate Subjects higher than Subjects rate themselves, the Partner’s relational satisfaction is enhanced.
This pattern holds true for each of the subsets except for married couples. Their results are in the same direction but not significant for the Subject and show a non-significant positive trend for the Partner. The contrast of the married couples is perhaps in the nature of their relationship. In an on-going and committed relationship, researchers find that attention to (and even enhancement of) the positives and the ignoring of the negatives is one key to success in many marriages (see [9, 34, 35]).
For all three settings, a deviation from congruence from either the test results or the Subjects’ self-ratings results in diminished relational satisfaction for both Subjects and Partners. When the Subject self-ratings deviate from the test results, the outcome is lower RS for Subjects and Partners and for each subset. An identical pattern occurs for deviation of the Partners’ Subject-ratings with test results, also significant (for the entire sample). The results are less robust for the Partner deviating from Subject ratings. Both show negative impact but are barely significant. Although marrieds, dating and roommates show a similar pattern of results their outcomes are often do not achieve significance. The influence of PSC helps to create a more complete picture.
The Profile Similarity Correlation measures how similar (highly correlated) are the pattern of ratings between the couples on a given set of variables. Also, as suggested in the introduction, the PSC can also measure enhancement or diminishment.
The PSC produced some of the strongest results in the entire data set. For three of the PSC measures (Subject-test, Partner-test, and Partner-Subject), not only are benefits to the relational satisfaction of both Subjects and Partners for entire sample significant at the .001 level, most of the subsets achieve the same significance.
The message is clear. When the results of deviation from accuracy and the PSC are considered, one may say that relational satisfaction (whether for Subjects or Partners) is associated with reasonable accuracy of judgment and congruence with both the Subject self-ratings and test results. When the occasional benefit of enhancement occurs (only for the Partner rating the Subject higher than the Subject rates herself) one is motivated to ask the question: Is this the type of enhancement spoken of by Robins and Beer [11] that yields short-term benefit but long-term misfortune?
In the present study, those high in Essence Qualities scored a perfect record (all at ps < .001) of being more agreeable, emotionally stable, spiritual, better social skills, while being less hostile, and depressed.
The results were nearly as strong with the benefit on Subject’s and Partner’s RS. Of all possible correlations (between Essence Qualities and relational satisfaction), the effect was significant at the .001 level for the entire sample and all subset except dating couples.
These results, despite being robust, should not be that surprising. Erikson [19, 20] anchored a strong personal identity (Stage 5) as the prerequisite to successful intimate relationships (Stage 6). Linville [21] also found emotional and relational health associated with her concept of self-complexity. The utility of essence qualities as a unique concept (despite similarities to Erikson and Linville) is their usefulness in a counseling or seminar context. George and George [18] have documented that almost never do a couple share identical essence qualities. In counseling, then, the couple can learn to enjoy the strength of shared essences and explore how to deal with essences that differ.
When considering the three primary subsets (marrieds, dating couples, roommates) responses were reasonably consistent with the overall results, except for the dating couples. Of 26 comparisons between the three groups, the dating couples produced similar but weaker results 16 times, completely opposite results 3 times, and were reasonably congruent results on the other six. Essentially, we found less influence on Subject and Partner RS by the dating couples than for the entire sample or the other two groups. Researchers speculate that the “in love” factor may be instrumental. “In love” is not an issue with the roommates and is less of a factor with the marrieds with an average duration of the relationships of 17 years. Perhaps the tendency of in-love Partners to idealize each other, renders the effects of enhancement, congruence or similarity to be not so great an influence. This also underlines the contention [18] that the dynamics of successful friendship (roommates in this case) are quite similar to the dynamics of successful romantic relationships.
More might be done with the temperament measures. In this study, temperament was used only in the PSC correlations. The challenge of their multidimensionality provides difficulty for any researcher, but the multidimensionality is intrinsic to the concept of temperament. Their power in a counseling or seminar setting demonstrates that continued effort to provide effective ways to measure and employ them in research is desirable.
A possible solution is, perhaps, suggested by the measure of Essence Qualities in the present study. Essence Qualities are defined as contrasting qualities that define an individual. Yet a measure was derived “the mean of the 15” that measures strength of identity across a wide range of diverse qualities. Perhaps this provides some insights into the measure of temperament. Temperament should be easier to measure and conceptualize (than essence qualities) because the set of qualities are often highly correlated with each other.
Perhaps the greatest limitation of the study is that the areas in which enhancement or congruence were assessed (the six personality variables) is limited. There are thousands of areas in couple relationships that might also be assessed. How well do results from six variables extrapolate to enhancement or congruence across the wide array of other personal characteristics? Future studies might begin to systematically explore different classes of variables to gain a more complete picture.
The present study reveals that asking whether positive illusions are beneficial is too simplistic. The study appears to illustrate that positive illusions by the Partner may sometimes have benefit. But, this finding is overwhelmed by the weight of evidence that 1. assessment that is congruent with Subject ratings or test results, 2. assessment that does not deviate too far from the test or partner ratings, and 3. a high correlation between the perspectives of the one doing the judging and one being judged is beneficial to relational satisfaction.
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