Experimental results in Romanian forests, 2001–2004.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-571-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-570-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-599-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dd81bc60e806fddc63d1ae22da1c779a",bookSignature:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan and Dr. Irem Demirkan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10818.jpg",keywords:"Decision Making, Blockchain, Accounting, Earnings Management, Strategic Alliances, Innovation, Performance, Corporate Governance, Accounting Quality, Digital Assets, Internationalization, MNCs",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Academician in the area of accounting who believes in the impact of interdisciplinary research. Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan's research interests are in the areas of financial accounting, capital markets, auditing, corporate governance, strategic alliances, taxation, CSR, and data analytics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher of strategic management, corporate entrepreneurship, and international business; specific interests include innovation, the ambidexterity framework, inter-organizational relationships, and networks. Experienced in teaching graduate and undergraduate courses in strategy, entrepreneurship, and international business and management areas.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"336397",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebahattin",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkan",slug:"sebahattin-demirkan",fullName:"Sebahattin Demirkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336397/images/system/336397.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan is a Professor of Accounting. He earned his Ph.D. in Accounting/Management Science at Jindal School of Management of the University of Texas at Dallas where he got his MS in Accounting, MSA Supply Chain, and MBA degrees. He got his BA in Economics and Management at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Bogazici University, Istanbul. He worked at Koc Holding, a private venture capital firm, and the University of California, Berkeley during and after his education at Bogazici University. His research interests are in the areas of financial accounting, capital markets, auditing, corporate governance, strategic alliances, taxation, CSR, and data analytics. Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan has published articles in Contemporary Accounting Research, JAPP, JAAF, TEM, Journal of Management, and other top academic journals. He teaches several different classes in both undergraduate and graduate levels in Accounting and Analytics programs. He is a treasurer and vice president of the TASSA, board member of the BURCIN and member of the American Accounting Association.",institutionString:"Manhattan College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Manhattan College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"342242",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkan",slug:"irem-demirkan",fullName:"Irem Demirkan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000033HrA8QAK/Profile_Picture_1606729803873",biography:"Dr. Irem Demirkan earned her Ph.D. in International Management Studies and M.S. in Administrative Studies at Jindal School of Management at the University of Texas at Dallas, USA. She got her BA in Economics at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey. She worked in the finance and textile industries before joining to academia. Dr. Demirkan has published research in the areas of strategic management and corporate entrepreneurship in journals such as the Journal of Management, Journal of Business Research, Management Science, European Journal of Innovation and Management, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, among others. Dr. Demirkan currently teaches strategic management, entrepreneurship, and international business at Loyola University Maryland in Baltimore, MD.",institutionString:"Loyola University Maryland",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Loyola University Maryland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51810",title:"Using Semiochemicals for Coleopterean Pests in Sustainable Plant Protection",doi:"10.5772/64278",slug:"using-semiochemicals-for-coleopterean-pests-in-sustainable-plant-protection",body:'\nThe care for the next generations involves the resources protection, keeping soil, air, and waters clean. In agriculture, for a sustainable future, scientists and farmers must develop the environmentally friendly, economically viable, and socially responsible technologies [1]. Intensive agriculture uploads environment with pollutants such as pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer. In the European Union, 38% of bird species and 45% of lepidopteran species are threatened with extinction. It is true that the high populations of insects’ pests could destroy the human food sources, and therefore need to be maintained under economic damage level, but each organism has its role in the ecosystem to which it belongs. The pesticides kill not only harmful insects but also beneficial organisms, and thus the ecosystem equilibrium is modified. The most affected are the pollinators such as honeybees.
\nThe concept of integrated protection or integrated pest management (IPM) appeared at the end of the sixth decade of twentieth century by the works of Dutch researcher, Briejer [2] and Americans: Smith and Hagen [3] and Stern and van den Bosch [4]. The disadvantages of chemical methods of combating harmful insects and misapplied their disruptive action on cultivated ecosystems were discussed recently by Gill and Garg [5].
\nModern ecofriendly crop protection strategies are discussed in symposiums organized by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and IOBC/WPRS (International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants/West Regional Paleartic Section). According to the FAO, IPM means considering all available pest control techniques and other measures that reduce the development of pest populations, with minimum risks to human health and the environment.
\nDevelopment of pest management alternatives based on mediators’ chemicals has been necessitated by the loss of traditional pesticides, insect pest resistance, pest resurgences, and secondary pest outbreaks often due to the effect of pesticides on all environments [5].
\nSemiochemicals, defined as behavior-modifying chemicals, are volatile organic compounds that transmit chemical messages, “words” in organism “language” and are used by insects for intra- and interspecies communication. The term “semiochemical” derived from the Greek word “semeon,” which means “sign” or “signal” [6]. Insects detect volatiles semiochemicals directly from the air with olfactory receptors located in sensilla hairs on the antennae and the effect is a change in insect behavior. Semiochemicals can be classified as pheromones or allelochemicals based on how they are used and who benefits [7].
\nThe intraspecific communication language have as “words” volatile signals, so called pheromones , emitted by an organism that produces on the receptors of the same species a behavioral change. The term “pheromone” is derived from the Greek words “pherein” (to carry) and “hormone” (to stimulate), and was introduced by Karlson and Butenandt [8]. Based on their effect, pheromones categories are as follows:
Aggregation pheromones: signaling an important place for the life, e.g., where insects’ species could find the “food” or could lay eggs.
Alarm pheromones: compounds that stimulate insects’ escape or defense behavior.
Sex pheromones: emitted by the female (in most of the cases) inducing male of the same species mating behavior.
Trail pheromones: social insects as workers ants released pheromones to mark the way to a food source.
Marking pheromones: compounds used by insects to mark the territory.
The allelochemicals are classified as allomones, kairomones, or synomones [7]. Allomones are a class of compounds that benefit the producer, but not the receiver. Allomones are often used for defense, such as toxic insect secretions. Predators also use allomones to lure prey. Kairomones are a class of compounds that are advantageous for the receiver. Kairomones are the volatiles emitted by plants that benefit many predators by guiding them to prey or potential host insects.
\nSynomones (“with” or “together”) are compounds that are beneficial to both the receiver and the sender such as volatiles emitted by flowers that attract bees for pollination.
\nThe practical goal of semiochemical research is to develop techniques and methods for insects’ pest control. Semiochemical research is placed in Pasteur’s Quadrant of the Stokes model. It is based on the research in fine synthetic organic chemistry, but the final goal is still to develop solutions for agricultural problems, insects’ pest population control, through applied research in the experimental field.
\nSince 1880s scientists used female insects to lure males into traps. Since the 1950s up until today, more than 3000 semiochemicals connected to the chemical communication of insects have been identified. Research on semiochemicals involves continued molecular mapping, synthesis, and studies of biosynthesis. Biologist and entomologist try to understand the neurophysiological sensory functions of insects and how hormonal regulation in insects affects pheromone biosynthesis and release.
\nSynthetic pheromones represent a new breeding prevention method for crop pest control. In sustainable agriculture using pheromones to control pests could drastically reduce the use of pesticides. The idea is to use an artificially synthesized scent, synthetic pheromones, to “attract and kill” into a trap the pests or to disrupt mating communication between male and female pests, thus preventing them from mating and lowering the population density of the next generation of the pests. These pheromones are specific and selective, have no effect on beneficial insects, such as pests’ natural enemies or on other living organisms. Synthetic pheromones mimic the natural pheromones. Fascinating and somehow ironic is that the substances involved in perpetuation of the insects species can be used to control insect pest.
\n“Pheromonists,” chemist researchers’ team from “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry Cluj – Napoca, Romania, is working to develop a variety of organic synthetic insects’ pheromones and with multidisciplinary teams, biologists, entomologists, agronomists as partners in projects, develop new IPM friendly environmental techniques and technologies for insects’ pest control.
\nSynthesis of pheromones and proposed IPM environmentally compatible strategies as monitoring or mass trapping of some coleopterean species (beetles), with the aim to reduce pest populations under economic damage thresholds are presented below.
\nThe overall objective of research presented in this chapter is to find a technique using pheromones for protect : (1) maize crop against the West Corn Rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera, Chrisomelidae); (2) potato crops against Colorado potato beetle (CPB), Lepidoptera decemlineata Say (Coleoptera, Chrisomelidae); (3) coniferous forests against six-spined spruce bark beetle, Pityogenes chalcographus (Coleoptera, Scolytidae).
\nThe CPB, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), Coleoptera, Chrisomelidae, native from Mexico, identified as major pest of potato plants first time in America in 1824, arrived in Europe in 1922, via cargo ships during World War I and subsequently colonizing all of Europe except for the British Isles and Scandinavia. Then, CPB continued to expand into eastern Europe and then central Asia and western China [9].
\nCPB (L. decemlineata) attacks potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) and various other cultivated crops such as tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) and aubergines (Solanum melongena). It also attacks wild solanaceous plants, which occur widely and can act as a reservoir for infestation. The adults feed on the tubers of host plants in addition to the leaves, stems, and growing points [10, 11] (Figure 1). Both adults and larvae feed on foliage and may skeletonize the crop.
\n\nLeptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) adult on potato leaves (own photo on experimental plots).
CPB overwinter in the soil as an adult. The beetles become active in the spring. Females lay 800 of orange colored eggs in groups of two or several dozens for a period of 4–5 weeks. Larvae hatch after 4–9 days. Larval stage lasts 2–3 weeks and then the larvae hide in the ground. During their complete larval stage (3–4 weeks), CPB larvae consume approximately 40 cm2 of potato leaves while adults can eat up to 10 cm2/day [12]. It is well known in Europe, where the CPB population increased dramatically during and immediately following World War II and spread eastward.
\nInsecticides are currently the main method of beetle control on commercial farms. However, many chemicals are often unsuccessful when used against this pest because of the beetle’s ability to rapidly develop insecticide resistance. The Colorado potato beetle has developed resistance to all major insecticide classes, although not every population is resistant to every chemical. The secret of Colorado potato beetle’s success as a pest is its diverse and flexible life history coupled with a remarkable adaptability.
\nNow because of the inevitable decline of effective insecticide treatments, research should focus even more on the development of new control methods and approaches. Some methods such as cultivating GM plants are not seen positively by consumers, and farmers have abandoned them due to lack of buyers [13]. Researches for better understanding of insect’s biology and lifestyle could permit entomologists and chemists to devise new control techniques.
\nThe use of semiochemical attractants to improve insecticide treatments should be considered as an innovative approach of CPB management. Chewing insects are indeed more sensitive to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by their host plants because the damage they induce in plant tissues increases the release of these compounds [14].
\nIt is necessary but very difficult to find the cocktail of natural odors within which the quantitative proportion of each compound is as close as possible to that of the naturally emitted blend [15]. The challenge consists in finding the appropriate molecules and their ratio, instead of trying to include as many compounds in the mixture as possible [14].
\nResearchers from Université de Liège and from ARS-USDA Beltsville, Maryland, USA review alternative strategies to control CPB populations [16]:
biotechnological methods using intercropping cultures for disrupt the CPB adults perception of potato VOCs;
trapping beetles using baits with synthetic mixtures of aggregation pheromone and/or volatiles kairomones;
antifeedant sprays on potatoes;
the potato plant recognizes the presence of CPB through chemical signals. By genetic manipulations increase the natural capacity of the plant to trigger defense mechanisms [16].
Our research is related to biotechnology that uses “chemical messengers” sending or receiving information for pest control in potato crops. Such “chemical mediators,” which induce a certain behavior, are aggregation pheromones—intraspecific messengers and kairomones—interspecific messengers—chemical signals emitted by the host plants.A male-produced aggregation pheromone was identified for the Colorado potato beetle, L. decemlineata (Say) in 2002 by Dickens et al. [17] (Figure 2).
\n(S)-3,7-Dimethyl-2-oxo-6-octene-1,3-diol, aggregation pheromone of CPB [(S)-CPB].
The biological effect of (S)-CPB was first evaluated in a Y-olfactometer on male and female CPB, both of which were highly attracted. The (R)-enantiomer and the racemic mixture were not attractive [17]. CPB larvae also seem capable of perceiving the aggregation pheromone produced by adults, but further studies are needed to characterize larval behavior [18].
\nThe synthetized (S)-CPB by route presented below (Figures 3 and 4) was analyzed and used in the field tests with extracts from potato plants (leaves) contain substances which function as kairmones.
\nThe way to prepare in ICCRR laboratory synthetic pheromone (S)-CPB.
(EI) GC-MS analysis (Hewlett-Packard 5972 GC-MSD, capillary column HP-5MS (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) synthons and S-(CPB) aggregation pheromone.
Field experiments were conducted in three different locations from Transylvania area, Romania: Research-Development for Potato Station Targu-Secuiesc (Figure 5), University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, USAMV Research Station situated in Jucu-Cluj county, and Agricole Research-Development Station Turda (Figure 6).
\nExperimental plots from RDPS Targu-Secuiesc (own photo on experimental plots).
Adult CPB migration dynamic on potato plants in two plots (blank and experimental) ARDS Turda, Cluj, România.
Considering aggregation pheromone as attractant we try to get out the pest from potato field attract CPB a pitfall trap, a container with potato leaves alcoholic extract. Baits were placed on potato plants, close to the pitfall trap, “attract and kill” technique. The pheromonal baits are 0, 1 g (S)-3,7-dimethyl-2-oxo-6-octen-1,3-ol and 2-phenyl-ethan-1-ol [(S)-CPB] impregnated on rubber stopper (Figure 7).
\nExperiments and observations from Research Development for Potato Station (RDPS) Targu-Secuiesc are presented below.
\nThe experimental plots were artificially colonized with CPB. Each plot have 28 rows spacing 0.75 m and a distance between plants 0.30 m. Thirty CPB adults, collected from elsewhere, were placed on potato plants row nos. 13 and 14. The pitfall with kairomone (potato lives extract) and baits with pheromones are located on row no. 4 from the edge of the plot. In days 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10, CPB migration from row no. 14 (“start point”) to row no. 4 “finish point” was observed. After day 10, 13 CPB adults were found on row no. 4, area with pheromonal baits.
\nPheromonal baits and pitfall traps with kairomones.
The experiment conclusions are as follows: aggregation pheromone bait attracts beetle, but CPB did not reach into the trap, pitfall with kairomone is not efficient, probably the trap design is inadequate, to capture CPB must be used another type of trap such as a small wing trap (Figure 20).
\nIn the field, the Colorado beetles were observed on potato plants. The experimental plots were located at 200 m distance from the blank plot. Pitfall traps and pheromone baits were placed in 40 m2 area each, the experimental plot was at 20 m distance. A significantly number of CPB adults were identified by counting, crowded around traps, relative to the place where no pheromone traps were placed. The adults were aggregate, during egg lying, around traps in an area of about 18 m2, with a circle radius of 2.5 m. This result shows that the behavior induced by this pheromone attract the beetles into the area, but these beetles do not try to touch the pheromone source, as occurs if the attractants are the sexual pheromone. Noteworthy, there was a higher concentration of adults in plots’ edges and especially an affinity for plants infected with viruses.
\nAt this location, the traps were placed on 0.8 ha potato plants’ experimental plot, located at 20 m distance between them. Data placement of traps were made from June 5, following the evolution of both generations of the pest. Observations were made from June 10, and continued until September. Dynamic observation was performed each 5 days. Besides the abundance of adults, an observation on attack frequency (%) in each variant (experimental and blank) was performed. In 2008, the abundance of adults was lower compared to previous years, around 80 adults in the period between June 10 and late July, untreated version. In the experimental lot, the abundance was 19 adults in the mentioned period in the six traps.
\nBecause the abundance of adults was lower this year, the frequency of attacks was insignificant. Thus, in the untreated lot, the attack rate was of about 40% and in the experimental lot it was 10%.
\nPitfall with (S)-CPB as bait-attractant compositions was placed in the potato plant field. The effect of aggregation pheromone has been a migration, colonization beetles of both sexes, for “frontier” where they were installed traps and dispensers. In all the experiments, in the pitfall were found other insects of the same order as CPB, and many CPB adults were found around, but not in trap. The above results show a good aggregation capacity of the pheromone, but the traps still have to be perfection, because not all pests attracted by the pheromone are also captured.
\nBy capturing their pest population, the results show a fall below economic threshold without affecting the potato crop or ecosystem.
\nIt is necessary to continue to explore alternative control methods using semiochemicals and studying to better understand behaviors generated by these semiochemicals. The chemical ecology of CPB is not yet completely understood and this incomplete knowledge makes semiochemical-based approaches inefficient when compared to traditional insecticide treatments. The management strategies for CPB control must be flexible and adaptable to ever-changing circumstances [16].
\n\nPest description: Class: Insect; Order: Coleoptera; Family: Chrisomelidae; Genus: Diabrotica.
\nWestern corn rootworm (WCR) D. virgifera virgifera LeConte infests corn crops in North America and since 1992 has been reported in Europe [19]. In Romania, WCR was first reported in 1996 at Nadlac (Arad County), near the Hungarian border and this quarantine pest migrates eastward.
\nThe WCR beetles are about 5–7 mm long. Adults have a dark head, a yellow pronotum, and a yellow abdomen. The legs covered with short hairs are dark brown in males and brown in females. Male’s body color is greenish-yellow and female’s body has a yellow color [20] (Figure 8).
\nWCR (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) adult (own photo on experimental plots).
The main damage is caused by WCV larva which lives in the soil and feed the roots and the adults feeding damage on corn silk and the maize in the milk stage, sometime on maize leaves or other species of plants from the spontaneous flora, but the multiplication of this species is assured by the maize crop [21] WCR (cucurbits, bean). Adults lay eggs in the soil and WCR larvae become active in May, attacking the roots of corn plants in development by drilling the cortical parenchyma, create tunnels in the central vascular tissue, which lead to the fall of the plant in windy day.
\nFactors that influence the pest propagation are as follows:
\n\nSoil: With good physical, chemical, and biological properties, loose and rich in humus, slightly acidic or alkaline, moist on top, favoring the breeding. Sandy soil is unfavorable for larvae, especially for the young during drought.
\n\nClimate: Gentle winter, with snow, free of strong winds; moistly spring; high air temperature for adult activity (until 30°C), favors the breeding.
\n\nHost plant: Larvae can feed on 22 species of plants, but they prefer maize and soybean. Human intervention—early seeding, the high density of the maize plants, excess nitrogen fertilization, irrigation, all these technologies contribute to the pest breeding.
\n\nMonitoring: Pheromone traps and yellow sticky traps were used.
\n\nControl: From nonpollutant methods it can be mentioned: pheromone traps, color traps, autochthonous natural enemies, and biological product Spinosad 240 SC (based on filamentous bacteria Saccharopolyspora spinosa) [22].
\nIn the establishing of the pest’s control strategy, an important part it has the prognosis of its appearance, which is based on the number of adults/plant (sticky traps with sexual pheromones baits), the number of larva and eggs/sample, the intensity of the caused damage to the silk of the corn cobs.
\nThe reduction of the adult population is an important part in the reduction of the larva population of the next year and in the reduction of the damage to the cobs, which influences the production of beans and the quality of the seeds. It is recommended the control of adults, because their act by of destruction on the silk and implicitly compromise the pollination process when it is registered a density of more than 10 adults/plant at the commercial hybrids and five adults/plant at corn for seed [23].
\nSexual pheromone of the D. virgifera virgifera Le Conte was identified by Guss et al., from virgin females of the WCR as 8-methyl-2-decanol propanoate (1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate) [24].
\nThe way of synthesis proposed and carried out in “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry Laboratory is described in Figure 9 and have five stages [25]. On this way, the racemic mixture of the four enantiomers was obtained [26].
\n1,7-Dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate, WCR sexual pheromone synthesis.
The reaction yields for each stage was >74% and the intermediary and reaction products were identified through GC-MS, IR, and NMR [26].
\nIn the case of the 1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate there are four optically active forms or four optical isomers afferent to the two asymmetric carbon atoms C1 and C7. The four isomers, respectively: 1R, 7R; 1S, 7S; 1R, 7S; 1S, 7R; form two pairs of enantiomers (the A pair: 1R, 7R; 1S, 7S, the B pair: 1R, 7S; 1S, 7R) The GC-MS analysis carried out this time with a chiral column separates two pairs of diastereoisomers without separating each isomer (Figure 10, Figure 11).
\nGC analysis of the 1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate (GC Hewlett-Packard 5972 GC-MSD, capillary column HP-5MS (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm).
(EI)-MS spectrum of the 1,7-dimethyl-nonan-1-yl propanoate: GC-MS: tr = 13.91 min; m/z: 171 (M+−COEt), 154 (M+−OCOEt), 136, 125, 112, 101, 97, 83, 74, 70, 57 (100%), 43.
In the WCR, adults monitoring tests were carried out in the fields of Agricole Research and Developments Station (ARDS) Turda-Cluj county, Romania, the baits with racemic mixture using sticky traps showed a good attractivity.
\nThe data from the graphic confirm both the existence of the attack of D. virgifera virgifera in the corn culture at the Turda Station, and the efficiency of the Romanian pheromone in comparison with others type of traps (Figure 12).
\nThe efficiency of the Romanian pheromone in comparison with the imported one.
In 2005, at ARDS Turda, WCR was monitoring in field conditions, in two crop rotations: bean-wheat-corn and soy-wheat-corn, using sticky traps with bait sexual pheromones prepared in “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry Cluj-Napoca.
\nThe observations were carried out between July 12 and September 7, the number of WCR adults in this period being quite high: 921 WCR adults in the soy-wheat-corn crop rotation and 680 adults in the bean-wheat-corn crop rotation.
\nThis pest can also develop in the soy culture, as shown in WCR adults numbers in the crop rotation with soy, as compared to the other one. The massive appearance of adults took place starting from the end of July and until the end of August, with a large number of adults in the second decade of August, when, in the traps with sexual pheromones were registered 100–248 adults/week.
\nThe total number of adults of D. virgifera virgifera captured in the traps with pheromones, in the mentioned period, was of 1601 (Figure 13).
\nWCR males captured in two different crops.
In Romania, start with July 1996, western corn rootworm (D. virgifera virgifera) was quarantine pest. In Transylvania, adults were monitored in the corn fields, e.g., 2002–2005 in ARDS Turda (Figure 14).
\nWCR pest “fly” dynamic in ARDS Turda fields (2002–2005).
As bait in sticky traps are 1,7-dimethyl-nonyl propanoate (WCR sexual pheromones) synthetized in “Raluca Ripan” Institute for Research in Chemistry (RRIRC) (Figures 15 and 16).
\nOne single RRIRC sticky trap bait WCR sexual pheromones after 2 weeks exposed in corn field, ARDS Turda, Romania, 2005 (own photo on experimental plots).
RRIRC sticky traps (own photo on experimental plots).
Together with other measures to reduce D. virgifera virgifera larval population (crop rotation, the seeding, and seed treatments), using synthetic sex pheromone traps is a recommended option for the pest management.
\nTraps used for western corn rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera are placed on a stick in the ground or in more vigorous corn plant at the height of 1 m, usually 1–2 weeks before presumptive appearance of the pest (in June).
\nAdults begin to emerge, usually in late June, when the corn plant already has silk (the beetle’s favorite food). If used for monitoring, 9 traps/ha have to be installed at the edge of the maize lot. The traps are inspected twice a week when count the captured beetles and clean the trap by removing butterflies, insects or leaves that accidentally entered on the sticky surface. Sticky plate is replaced twice per month, pheromone bait once per month, and observations are made in 5–7 days. Depending on the number of adults captured, the chemical treatment is indicated or not. So, monitoring and treatments recommended are as follows:
If the number of catches is 5–8 WCR adults/trap in next year. If corn is sown on the same plots, the roots will be attacked by larvae. It is necessary either seed treated with insecticide or treatment ground for larvae. Treatment with granular soil insecticide is done either when seeding or at first diggings. If there are larvae (i.e., eggs deposited in the previous year), only ground treatment is insufficient.
If the number of capture is 10 adults/trap—corn for consumption or five adults/trap—corn for sowing, treatment is required for adults.
The field tests show how important are traps with pheromonal baits for monitoring the appearance of WCR adults in crops and for decreased adult populations during mating season so that generations of larvae in the next year are reduced.
\n\nPest description: Class: insect; Order: Coleoptera; Family: Scolytidae; Genus: Pityogenes.
\n\nP. chalcographus infests Norway spruce [Picea abies], especially the younger trees or, in competition with another bark beetles Ips typographus, the upper regions of older trees. Bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) must compete for food and space in which to reproduce within the relatively thin phloem layer of their host tree [27]. P. chalcographus is rather small for bark beetles, being only 2 mm long and weighing 1.2 g, the color is dark brown almost black [28].
\n\nBiology: In the Nordic countries, P. chalcographus has a single generation in a year. Romania had two flights per year. The first flight was in April-June (76–94% from the flight on all growing season), the second flight was in July-August (6–24% from the flight on all growing season) [29].
\n\nDamage: Both sexes are aggregated through male pheromone released. The attracted males want to join the attack and secure an area for his and several female’s young. The female deposits their eggs in galleries excavated in the vascular cambium and secondary phloem. The phloem layer is only about 2–4 mm thick and rich in nutrients; successful breeding is dependent on the death of these tissues. Larval galleries have a length of 2–4 cm, are dense, well printed on bark and wood weak [30]. Aggressive bark beetle species like P. chalcographus are associated with pathogenic blue stain fungi, which help them to overcome the defense reaction of the host tree. Some of the fungi in this group are pathogenic and may play an important role in the death of the tree by blocking water conduction [31] or indirectly by overstimulating tree defense mechanisms that may exhaust the host [32, 33].
\n\nHost: Norway spruce is the preferred but not the only host. Bark beetles belong to the family of ypids. Usually, these insects are attracted to and breed on trees felled or broken by wind, on trees affected by fire or sunstroke, on trees severely debilitated by drought or pollution, and the trees having lost defense capability. Most of the time, these beetles live under the bark of trees, feeding inner part of the bark, and leave this place just to seek new sources of food.
\n\nMonitoring: At the temperature of 16.8–17°C, beetles P. chalcographus become active and could be monitored [34].
\n\nControl: Pest control is carried out by pheromone traps. The use of pheromones by “mass trapping” technique is one of the few ways to protect the forest ecosystem.
\nThe bark beetle P. chalcographus aggregation pheromone is a “cocktail” with four components: 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane (Chalcogran)—the main component [35] and secondary components: methyl-E2,Z4-decadienoate; α-pinene and ipsdienol.
\nThe proposed synthesis for 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonanne is represented in (Figure 17, Figure 18), it has four steps with 1,6-hexanediol as starting substance. It is an original reaction path except for the last stage, where the reaction conditions used by Cekovic and Bosnjak [36] at the cyclization of 1,7-nonanediol were modified [37, 38].
\nThe reaction path which was proposed and carried out in laboratory.
The mass spectra of the main product of reaction: 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane (1).
The 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane (1), having two asymmetric centers, has two pairs of optical diastereoisomers: A (2R,5S-1; 2R,5R-1) and B (2S,5S-1; 2S,5R-1) (Figure 19). The natural pheromone contains the pair of diastereoisomers (2S,5R)-1—biologically active and (2S,5S)-1—biologically inactive [39, 40].
\nEnantiomers and diastereomers for 2-ethyl-1,6-dioxaspiro-[4,4]-nonane.
All the four stereoisomers were obtained by synthesis and this racemic was tested.
\nThe biological activity, respectively the efficiency of the Romanian pheromone baits is tested in comparison with other imported compound. All the tests were obtained in Brasov area (Romania) between 2001 and 2004 (Tables 1 and 2).
\nYear | \nLocation of the experiments Romania, Brasov | \nThe type of trap | \nThe type of bait | \nNo. of traps | \nThe period and duration of observation (days) | \nThe number of captures | \nThe intensity of the attraction | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2001 | \nGârcin (OS Săcele) | \nWing | \nAtrachalc | \n3 | \n16.05–12.07 (58 days) | \n1.405 | \n8.07 | \n
Baits import | \n3 | \n70 | \n0.4 | \n||||
2004 | \nTamina (OS Braşov) | \nTheysohn | \nAtrachalc | \n3 | \n31.05–20.07 (51 days) | \n1.292 | \n8.4 | \n
Baits import | \n2 | \n503 | \n4.9 | \n
Experimental results in Romanian forests, 2001–2004.
Year | \nLocation of the experiments | \nThe type of Trap | \nThe type of bait | \nNo. of traps | \nThe period and duration of observation (days) | \nThe number of captures | \nThe intensity of the attraction | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2002 | \nGârcin (OS Săcele) | \nWing | \nAtrachalc | \n5 | \n21.05–28.07 (68 days) | \n35.531 | \n104.5 | \n
2003 | \nGârcin (OS Săcele) | \nWing | \nAtrachalc | \n3 | \n19.05–1.07 (43 days) | \n35.679 | \n276.5 | \n
Experimental results , Romanian forests, 2002–2003.
\nPityogenes chalcographus wing trap installed in forest (own photo on experimental plots).
(1) In 2001 and 2004, tests show the increased attractiveness of baits with the Romanian pheromone—Atrachalc, compared to another baits (import), irrespective of the type of trap used.
(2) In 2002 and 2003, the tests carried out with the Atrachalc baits and wing traps show in the same location different no captured beetles according to the period of time when the traps were placed and the observations were made. Besides the time factor, weather conditions or other elements from the ecosystem could influence catches
(3) 2009 comparative tests in Brasov area with different lures obtained higher level of the captured beetles using Atrachalc—Romanian baits. Wing traps with Atrachalc lure are recommended by experts for Romanian forests [41].
For monitoring and control bark beetles, pheromone lures are placed in wing-type trap (Figure 20). The traps are placed at the forest edge at about 5 m in the case of old forests and about 15 m in the case of young forests. Between the traps, distance is 30–50 m. To a high infestation, 2–3 traps/ha are used and for low infested forest one trap/ha is used. Traps are installed in late April to late August usual on a tree already attacked by bark beetles. Pheromone baits are replaced at no more than 6 weeks.
\nA changing climate with higher growing season temperatures and altered rainfall patterns make control of native and invasive insects an increasingly urgent challenge. Treatments with increasing amounts of insecticides are not a solution; it is time to intensify interdisciplinary research on semiochemicals based on a scientifically sound understanding of pest biology to provide the urgently needed and cost-effective technical solutions for sustainable insect management worldwide [42].
\nUsing pheromones in order to protect the above-mentioned crops is first of all an ecofriendly method, avoiding these ways the overloading environment with insecticides. The ecosystem remains unaffected due to the high selectivity and specificity of the semiochemicals. Sex pheromone baits in sticky traps attract insects very selective, only the species that emitted for mating the natural sex pheromons.
\nThis method does not affect another components of the ecosystem such as soil, air, water, or animals. The insect pest population falls below the economic damage threshold. In the case of the bark beetle is the most efficient combating method, because this pest lives (acts) underneath the bark, a place where insecticides cannot be applied.
\nThe same happen in the case of WCR because it is very difficult to use pesticides in the maize crop. Because Colorado potato beetles develop rapidly resistance to insecticides using aggregation pheromone as bait in a proper trap could be a solution to control this pest.
\nAll studies and experimental reviews above-mentioned have enhanced knowledge of chemical communication in and highlight the potential of semiochemicals as a component of future integrated management strategies.
\nThe original researches were supported by PN II grants financed by MEN-ANCS CeEx—BIOTECH 116, INVENT 160, grant CNCSIS-MEN Romania. We thank Dr Felicia Muresanu—Agricola Research Development Station Turda, Prof. Dr Gavrila Morar—University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj, Dr Daniela Popa—Research-Development for Potato Station Targu-Secuiesc for testing in the fields ICCRR-synthetic Pheromones.
\nThe development of fundamental motor skills is an essential prerequisite for the competent performance of several types of physical activities [1]. Evidence shows that the triggering of this process in a systematic way since childhood affects both the practice of efficient sports performances in youth and the adoption of active lifestyles in adulthood [2, 3, 4].
In theoretical terms, fundamental motor skills can be subdivided into two broad classifying categories: locomotion skills and object control skills [5]. Locomotion skills include running, jumping, marching, climbing, riding, swimming, skating, among others, while object control skills refer to transporting, intercepting, wielding, designing, and controlling implements in actions related to receptions, throws, bouncing, conduction with feet and hitting [6]. The development of physical fitness regarding balance, coordination, agility, speed, and reaction time contributes positively to the increase of these two types of skills, as they enable the body to perform them properly [7, 8].
Overall, the first manifestations of fundamental motor skills occur after the child stabilizes the bipedal posture and starts to walk alone. Participation in games is relevant to, even at random, have the opportunity to perform body skills in the challenges inherent to these activities. The continued exposure to such stimuli contributes, over time, to acquire increasing levels of motor proficiency [9, 10].
On the other hand, any obstructions in the course of motor evolution even in the first years of life can cause delays with an extension until puberty if they are not properly reversed in a timely manner. If they remain unchanged for long periods, deficits in locomotion and object control skills affect the behavioral and psychic domains. This can decrease the interest in the practice of physical activities, perturb self-esteem, and cause distortions in body image [11].
School Physical Education programs represent a strategic possibility of facing this scenario if they are given diligently with regard to content planning and execution. Likewise, the provision of public leisure policies focused on combating sedentary lifestyles among young people should be seen as measures of equal significance [12, 13]. Although such actions are essential, public health indicators attest that, by themselves, they are limited to promote the increase of basic motor skills of infants and adolescents related to the actions of running, jumping, swimming, throwing, launching, among others, according to minimally reasonable standards of technical effectiveness [14, 15]. In a 13-year longitudinal study, Hardy et al. [16] investigated the development levels of fundamental motor skills in children and adolescents. In the end, they observed that less than 50% exhibited basic motor skills at satisfactory levels. Similarly, Brian et al. [17] found in a recent study carried out in the United States of America (USA) that approximately 77% of the analyzed sample of infants and pubescents were in a situation of delayed motor development [17].
The cogency of this context and the urgency to face it has led academics and professionals in the area of human motricity to research and propose original solutions during the last two decades. One of them refers to the use of active video games (exergames) in children’s motor education processes [18, 19, 20]. Supporters of this idea state that exergames can be helpful tools for teaching, acquiring, and improving the motor skills of children and adolescents of different ages, sex, biological maturity, and clinical conditions. The undeniable popularity of these types of games among young people, mainly as a residential entertainment option, is the main justification to support such a suggestion. Conceptually, exergames are digital games that require movement of the body as a whole, through devices that convert the individual’s real movements to the virtual environment. This allows them to practice simulated sports, fitness exercises, and/or other playful and interactive physical activities. Unlike conventional video games, exergames require physical effort [18, 19, 20].
The innovative character of this approach not only ratifies the creativity of its proponents but also demonstrates the commitment to try to equate and solve the problem at hand. However, as it is a recent issue, it is legitimate to raise the hypothesis that studies related to the theme are still in an early stage. Thus, identifying the characteristics of the exergames as to the criteria for demarcating objects, data treatment techniques, sample compositions, and the applicability of the results is a necessary task both to have a broader view of their theoretical-methodological profiles and for the emission of epistemic diagnoses/prognoses. Therefore, the objective of this study was twofold: 1) to identify, through a systematic review, the ways of using exergames in the processes of motor education of school-age children; 2) to diagnose the epistemic state of this use in the context of Sport Sciences.
This systematic review was drafted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations [21].
A search was made without time or language filters in December 2020 in the Web of Science, MedLine (via PubMed), ScienceDirect, and Scopus databases. We used the keywords “exergames”, “motor education”, and “children”. The search phrase was obtained using the Boolean operators OR (between the synonyms) and AND (between the descriptors). Two independent evaluators performed the search. Any disagreements were solved by a consensus meeting or decided by a supervisor.
We included peer-reviewed articles that investigated the use of exergames on the acquisition and development of at least one type of locomotor skill or object control both in Physical Education classes and in non-formal educational contexts (clubs, gyms, residences) in school-aged individuals. The exclusion criteria consisted of: (1) opinion articles, reviews, case reports, annals of congresses, books, book chapters, theses, dissertations, and technical reports; (2) games unsuitable for residential or educational use, as well as computer games; (3) research related to the rehabilitation of special groups.
Data extracted from included studies comprised the following analytical matrices: (1) author, year of publication, and country of the study; (2) purpose of the study; (3) descriptive characteristics of the participants; (4) methodological aspects; (5) results.
The methodological quality of the studies was evaluated by the Jadad scale [22], which consists of the punctuation of the scores from 11 domains, namely: 1a) the study was reported as randomized; 1b) the randomization was properly performed; 2a) the study was a double-blind trial; 2b) the blinding was properly performed; 3) the sample loss was described. If items 1a, 2a, and 3 were performed, the study got 1 point per item. If items 1b and 2b were observed, the study received another point per item. In the case of items 1b and 2b were not met, the study lost 1 point concerning items 1a and 2a, respectively. On this scale, the scores ranged from 0 to 5. Studies with scores equal to or lower than 3 points were considered at a high risk of bias. Two independent and qualified researchers applied this instrument. A third author was consulted in case of any divergence.
The epistemological evaluation of the surveyed material occurred through the Systematization for Research Approaches in Sports Sciences (SRASS) instrument [23]. The SRASS aims to determine the epistemic approaches of studies regarding their guiding paradigms (empirical-experimental paradigm; critical-dialectic paradigm; hermeneutic-phenomenological paradigm); nature of the study (intervention study; cross-sectional study; case study; laboratory study); support theories (theories of human movement; game theories; theories of sports training; theories of didactics applied to sport) and subareas of linkage to Sport Sciences (Sports Medicine; Biomechanics applied to Sport; Sport Psychology; Sport Pedagogy); Sociology of Sport; History of Sport; Philosophy of Sport; Sport and Health; Sport for Special Groups; Sport and Media; Sport of Participation) [23, 24].
In total, 120 studies were found following the proposed research methodology (Web of Science = 12; MedLine via PubMed = 17; ScienceDirect = 71; Scopus = 20). After using the selection criteria, 17 studies were included (Figure 1).
Flow chart of the included studies.
Table 1 shows the descriptive characteristics of the studies included in the present review. The year of publication of the studies ranged from 2012 to 2020. The sample size in each group (intervention and control) ranged from 5 to 557 participants. The samples included both girls and boys, except the study by EbrahimiSani et al. [26] that included only girls. The total number of participants was 2,631 (1,338 in the intervention group and 1,293 in the control group). The age of the participants ranged from 4 to 14 years old.
Author and year | Country | Groups (n) | Age (years) | Sex | Participants’ profile |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barnett et al.,2015 [25] | Australia | 95 | 4 to 8 6.2 ± 0.95 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
EbrahimiSani et al., 2020 [26] | Iran | IG: 20 CG: 20 | 7 to 10 8.9 ± 1.07 | ♀ | DCD |
Edwards et al., 2016 [27] | Australia | IG: 11 CG: 19 | 6 to 10 | ♀♂ | GI: autism GC: neurotypical |
Gao et al., 2018 [28] | USA | IG: 20 CG: 36 | 4.45 ± 0.46 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Johnson et al., 2015 [29] | Australia | IG: 15 CG: 14 | 6 to 10 7.9 ± 1.5 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Lwin and Malik, 2012 [30] | Singapore | IG: 557 CG: 555 | 10 to 12 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
McGann et al., 2019 [20] | Ireland | IG: 20 CG: 20 | 5 to 7 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Medeiros et al., 2018 [31] | Brazil | IG: 6 CG: 5 | 8 to 10 9.09 ± 0.75 | ♀♂ | DCD |
Pope et al., 2015 [32] | USA | G1: 63 G2: 95 G3: 47 | 8 to 14 11.17 ± 1.1 | ♀♂ | G1: progressive children G2: stable children G3: regressive children |
Quintas et al., 2020 [33] | Spain | IG: 226 CG: 191 | 10 to 12 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Rhodes et al., 2017 [34] | Canada | IG: 39 CG: 34 | 10 to 14 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Sheehan and Katz, 2013 [35] | Canada | IG: 21 CG1: 21 CG2: 19 | 9 to 10 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Smits-Engelsman et al., 2017 [36] | South Africa | G1: 9 G2: 9 | 6 to 10 | ♀♂ | G1: DCD (dyspraxia) G2: neurotypical |
Smits-Engelsman et al., 2020 [37] | South Africa | G1: 33 G2: 28 | 6 to 12 | ♀♂ | G1: DCD (dyspraxia) G2: neurotypical |
Sun, 2012 [38] | USA | IG: 46 CG: 42 | 9 to 12 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Ye et al., 2018 [39] | USA | IG: 135 CG: 115 | 7 to 9 8.25 ± 0.66 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Vernadakis et al., 2015 [40] | Greece | IG: 22 CG1: 22 CG2: 22 | 6 to 7 | ♀♂ | Neurotypical |
Descriptive characteristics of the included studies.
n: sample size; IG: intervention group; CG: control group; ♀: female; ♂: male; DCD: developmental coordination disorder.
Table 2 presents the methodological characteristics and the main results of the selected studies. The exergames used were Nintendo Wii, Xbox 360 Kinect, and PlayStation. The training frequency varied between 1 to 5 times per week, with a total of 8 to 60 minutes of intervention per week, for 2 to 36 weeks.
Study | Protocol | Volume | Evaluation | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|
Barnett et al. [25] | One hour after school Nintendo Wii® session | 1×/week 60 min 6 weeks | A1: TGMD-2 A2: PMSC | A2 (p < 0.05) |
EbrahimiSani et al. [26] | IG: virtual reality with Xbox 360 Kinect games CG: no intervention | 16 sessions 30 min 8 weeks | A1: hand rotation task A2: anticipatory action planning A3: rapid online control | A1 (p < 0.05, IG vs. CG) |
Edwards et al. [27] | IG: Xbox 360 at home with specific mini-games (e.g., baseball, golf, tennis, table tennis, soccer, bowling, volleyball, and football) CG: Xbox 360 during school lunchtimes | IG: 3×/week 45–60 min 2 weeks CG: 1×/week 50 min 6 weeks | A1: TGMD-3 A2: PMSC | IG and CG without significant difference pre- and post-intervention |
Gao et al. [28] | IG: exergaming (Wii or Xbox Kinect) Dance for Kids, Wii Nickelodeon Fit, Kinect Just Dance for Kids CG: no structured PA | 8 weeks 20 min | A1: PSPCSA A2: TGMD-2 A3: ActiGraph GT9X Link accelerometers | A1 (p < 0.05, IG vs. CG) |
Johnson et al. [29] | IG: Xbox Kinect games (Specific mini-games: baseball, golf, tennis, table tennis, soccer, bowling, volleyball, and football) | 1×/week 50 min 6 weeks | A1: TGMD-3 A2: PMSC | A1 and A2: no significant difference |
Lwin and Malik [30] | IG: PE lesson with Wii active video games (DDR, Wii tennis, and Wii boxing) CG: PE lesson without Wii | 1×/week 8–10 min 6 weeks | A1: attitude scale A2: subjective norm scale A3: perceived behavioral control scale A4: intention scale A5: exercise behavior questionnaire | A1 (p < 0.001, IG vs. CG) A2 (p < 0.05, IG vs. CG) A5 Strenuous exercise (p < 0.05, IG vs. CG) |
McGann et al. [20] | IG: Kinect® (Slide Ball, Hop Ball, Jump Ball, Skip Attack) CG: commercial exergames | 1×/week 60 min 8 weeks | TGMD-2 | p < 0.001, IG vs. CG |
Medeiros et al. [31] | IG: XBOX-360 Kinect Sports 1 (soccer and athletics), Kinect Sports 2 (skiing, tennis, and shooting), Kinect adventure CG: no playing | 2×/week 45 min 9 weeks | MABC-2 | p < 0.05, IG vs. CG |
Pope et al. [32] | 6 DDR stations were set up each with 2 master dance pads connected to a PlayStation Gaming System | 1×/week 30 min 18 weeks | Decisional balance | p < 0.05, G1, G2, and G3 post-intervention |
Quintas et al. [33] | IG: Just Dance Now + MDA CG: danced by imitating the teacher live | 12 sessions 9 hours 4 weeks | A1: Motivation A2: Dispositional flow A3: Basic psychological needs A4: Rhythmic Motor Skill A5: Commitment to and behavior toward learning | A1, A2, A3, A4, and A5: no significant difference after intervention |
Rhodes et al. [34] | IG: exergame bike in Sony Playstation3® CG: stationary bike in front of a TV | 3×/week 30 min 12 weeks | Weekly bike use recorded in a logbook | p < 0.05, IG vs. CG |
Sheehan and Katz [35] | IG: iDance™ + Wii Fit™ Plus + XR-Board™ + Lightspace™ Play Wall CG1: PE class geared toward ABC improvement CG2: typical PE curriculum class | 4–5×/week 34 min 6 weeks | Balance tests on the HUR BT4™ platform | p < 0.05, IG and CG1 |
Smits-Engelsman et al. [36] | G1 and G2: active Nintendo Wii Fit gaming on the balance board | 2×/week 20 min 5 weeks | A1: FSM A2: 10 × 5 meter sprint A3: 10 × 5 meter slalom A4: Balance and running speed & agility subtests of the BOT2 | A1, A2, and A3 (p < 0.05, IG and CG) A4 (p < 0.05, G1 vs. G2) |
Smits-Engelsman et al. [37] | Wii ski game | 2×/week 30 min 10 weeks | MABC-2 | p < 0.05, G2 vs. G1 |
Sun [38] | IG: exergaming (Cateye Gamebikes, Xavix Boxing, 3-kick, Dog Fight Flight simulators, Nintendo Wiis, DDR, Gamercize activities, and XrBoards) CG: traditional fitness-education unit | 2×/week 30 min 4 weeks | A1: in-class PA level by RT3 accelerometers A2: situational interest scale A3: initial interest A4: situational interest change | A2 (p < 0.05, IG vs. CG) |
Ye et al. [39] | IG: exergaming (Kinect Ultimate Sports, Just Dance, Wii Sports, and Wii Fit) and PE program CG: only PE | 2×/week 25 min 36 weeks | A1: Motor skill competence (MSC) A2: Health-related fitness (HRF) | A2 (p < 0.05 IG vs. CG) |
Vernadakis et al. [40] | IG: Xbox Kinect games CG1: typical FMS training program CG2: no structured training program | 2×/week 30 min 8 weeks | A1: TGMD-2 A2: PA enjoyment scale | A1 (p < 0.05, IG and CG1 vs. CG2) A2 (p < 0.05, IG vs. CG1 and CG2) |
Methodological and outcomes data extracted from the studies.
IG: intervention group; CG: control group; A: assessment; DDR: Dance Dance Revolution; TGMD-2: Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition; TGMD-3: Test of Gross Motor Development-3; MABC-2: Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition; PE: Physical Education; PA: physical activity; ABC: agility, balance, and coordination; FSM: Functional Strength Measure; BOT2: Bruininks Oseretsky test of motor proficiency 2; MDA: Mechanics-Dynamics-Esthetics; PSPCSA: Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance; PMSC: Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence; FMS: fundamental motor skills.
The methodological quality evaluation is shown in Table 3. Only two studies [31, 34] presented a low risk of bias.
Studies | 1a | 1b | 2a | 2b | 3 | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medeiros et al. [31] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 |
Rhodes et al. [34] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 |
EbrahimiSani et al. [26] | 1 | 1 | 1 | −1 | 1 | 3 |
Vernadakis et al. [40] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Barnett et al. [25] | 1 | −1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Gao et al. [28] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
McGann et al. [20] | 1 | −1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Quintas et al. [33] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Sheehan and Katz [35] | 1 | −1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Smits-Engelsman et al. [36] | 0 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 1 | 1 |
Smits-Engelsman et al. [37] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Ye et al. [39] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Johnson et al. [29] | 1 | −1 | 1 | −1 | 0 | 0 |
Lwin and Malik [30] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Pope et al. [32] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Edwards et al. [27] | 1 | −1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Sun [38] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Methodological quality evaluation through the Jadad scale.
1a: randomized study; 1b: adequate randomization; 2a: double-blind study; 2b: proper blinding; 3: description of the sample loss.
Table 4 shows the epistemological characteristics of the studies according to the STRASS criteria.
Study | Paradigm | Nature of the study | Theoretical bases of support | Linking sub-areas |
---|---|---|---|---|
Barnett et al. [25] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
EbrahimiSani et al. [26] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Edwards et al. [27] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Gao et al. [28] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/Theories of Sports Training | Sport Psychology/Sport and Health |
Johnson et al. [29] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Lwin and Malik [30] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/Theories of Sports Training | Sport Psychology/Sport and Health |
McGann et al. [20] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Medeiros et al. [31] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Popeet al. [32] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Quintas et al. [33] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/ Theories of Didactics applied to Sport | Sport Psychology/Sport Pedagogy |
Rhodes et al. [34] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/Theories of Sports Training | Sport Psychology/Sport and Health |
Sheehan and Katz [35] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Sports Training/ Theories of Didactics applied to Sport | Sport Pedagogy/Sport and Performance |
Smits-Engelsman et al. [36] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Sports Training | Sport and Performance |
Smits-Engelsman et al. [37] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/Theories of Sports Training | Sport and Performance |
Sun [38] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/Theories of Sports Training/ Theories of Didactics applied to Sport | Sport and Health/Sport Psychology/Sport Pedagogy |
Ye et al. [39] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement/Theories of Sports Training | Sport Psychology/Sport and Health |
Vernadakis et al. [40] | Empirical-experimental | Intervention study | Theories of Human Movement | Sport Psychology |
Epistemological characteristics of the studies.
This study aimed to identify, through a systematic review, the ways of using exergames in the motor education processes of school-aged children and to diagnose the epistemic state of this use in the context of Sport Sciences. Technically, exergames gather the main dimensions of virtual realities: interaction, involvement, and immersion. The interaction is related to the environment’s ability to respond to user actions interactively through devices. Some devices can naturally capture users’ movements. The involvement is the ability to maintain the user’s attention, seeking to explore their different senses, keeping the user attracted and motivated to remain in the environment. Immersion refers to the ability to make the user feel present in the simulated environment, seeking to distance them from the real environment [18].
A dominant feature of the investigations raised on exergames in our study concerns the fact that most of them focused on samples of neurotypical infants. Neurotypical individuals are those who do not fit the autism spectrum, exhibiting linguistic, sensorimotor, affective, and cognitive aspects consistent with those expected for their chronological age [41]. Eleven of the included studies [20, 25, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40] exemplify this trend. Conversely, four included studies [26, 31, 36, 37] analyzed the motor behaviors of children with developmental coordination disorder. The other two studies included, as target subjects, groups of neurotypical and autistic individuals [27] and young people in different stages of motor performance [32].
In summary, it is noted that the dominant neurological characteristic of the investigated subjects refers to neurotypical people, that is, situated within frames considered normal. Contrariwise, neurodivergent or neuroatypical analyzes are in the minority. Moreover, all authors focused on sample groups of infants of both sexes, except EbrahimiSani et al. [26], who prioritized only girls. It is concluded then, in this regard, that the investigations do not privilege the masculine gender over the feminine and vice versa. Still with respect to the sample groups, it is reiterated that the samples were heterogeneous in terms of the number of individuals analyzed, chronological ages, and levels of biological maturation.
Another demographic item to be highlighted is the fact that the investigations are distributed by teams of researchers located in different countries. This means that the theme of the effects of exergames on the acquisition and development of motor skills of schoolchildren has a global connotation.
In terms of the methodological characteristics of the investigations, despite the different training volumes and motor stimuli applied, in almost all studies some type of significant result was obtained from the intervention groups when compared to the control groups. At first, this means that exergames may have positive effects on the gross motor skills and physical fitness levels of children with different levels of training. Only one study [33] showed no change in any variable. However, such gains should be viewed with caution, as it is not possible to confirm whether they will continue, and in what proportion, as the infant’s biological maturation progresses and the training status changes.
This diagnosis is reinforced when it is observed that, among the 17 selected studies, only two [31, 34] were considered to be of high theoretical and methodological quality. Hence, they correspond to those of greater scientific credibility. In compensation, 15 investigations received a rating of three or less on the Jadad scale [22], which denotes compromises in their quality in terms of scientificity. Thus, they are research with coherence, consistency, objectivity, and control of subjectivity subject to criticism. As a result, the verisimilitude of the conclusions they announce must be interpreted with caution [42].
To paraphrase Miller [43], situations of this nature are relatively usual when a given object of study is still recent, in the sense that the scientific community to address it is still in the early stages of theoretical problematization. Consequently, the demarcations of the object have little depth, as well as the investigative horizons considered more pertinent in the medium and long terms.
Regarding the epistemological profile of the studies surveyed, it can be seen that, in full, all consisted of empirical-experimental intervention studies. Research with this bias has, as a guiding axis, the exposure of individuals to certain stimuli to verify their random impacts on one or more pre-established variables. In this type of conception, the researcher pre-understands that certain factors are hypothetically capable of engendering transformations in structural elements of the object. In the case of the present study, it is reasonable to conclude that researchers in exergames assume that such a class of games is capable of influencing the biopsychic construction of the motor skills of school-aged individuals. Hence the need for them to seek reliable evidence on such a process [24, 42].
The conceptual basis adopted to support the selected investigations refers almost exclusively to the Theories of Human Movement with an emphasis on Sport Psychology of a behavioral nature. However, it was possible to identify, in some of them, the existence of interfaces with the areas of Sport Pedagogy, Sport and Performance, and Sport and Health. Mediating this junction are the theories of Sports Training and Didactics. As a complement, we reiterate that no study mentioned Game Theories, which are among the classic bodies of knowledge of Physical Education and Sport Sciences.
The previous observation shows two contexts that are interconnected. The first goes back to the detection that, despite behavioral Sport Psychology being the Sports Science sub-area to endorse most of the inventoried works, it is possible to perceive the search for an incipient interdisciplinary dialog with the other mentioned theoretical fields. On the other hand, and this is the second consideration, Sports Training, and Didactics, under the aegis of Sport Pedagogy, Sport and Health, and Sport and Performance, constitute disciplines that go back to the structuring nucleus originating from Physical Education and Sports Science [24]. Therefore, it can be seen that, given the emergence of the relationship between exergames and the development of motor skills in childhood, given that it is a relatively recent object of study, a return to the knowledge bases that support the epistemic tradition of Physical Education and Sport Sciences is outlined. In terms of Theory of Knowledge, attitudes like these are consistent with the notion called Fundationalism, which alludes to the search for theoretical support for new ideas in knowledge that history has endorsed and endorse as legitimate in the flow of time [44].
The present study has some limitations. The first concerns the selection of articles from four electronic databases. Although the investigated databases catalog a vast number of scientific journals worldwide, some articles published in other journals that address this issue may not have been found. Studies from a larger number of search engines could enrich the analysis and discussions.
The present study allows the announcement of some conclusions. Effectively, the use of exergames by school-aged children can promote an increase in motor skills both in locomotion and in object control. Their physical fitness levels are also capable of improving. However, the magnitude and duration of these increments remain inconclusive.
In epistemological terms, the state of knowledge of the productions related to the theme is in an embryonic state. Furthermore, the quality of the articles exhibits theoretical and methodological weaknesses that must be overcome. Investigations of an empirical-experimental nature focused on intervention studies are hegemonic. At the conceptual level, the theories of Sports Training, Didactics, and Human Movement have been chosen to provide the theoretical foundation, referring to the existence of an interdisciplinary intersection, in the field of Sport Sciences, between Sport Psychology, Sport Pedagogy, Sport and Performance, and Sport and Health.
Based on this diagnosis, it is urgent to affirm that, for example, research that opts for alternative methodological designs is still necessary, such as case reports, cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies, and even conceptual essays. In the case of Sports Science sub-areas, it is necessary to approach the subject according to other perspectives. As an option, we suggest Biomechanics applied to Sport, Sports Medicine, Sport Sociology, and Sport Philosophy.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Compacts",metaDescription:"IntechOpen Compacts present a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs and covers content across all scientific disciplines.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/compacts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\\n\\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\\n\\nCOST
\\n\\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nOptional Services
\\n\\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\\n\\nFUNDING
\\n\\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\\n\\nBENEFITS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\\n\\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\n\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\n\nCOST
\n\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nOptional Services
\n\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\n\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\n\nFUNDING
\n\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\n\nBENEFITS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"103",title:"Geography",slug:"geography",parent:{title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"},numberOfBooks:10,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:293,numberOfWosCitations:96,numberOfCrossrefCitations:75,numberOfDimensionsCitations:165,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"geography",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9381",title:"Geographic Information Systems in Geospatial Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"069b444029eceaad8ff557eca7bd713e",slug:"geographic-information-systems-in-geospatial-intelligence",bookSignature:"Rustam B. Rustamov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9381.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59174",title:"Dr.",name:"Rustam B.",middleName:null,surname:"Rustamov",slug:"rustam-b.-rustamov",fullName:"Rustam B. Rustamov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9846",title:"Spatial Variability in Environmental Science",subtitle:"Patterns, Processes, and Analyses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfa4fa7b982bbff46ffbe6fbdbffbdf1",slug:"spatial-variability-in-environmental-science-patterns-processes-and-analyses",bookSignature:"John P. Tiefenbacher and Davod Poreh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9846.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9246",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f23d04613b089dae40f81342c3e7c7f4",slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",bookSignature:"Vladislav Demyanov and Jonathan Becedas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9246.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"154597",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Demyanov",slug:"vladislav-demyanov",fullName:"Vladislav Demyanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7304",title:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e90c7cda0e7f94a6620d6ec83db808ae",slug:"geospatial-analyses-of-earth-observation-eo-data",bookSignature:"Antonio Pepe and Qing Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7304.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7362",title:"Geographic Information Systems and Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0ac3aa0063d6a10dd3fe90ff78cddd7",slug:"geographic-information-systems-and-science",bookSignature:"Jorge Rocha and Patrícia Abrantes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7362.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7262",title:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed7c7f4193e3951e715569ca454f7077",slug:"spatial-analysis-modelling-and-planning",bookSignature:"Jorge Rocha and José António Tenedório",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7262.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6396",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da1643c7ce5482ec846a188d34ce2839",slug:"urban-agglomeration",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6396.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5241",title:"Applications of Spatial Statistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"acc5941907640ecc7a3e350c5fe3df19",slug:"applications-of-spatial-statistics",bookSignature:"Ming-Chih Hung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5241.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184413",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",middleName:"Chih",surname:"Hung",slug:"ming-hung",fullName:"Ming Hung"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3727",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26e11b6e4cce4e245e6e28b281563139",slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",bookSignature:"Francesco Holecz, Paolo Pasquali, Nada Milisavljevic and Damien Closson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3727.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13897",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:null,surname:"Closson",slug:"damien-closson",fullName:"Damien Closson"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2325",title:"Cartography",subtitle:"A Tool for Spatial Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3dca82349b9c5a9106966b58dfb803b3",slug:"cartography-a-tool-for-spatial-analysis",bookSignature:"Carlos Bateira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2325.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131405",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Bateira",slug:"carlos-bateira",fullName:"Carlos Bateira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"57824",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72047",title:"Waste in the City: Challenges and Opportunities for Urban Agglomerations",slug:"waste-in-the-city-challenges-and-opportunities-for-urban-agglomerations",totalDownloads:1901,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",middleName:null,surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}]},{id:"58196",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72191",title:"The Multivariated Effect of City Cooperation in Land Use Planning and Decision-Making Processes: A European Analysis",slug:"the-multivariated-effect-of-city-cooperation-in-land-use-planning-and-decision-making-processes-a-eu",totalDownloads:547,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Luís Carlos Loures, Rui Alexandre Castanho, José Manuel Naranjo\nGómez, Ana Vulevic, José Cabezas and Luis Fernández-Pozo",authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"},{id:"215340",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Vulevic",slug:"ana-vulevic",fullName:"Ana Vulevic"},{id:"215341",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Cabezas Fernández",slug:"jose-cabezas-fernandez",fullName:"José Cabezas Fernández"},{id:"215342",title:"Prof.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Naranjo Gómez",slug:"jose-manuel-naranjo-gomez",fullName:"José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"},{id:"222742",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Pozo",slug:"luis-fernandez-pozo",fullName:"Luis Fernández-Pozo"},{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho"}]},{id:"46448",doi:"10.5772/58225",title:"Mapping of Ground Deformations with Interferometric Stacking Techniques",slug:"mapping-of-ground-deformations-with-interferometric-stacking-techniques",totalDownloads:3187,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Paolo Pasquali, Alessio Cantone, Paolo Riccardi, Marco Defilippi,\nFumitaka Ogushi, Stefano Gagliano and Masayuki Tamura",authors:[{id:"168247",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Pasquali",slug:"paolo-pasquali",fullName:"Paolo Pasquali"},{id:"168811",title:"Mr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Riccardi",slug:"paolo-riccardi",fullName:"Paolo Riccardi"},{id:"168812",title:"Mr.",name:"Alessio",middleName:null,surname:"Cantone",slug:"alessio-cantone",fullName:"Alessio Cantone"},{id:"168813",title:"Mr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Defilippi",slug:"marco-defilippi",fullName:"Marco Defilippi"},{id:"168814",title:"Mr.",name:"Fumitaka",middleName:null,surname:"Ogushi",slug:"fumitaka-ogushi",fullName:"Fumitaka Ogushi"},{id:"168815",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Gagliano",slug:"stefano-gagliano",fullName:"Stefano Gagliano"},{id:"170671",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Tamura",slug:"masayuki-tamura",fullName:"Masayuki Tamura"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57824",title:"Waste in the City: Challenges and Opportunities for Urban Agglomerations",slug:"waste-in-the-city-challenges-and-opportunities-for-urban-agglomerations",totalDownloads:1897,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",middleName:null,surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}]},{id:"70189",title:"GNSS High-Rate Data and the Efficiency of Ionospheric Scintillation Indices",slug:"gnss-high-rate-data-and-the-efficiency-of-ionospheric-scintillation-indices",totalDownloads:295,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",fullTitle:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences"},signatures:"Vladislav V. Demyanov, Maria A. Sergeeva and Anna S. Yasyukevich",authors:[{id:"154597",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Demyanov",slug:"vladislav-demyanov",fullName:"Vladislav Demyanov"},{id:"299487",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Sergeeva",slug:"maria-sergeeva",fullName:"Maria Sergeeva"},{id:"307343",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Yasyukevich",slug:"anna-yasyukevich",fullName:"Anna Yasyukevich"}]},{id:"73592",title:"A Review of the Machine Learning in GIS for Megacities Application",slug:"a-review-of-the-machine-learning-in-gis-for-megacities-application",totalDownloads:253,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"geographic-information-systems-in-geospatial-intelligence",title:"Geographic Information Systems in Geospatial Intelligence",fullTitle:"Geographic Information Systems in Geospatial Intelligence"},signatures:"Nasim Tohidi and Rustam B. Rustamov",authors:[{id:"59174",title:"Dr.",name:"Rustam B.",middleName:null,surname:"Rustamov",slug:"rustam-b.-rustamov",fullName:"Rustam B. Rustamov"},{id:"317547",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasim",middleName:null,surname:"Tohidi",slug:"nasim-tohidi",fullName:"Nasim Tohidi"}]},{id:"52704",title:"Comparison of Spatial Interpolation Techniques Using Visualization and Quantitative Assessment",slug:"comparison-of-spatial-interpolation-techniques-using-visualization-and-quantitative-assessment",totalDownloads:2497,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"applications-of-spatial-statistics",title:"Applications of Spatial Statistics",fullTitle:"Applications of Spatial Statistics"},signatures:"Yi-Hwa (Eva) Wu and Ming-Chih Hung",authors:[{id:"181853",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Hwa",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"yi-hwa-wu",fullName:"Yi-Hwa Wu"}]},{id:"69962",title:"Nanosatellites and Applications to Commercial and Scientific Missions",slug:"nanosatellites-and-applications-to-commercial-and-scientific-missions",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",fullTitle:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences"},signatures:"Adriano Camps",authors:[{id:"299991",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Camps",slug:"adriano-camps",fullName:"Adriano Camps"}]},{id:"59382",title:"Land and Infrastructure Development in Peri-Urban Areas: Case Study of Gomti Nagar, Lucknow, India",slug:"land-and-infrastructure-development-in-peri-urban-areas-case-study-of-gomti-nagar-lucknow-india",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Kana Ram Godha",authors:[{id:"214103",title:"Mr.",name:"Kana Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Godha",slug:"kana-ram-godha",fullName:"Kana Ram Godha"}]},{id:"67619",title:"Application of Topographic Analyses for Mapping Spatial Patterns of Soil Properties",slug:"application-of-topographic-analyses-for-mapping-spatial-patterns-of-soil-properties",totalDownloads:715,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"geospatial-analyses-of-earth-observation-eo-data",title:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",fullTitle:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data"},signatures:"Xia Li and Gregory W. McCarty",authors:[{id:"55106",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"McCarty",slug:"gregory-mccarty",fullName:"Gregory McCarty"},{id:"286359",title:"Dr.",name:"Xia",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"xia-li",fullName:"Xia Li"}]},{id:"38308",title:"Open Source Tools, Landscape and Cartography: Studies on the Cultural Heritage at a Territorial Scale",slug:"open-source-tools-landscape-and-cartography-studies-on-the-cultural-heritage-at-a-territorial-scale",totalDownloads:2199,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"cartography-a-tool-for-spatial-analysis",title:"Cartography",fullTitle:"Cartography - A Tool for Spatial Analysis"},signatures:"Pilar Chias and Tomas Abad",authors:[{id:"140533",title:"Prof.",name:"Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Chias",slug:"pilar-chias",fullName:"Pilar Chias"}]},{id:"63765",title:"Introductory Chapter: Spatial Analysis, Modelling, and Planning",slug:"introductory-chapter-spatial-analysis-modelling-and-planning",totalDownloads:2164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"spatial-analysis-modelling-and-planning",title:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning",fullTitle:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning"},signatures:"José António Tenedório and Jorge Rocha",authors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"},{id:"242032",title:"Dr.",name:"José António",middleName:null,surname:"Tenedório",slug:"jose-antonio-tenedorio",fullName:"José António Tenedório"}]},{id:"70180",title:"The Impact of Space Radiation Environment on Satellites Operation in Near-Earth Space",slug:"the-impact-of-space-radiation-environment-on-satellites-operation-in-near-earth-space",totalDownloads:429,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",fullTitle:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences"},signatures:"Victor U. J. Nwankwo, Nnamdi N. Jibiri and Michael T. Kio",authors:[{id:"94563",title:"Dr.",name:"Nnamdi",middleName:null,surname:"Jibiri",slug:"nnamdi-jibiri",fullName:"Nnamdi Jibiri"},{id:"300878",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Nwankwo",slug:"victor-nwankwo",fullName:"Victor Nwankwo"},{id:"310318",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Kio",slug:"michael-kio",fullName:"Michael Kio"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"geography",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/178477/mohammad-lutfi-othman",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"178477",slug:"mohammad-lutfi-othman"},fullPath:"/profiles/178477/mohammad-lutfi-othman",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()