Composition of Anthocyanins found in pigmented corn plant.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61861",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Pigmented Maize",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78340",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-pigmented-maize",body:'The oldest macroremains unambiguously identified as maize (Zea mays) were retrieved from preceramic strata of dry caves in two states of Mexico: Puebla (Tehuacan Valley) and Tamaulipas (Ocampo Caves). These were found with microremains of pepper (Capsicum) and squash (Cucurbit asp) and other species used by humans. Archeological strata, suggesting a rough date for this foods around 9000–7000 B.P. [1]. In different myths, leyends and codices prehispanics civilizations Olmecas, Mayan and Mexican showing the prominent position of corn. For example, one myth the Mexica gods of corn: Tell us that corn was created after the goddess Centéotl sank into the ground to make vegetables to feed the people. It was in the wake of that event that cotton, huazantle, chia, sweet potato and corn began to grow from the ground. The Mexican Indians called corn as “the plant of the gods” [2].
At this time, corn (Zea mays) is the most important cereal that is produced in the world, the white and yellow corns are more used, the world production of maize was 987 million metric tons (MMT) and the United States of America (USA) is the largest producer and Mexico is the sixth producing country [3].
In the world, corn is generally used for animal feed and biofuels. In Mexico, this cereal is used for making foods; maize grains are consumed fresh (elotes and esquites, boiled grains) or processed in the form of dough or cornmeal for the preparation of some foods: dishes (tortillas), corn flakes (salads and sweets totopos), starch (atoles and pinole), tamale dough (tamales), fermented foods (pozol and atoles), boiled or steamed corn (pozole), soups (chilaquiles), bakery products and another foods. Some foods and grains of maizes are depicted in Figure 1.
Food products elaborated with pigmented corn.
The colorful corns are less common while the white and yellow are the most popular. All parts such as silk, cob, leaves, husk and kernel of corns have been used by people at remote time to Mesoamerican civilization, the pigment corns referred to as blue, red or purple corn are botanically the same species white and yellow. This cereal was used in the preparation to color foods and beverages. The interest on pigmented (blue, red and purple) corn is due to the bioactive compounds; these are anthocyanins, p-hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonoids and to minor proportion carotenoids, phytoesterols, vitamin E, lignans, policosanols and xylans. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of bioactive compounds and of the biological activity of the purple, red and blue corns in all parts of the plant including pericarp of the grain (kernel), silk (seda), inflorescence (espiga), husk (totomoxtle) and corn cobs (olote). The plant parts typical to corn are shown in Figure 2.
Organs of the corn plant. Painting by Esteban Torres 2018.
Anthocyanins are the largest group of phenolic pigments responsible for the pink, red, purple and blue corns which is the cereal with most anthocyanin content [4]. For that reason, the pigmented corn has caught attention in research and production. There is a great diversity in types of corn including sweet corn, popcorn, pod corn, flint corn, flour corn, waxy corn and dent corn; everyone is able to have different variety of color as shown in Figure 3, which give us opportunity to get a great source of anthocyanins using the whole plant because, according with the variety of corn, the silk, corn husk and corn cob could have more anthocyanins than kernel, as we will see in later section.
Purple corn and Cacahuacintle corn with purple cornhusk and corn cob.
Anthocyanin in corn is found in kernel, cob, husk, silk, leaves and stem [5, 6]. In terms of anthocyanins, kernel is the most studied and anthocyanins are found in pericarp and aleurone layer. Pericarp can be transparent, orange, red or brown while aleurone layer can be transparent, red or purple [7]. Currently, researches in corn are focused on major production of anthocyanins, so there are some strategies to find new and better source of pigmented corns. One of them is the study of Mexican maize due to an excellent source for the production of anthocyanins because there are more than 60 native races of corn that have been little studied. However, Mendoza had studied the anthocyanins content in different corn lines and found corns with higher anthocyanins [8]. Other strategy is hybrid corn which is also studied; nevertheless, the anthocyanins content is not better than other pigmented native corns.
The later research about anthocyanin characterization shows a similar profile include cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-(6”malonyl) glucoside as the main anthocyanins. Figure 4 shows anthocyanins found in pigmented corn. However, the variety of colors on pigmented corns is due to the difference on the concentration of each anthocyanin depending on genetics [9]. Peonidin-3-glucoside and pelargonidin-3-glucoside and their derivatives are the anthocyanins that have major variability and a major concentration of pelargonidin-3-(6”malonyl)glucoside are found in red corn [10] while blue corn has neither pelargonidin-3-glucoside nor peonidin-3-glucoside as purple corn has [11], moreover blue corn has more cyanidin-3-(6″ malonyl)glucoside than purple corn; however, its total concentration is much less than purple corn as shown in Table 1 [9].
Structure of anthocyanin found in pigmented corn.
Part of the corn | Corn phenotype | Anthocyanin | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Kernel | Purple corn2 Purple corn bran3 Purple corn pericarp6 | Cy-3-glu (45.8%)2, (45.8%)3, (47.3%)4 (73.62%)6 Pg-3-gluc (2.0%)2 (3.3%)3, (4.7%)4 (15.50%)6 Pn-3-gluc (9.3%)2, (4.,1%)3, (11.9%)4 (10.88%)6 Cy-3-malonylglu (17.2%)2, (11.9%)4 Pg-3-malonylglu (2.4%)2, (2.1%)4 Pn-3-malonylglu (3.1%)2, (6.0%)4 Condensed form (16.8%)2, (11.2%)4 | [11]4, [12]2, [13]3 |
Purple corn V1-V91 Purple corn2,3,9 Purple Hybrid (WenveiiR5 R11)5 | Condensed forms1; Cy-3-glu1,2,3,5,6, Pg-3-gluc1,2,6,9; Pn-3-gluc1,2,5,6,9; Cy-3-malonylglu1,2,3,5; Pg-3-malonylglu1,2,3,5; Cy-3-dimalonylglu1; Pn-3-malonylglu1,2,3; Pg-3-dimalonylglu1,2; Pn-3-dimalonylglu1 | [9]5, [10]1, [12]2, [14]6, [15]9 | |
Red hybrid corn (Wenwei2 R6 x LH287 R8)5 | Cy-3-glu5; Pn-3-gluc5; Cy-3-malonylglu5 | [9]5 | |
Blue corn | Cy-3-glu (24.4%)7 (61.50%)8 Pg-3-glu (13.88%)8 Pn-3-glu (3.39%)8 Cy-3-malonylglu (56.6%)7 Pg-3-malonylglu (9.1%)7 Pn-3-malonylglu (10.4%)7 Cy-3-succinylglu (3.62%)8 Cy-3-disuccinylglu (4.56%)8 | [11]7, [16]8 | |
Blue hybrid corn (Lfy blue RI)5 | Cy-3-glu5; Cy-3-malonylglu5; Pn-3-malonylglu5 | [9]5 | |
Germ | Purple corn sprouts | Direct condensed (Epi)catechin-Cy/Pg-3,5 diglu (Epi)catechin (4-8)-Cy/Pn/Pg 3,5 diglu (Epi)catechin (4-8)-Cy 3-malonylglu-5 glu Cy- 3,5 diglu Cy/Pg/Dp/Pn 3-glu Cy 3-malonylhexoside Cy/Pg/Pn 3-(6″-malonylglu) Pn-3-(6″-malonylhexoside) Cy/Pg/Pn 3-(3″,6″-dimalonylhexoside) | [17] |
Cob | Purple corn9 Purple corn (Peru)10 | Cy-3-glu9, 10; Cy-3-malonylglu9, 10; Pn-3-glu9, 10; Pn-3-malonylglu9, 10; Pg-3-glu9, 10; Pg-3-malonylglu9, 10 | [15]9, [18]10 |
Purple corn (Peru) | Cy-3-glu (75.28%) Pn-3-glu (8.55%) Pg-3-glu (16.16%) | [14] | |
Husk | Purple corn | Cy-3-glu (11.7%)11 (39.8%)12 Cy-3-malonylglu (29.0%)11 (8.4%)12 Pg-3-malonylglu (11.0%)12 Cy-3-succinylglu (20.8%)12 Cy-3-glu monomalonate (1.0%)11 Pg-3-glu (~1.5%)11 (2.0%)12 Cy-3-malonylglu (6.3%)11 Pn-3-glu (0.9%)11 Cy-3-glu dimalonate (3.9%)11 Cy-3-dimalonylglu (35%)11 Pn-3-malonylglu (2.0%)11 Pg-3-dimalonylglu (1.5%)11 Pn-3-dimalonylglu (1.4%)11 | [19]11, [20]12 |
Silk | Purple corn | Cy-3-glu Cy-3-malonylglu Pg-3-glu Pn-3-glu | [21] |
Composition of Anthocyanins found in pigmented corn plant.
Superscript indicates the correlation of the concentration of anthocyanins with its reference.
Cob is considered as a by-product from the corn and represents the 20.6–26.2% of the plant and it is used as animal feed. However, it has a chemical high value due to their high anthocyanin concentration and other phenolic compounds. Purple corn cob anthocyanin concentration is 3–3900 mg/100 g according to the last years’ review (Table 2). Differences are due to corn variety and also, but in a lesser way, extraction method. Anthocyanin composition in cob is similar to the kernel, finding the six main anthocyanins, and identification has made by HPLS-MS [15, 40].
Part of corn | Maize phenotype | Extraction method | Anthocyanins content (mg/100 g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Maceration | ||||
Kernel | Purple/Blue (Zea mays var. saccharata) | Heat water 60 min | 878.9/26.2 | [22] |
Kernel | Purple Corn | 2% formic acid, 2 h 40:1 liquid-to-solid 3 extractions | 473 | [11] |
Kernel | Purple (AREQ-084) | Alcoholic extraction (Methanol or ethanol) with acid (85:15 v/v) 1–3 extractions | 310 | [23] |
Purple (Zea mays L., cv Zihei) | 55.8 | [15] | ||
Purple (AREQ-516540TL) | 850 | [24] | ||
Purple (EP24) | 153 | [25] | ||
Purple (race Conico) | 97–426 | [26] | ||
Purple corn | 1600 | [27] | ||
Purple (KKU-WX) | 74.5 | [28] | ||
Purple corn (ZM01-ZM22) | 0.8–111.7 | [29] | ||
Kernel | Red corn (ZM01-ZM22) | Methanol acid | 0.8–33.4 | [29] |
Kernel | Pink (ZM01-ZM22) | Methanol acid | 0.3–1.4 | [29] |
Pink (EP24) | 0.018 | [25] | ||
Kernel | Blue pericarp | Alcoholic extraction (Methanol or ethanol) with acid (85:15 v/v) One to three extractions | 39 | [11] |
Blue (ZM01-ZM22) | 7.3–7.4 | [29] | ||
Blue (race Chalqueño) | 64.6 | [30] | ||
Blue (race Conico) | 89.2 | [30] | ||
Blue hybrid corn | 73.0–105.2 | [30] | ||
Blue hybrid corn | 27.39–78.28 | [31] | ||
Cob | Red/Purple waxy corn
| Methanol-1% citric acid (80:20 v/v) Mixed 24 h, 4°C |
| [5] |
Cob | Purple waxy corn (red to black) | Methanol Shaken for 2 h 1:10 Two extractions | 202–1423 | [32] |
Cob | Purple hybrid corn (KPSC 901) | Conventional heating | 3660 | [33] |
Microwave | 3970 | |||
Ultrasound | 3830 | |||
Ohmic heating | 3280 | |||
Husk | Purple corn husk | 0.1 N HCl 6 h, room temperature | 3500 | [19] |
Husk | Red/Purple waxy corn
| Methanol-1% citric acid (80:20 v/v) Mixed 24 h, 4°C |
| [5] |
Silk | Purple (ZPEXP)/Pink (ZP341) Purple hybrid (PWC1-5) | Methanol acidified with 1 N (85:15 v/v) Shaking by 30 min 70°C, 1.5 h | 193/1.49 0.44–2.38 | [34, 35] |
Silk | Purple corn | Ethanol 50% Ratio 1:1 w/v 5 min | 970 | [21] |
Silk | Red/Purple waxy corn
| Methanol-1% citric acid (80:20 v/v) Mixed 24 h, 4°C |
| [5] |
Germinated | Purple corn (PMW-581) | 240 | [17] | |
Foliar | Purple corn (Jingzi No. 1) | Ethanol 60% with citric acid 1% 60°C, 120 min | 1780 | [36] |
Ultrasound assisted extraction | ||||
Kernel | Purple corn | 96% ethanol and 1.5 N HCl (85:15) 1:25/80 solid-to solvent 15 min Two extractions | 10–300 (kernel) 70–3700 (pericarp) | [8] |
Kernel | Purple corn bran | 400 W | 362 | [13] |
Cob | Dried cob of purple waxy | 65°C, 35 min 1:20 solid-solvent ratio | 2.4 | [37] |
Supercritical fluid technology | ||||
Kernel | Purple corn pericarp (Peru) | 50°C, 400 bar Supercritical CO2→Ethanol→H2O | 1060 | [14] |
Kernel | Purple waxy corn (Zea mays L. var. ceratina) | Subcritical solvent extraction method Water-ethanol 1:3 Sample-to-solvent ratio 1:20) | 99 | [38] |
Cob | Purple waxy corn (Zea mays L. var. ceratina) Peru | Subcritical solvent extraction method Water-ethanol 1:1 Sample-to-solvent ratio 1:20) | 1240–1270 | [14, 38] |
Silk | Purple waxy corn (Zea mays L. var. ceratina) | Subcritical solvent extraction method Water-ethanol 1:1 Sample-to-solvent ratio 1:30) | 1550 | [38] |
Kernel | Purple waxy corn Zea mays L. ceratina | High-pressure processing 700 MPa (30–45 min) | 116 | [39] |
Anthocyanins extraction methods and concentration.
Corn silk can be yellow, green or purple depending on the corn variety. Silk is used in local community as medicinal herbs; however, it does not take advantage and is considered a waste [34]. But silk has a great potential to obtain phenolic compound, among them, anthocyanins. Research of silk is about its quantification and characterization of anthocyanins and results showed that has the highest anthocyanins concentration of the whole plant [41].
Husk is the least studied part of the corn; there is limited research about their anthocyanin composition; however, they had a high concentration of anthocyanins depending on corn variety [20]. Most recent reports show a deeper studied of the type of anthocyanins in purple husk which has more anthocyanin diacylated [19] but there is other report that found cyaniding-3-succinylglucoside instead of diacylated anthocyanin [20]. For that reason, more research is needed; due to the low information, it is not possible to ensure that corn husk composition is different from other parts.
Extraction of anthocyanin is made with methanol solvent acid and the method most used is ultrasound-assisted extraction that shows better efficiency, although, microwave-assisted extraction, ohmic heating extraction and supercritical solvent extraction are also used. Liquid chromatography techniques are the most used in anthocyanin identification. Table 2 shows the extraction methods used until 2018 and the anthocyanin content.
Structural anthocyanins have conjugation that provides stabilization of free radicals. Antioxidant activity is plenty reported in pigmented corn. Additionally, anthocyanin extract of pigmented corn has been used in in vitro and in vivo assays, Table 3 shows some of the activities studied where anti-obesity is the most recurrent.
Extract of anthocyanin | Biological activity | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|
Red corn | Inhibition proliferation of colorectal cancer cell | In vitro Cell lines | [42] |
Purple corn | Inhibition proliferation of colorectal cancer cell | In vitro Cell lines | [42] |
Purple corn (hybrid maize) kernel | Cardioprotective activity | In vitro | [43] |
Purple maize flour | Reduce visceral adiposity index, total body fat mass, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol and plasma triglycerides. Improve glucose tolerance, liver and cardiovascular structure and function | In vivo In rats diet | [44] |
Purple corn pericarp | Adipogenesis, inflammation and insulin resistance in adipocytes | In vitro | [45] |
Purple waxy corn cob | Neuroprotective and memory enhancing effect | [46] | |
Purple corn silk (Zea mays L. var. ceratina) | Anti-obesity agent | [21] | |
Blue tortillas | Learning capability | In rats diet | [47] |
Biological activity found in purple corn.
Purple corn is used traditionally to make tortillas, atole, chips, popcorn and other type of food products. However, chemical studies of these food products are limited. Food industry is more interested in elaboration of products with a major quality and bioactive compounds content; in consequence, the development of new products with purple corn have been the most studied. Some of the developed products are presented in Table 4, where the main purpose was to find the best process to keep the major anthocyanins concentration.
Corn phenotype | Use | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Purple corn | Beverage | [12] |
Blue popping corn and dark-red popping corn (Zea mays L. spp. Everta) | Bakery (cookies) with higher phenolic content | [4, 35] |
Purple corn (husk, cob and silk) | Photosensitizers | [48] |
Use of anthocyanins found in pigmented corn.
Additionally, the anthocyanins are used to make photosensitizers from different colored parts of the corn including cob, husk and silk.
Furthermore, due to the low stability of anthocyanins, there are some studies related to this topic. The stability of anthocyanins has been improved using intermolecular copigmentation with gallic ferulic, caffeic acids, and results show that those acids do not protect the anthocyanins only have a hypochromic effect. There is a better protection by self-association. Other strategy is the encapsulated of anthocyanins in alginate-pectin hydrogel [49] and the spray-dried purple corn found that 5% of maltodextrin, 150°C and water are the best condition to obtain a soluble product with the major anthocyanin concentration [50]. Haggard in 2018 also found that beverage with more pelargonidin-3-glucoside concentration has a major half-life [10].
Pigmented corns are good source of phenolic acids; mainly hydroxycinnamic acids but also hydroxybenzoic and chlorogenic acids. These compounds are distributed in whole plant. Table 4 shows the main phenolic acids found in different parts of the plant reported in the literature (Figure 5).
Phenolic acids structures in pigmented corn.
In white, yellow and pigmented maize, ferulic acid is the most abundant phenolic acid. There are reports that in white and yellow corn it can be found in the forms of dimers, trimers and tetramers [51]. Other authors have reported 1.94 mg/100 g [52] of free diferulic acid in blue Mexican corn which is the most abundant in that variety (Table 5).
Free ferulic acid concentration in a variety of pigmented kernel is similar among Mexican and Khao Niew Dum varieties (2.02–3.99 mg/100 g) [24, 52]; however, Peruvian variety has the highest concentration with 5.50 mg/100 g [53].
Also, there are reports that evaluate ferulic concentration among different Mexican corn phenotypes pigmented white and yellow and there are no statistically significant differences. The concentration is between 140 and 160 mg and 94–98% are bounded in cell wall and the rest is free [24]. In the cell wall, ferulic acid plays an important role because it is cross-linked through photochemical reactions or coupling reactions catalyzed by peroxidases with the polysaccharides present in the grains, thus improving the rigidity in the cell wall of corn [51].
Other acids found in pigmented maize kernel are as follows: p-coumaric, caffeic, vanillic, chlorogenic and hydroxybenzoic acids, however concentrations are different according to the variety. In purple maize variety Khao Niew Dum, the next acid apart of the ferulic acid are p-coumaric, vanillic, caffeic and p-hydroxybenzoic acid [54]; while in INIA-GUI purple corn from Peru, the acid with major concentration after ferulic acid is the caffeic acid and cholorogenic acid [53]. The difference in concentration could depend on different factors as genetic, environmental, ripening, light-UV exposure and insect and pathogens attack [51].
Research about pigmented corn cob is low; nevertheless, they have concentrations of important phenolic acids. The most abundant phenolic acid in cob from four pigmented corn phenotypes is syringic acid (31–202.78 mg/100 g) [32], followed by ferulic acid (7.34–10.73 mg/100 g) and in minors amounts vanillic acid (1.42–7.05 mg/100 g) and hydroxybenzoic acid (0.73–7.05 mg/100 g).
Other organ from maize plant which has been studied due to their higher concentration of phenolic acids, in particular chlorogenic acids, is the stigma, commonly called silk. Some authors highlight that silk from purple corn have 25.64 mg/100 g of chlorogenic acid [21] and other studies highlight that from 25 days after emergence from four phenotypes of corn (purple, green, pink and yellow) they have 21.2–29.3 mg/100 g of 3-caffeoylquinic acid, and 5 days after emergence 923.7–1840.8 mg/100 g [37], also other three chlorogenic acids where studied: 4-caffeoylquinic acid (186.9–362.1 mg/100 g), 5-caffeoylquinic acid (74.4–86.5 mg/100 g) and p-coumaroylquinic acid (43.4–90.9 mg/100 g). Purple and green silk has the major concentration of chlorogenic acids.
As already mentioned, most of the phenolic acids in the corn kernel are bound to the cell wall and a minimum amount are free form; for this reason, the way to extract them to identify and quantify them is not simple and is diverse: some authors point to the extraction of free phenolic acids, making an extraction with 80% methanol and centrifuging [31]; while the solid of the methanol extraction was carried out by a basic hydrolysis (with NaOH) with a water bath at 80°C for 30 min, and in this way the acids bound to the cell wall are obtained. Other authors report successive extraction methods for the recovery of free and bound phenolic acids; first for the free acids, they performed an extraction with 80% ethanol using a high-performance disperser, then the residue was assisted by adding an enzyme cocktail (pectinases, amylases and cellulases). To the residue of this, they made a thermal hydrolysis doing another extraction with methanol and 70°C. Finally, to the solid residue of this extraction, they added NaOH to carry out a basic hydrolysis [55].
In the case of phenolic acids present in corn silk, they only report extractions with organic solvents; for example, performing a direct extraction of the silk, using 95% methanol, centrifuging and using the supernatant for quantification and characterization [35]; other studies use 50% ethanol [21]. In the same way, for the case of the phenolic acids of the cob where they describe a simple extraction using methanol and centrifugation [32].
To carry out the characterization and quantification of each of the phenolic acids perform chromatography techniques: such as HPLC and HPLC-MS [52, 53, 54, 55].
The phenolic acids present in the pigmented corns are of great importance due to the biological effects on human health [56], such as anticancer properties, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases [56]. Table 6 shows the biological properties of each of the phenolic acids present in the pigmented corn plant.
Corn part | Phenolic acid | Pigmented corn phenotype | Content (mg/100 g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Kernel | Ferulic acid | Peruvian purple (INIA-GOI) | 5.52 | [53] |
Mexican pigmented Pigmentados | 1.97–2.02 | [24] | ||
Blue-Queretaro (Mexico) | 1.94 | [52] | ||
Purple corn variety Khao Niew Dum | 2.3 | [54] | ||
Kernel | p-Coumaric acid | Blue-Queretaro (Mexico) | 0.512 | [52] |
Purple corn variety Khao Niew Dum | 1.1 | [54] | ||
Kernel | Diferulic acid | Blue-Queretaro (Mexico) | 1.9 | [52] |
Kernel | Caffeic acid | Peruvian purple (INIA-GOI) | 3.81 | [53] |
Purple corn variety Khao Niew Dum | 0.29 | [54] | ||
Kernel | p-Hydroxybenzoic acid | Purple corn variety Khao Niew Dum | 0.18 | [54] |
Kernel | Vanillic acid | Purple corn variety Khao Niew Dum | 0.98 | [54] |
Kernel | Chlorogenic acid | Peruvian purple (INIA-GOI) | 1.05 | [53] |
Silk | Silk from Thai purple corn | 25.64 | [21] | |
Cob | Syringic acid | Purple corn cob from four phenotypes of Thai corn | 31–202.78 | [32] |
Free phenolic acid concentration in different phenotypes of pigmented corns.
Phenolic acid | Biological activity | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Ferulic acid | Potential antioxidant | [24, 52] |
Anticancer properties | [57] | |
Against cardiovascular diseases | [56] | |
Coumaric acid | Reduction of blood glucose | [21] |
Diferulic acid | Potential antioxidant Allelopathic effects | [52] |
Caffeic acid | Immunostimulatory properties | [58] |
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid | Immunostimulatory properties | [58] |
Vanillic acid | Reduction of blood glucose | [21] |
Chlorogenic acid | Potential antioxidant | [58] |
Reduce visceral adiposity index | [21, 35] | |
Syringic acid | Effect against cerebral ischemia Antihypertensive | [32] |
Phenolic acids present in pigmented maize and their biological properties.
The biological activity that most report is as antioxidant, with phenolic acids having the capacity to reduce the free radical formation and elimination of ROS, inhibition and repair of lesions caused by the oxidation and degradation of other molecules and biomolecules [57]. The effect of antioxidant activity on corn from Bajio and Morelos (Mexico) has been evaluated; wherein the amount of free and bound phenols was measured; concluding that the antioxidant activity increases three times more in the extractions with basic hydrolysis. Therefore, antioxidant increase is attributed to phenolic acids linked mainly to phenolic acid [31]. In other studies, they reported that one-third of the antioxidant activity of the phenolic fraction in Mexican pigmented corn is given by ferulic acid [24]. They have also described the antioxidant activity between phenolic compounds, reporting that the highest antioxidant activity is generally presented by hydroxycinnamic acids, with ferulic acid presenting the highest and hydroxybenzoic acids less activity. In the case of purple and pink corn silk [35], high antioxidant activity is attributed mainly to chlorogenic acids, these activities being so high that they could be compared with other medicinal plants such as Mentha piperita and Salvia officinalis.
Other import group of the bioactive compounds that contain the pigmented corns are of flavonoids; with>4000 compounds, these molecules are most abundant polyphenols present in plant foods. They are characterized by a 15-carbon skeleton, organized as C6-C3-C6, with different substitutions making up the different subclasses. The major groups of the flavonoids of nutritional interest are the flavonols or catechins [59].
The most common chemical structures of flavonoids in corn are shown in Figure 6, and the composition of flavonoids in different parts of is presented in Table 7.
Flavonoids structures in pigmented corn.
Peruvian purple corn has kaempferol and morin as major flavonoids in kernel (Table 8), the concentration is 202–224 mg/100 g [53] which represent almost the total flavonoids (Table 9); after kaempferol and morin the naringenin glucoside and in minor amount rutin and quercetin. Meanwhile, Serbian pigmented corn phenotypes [35] report a lower total flavonoid concentration with 19.90–33.75 mg/100 g.
Flavonoid | Part of corn | Pigmented corn phenotype | Total flavonoid content (mg/100 g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Quercetin | Silk | Thai purple corn silk | 20.26 | [21] |
Pollen | Red corn | 0.111 | [60] | |
Blue corn | 0.569 | |||
Dark red corn | 0.145 | |||
Kernel | Peruvian purple corn | 1.58 | [53] | |
Naringenin glucoside | Silk | Thai purple corn silk | 6.45 | [21] |
Kernel | Peruvian purple corn | 14.8 | [53] | |
Maysin | Silk | Serbian purple corn | 17.1 | [35] |
Serbien pink corn | 12.6 | |||
Rutin | Pollen | Red corn | 0.186 | [60] |
Blue corn | 0.013 | |||
Dark red corn | 0.010 | |||
Kernel | Peruvian purple corn | 2.74 | [53] | |
Hyperoside | Pollen | Red corn | 0.897 | [60] |
Blue corn | 0.655 | |||
Dark red corn | 0.537 | |||
Kaempferol | Kernel | Peruvian purple corn | 224.0 | [53] |
Morin | Kernel | Peruvian purple corn | 202.0 | [53] |
Flavonoid concentration in different parts of pigmented corn.
Parts of the corn | Pigmented corn phenotype | Total flavonoid concentration (mg/100 g) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Silk | Serbian purple corn | 3644.9 | [35] |
Serbian pink corn | 3594.2 | ||
Mexican red corn | 2602.4 | [61] | |
Mexican dark red corn | 797.1 | ||
Mexican white-purple corn | 809.5 | ||
Pollen | Red corn | 1087.69 | [60] |
Blue corn | 916.36 | ||
Dark-red corn | 1056.21 | ||
Kernel | Peruvian purple corn | 261–266 | [53] |
Red | 26.76 | [62] | |
Dark red | 27.05 | ||
Red-yellow | 26.84 | ||
Light blue | 33.75 | ||
Dark blue | 30.74 | ||
Multicolor | 19.90 | ||
Corn | Peruvian purple corn | 187 | [14] |
Pericarp | Peruvian purple corn | 4200 | [14] |
Total flavonoid concentration in different parts of pigmented corn.
Flavonoids | Biological activity | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Quercetine | Apoptosis induction | [18] |
Adiposites lipolysis | ||
Antioxidant activity | [56] | |
Naringenin glucoside | Antioxidant activity | [50] |
Maysin | Neuroprotector | [31] |
Rutin | Antioxidant activity | [56] |
Hyperoside | Antioxidant activity | [56] |
Kaempferol | Antioxidant activity | [50] |
Morin | Antioxidant activity | [50] |
Biological activity of maizes flavonoids.
Flavonoids are the main bioactive compounds in pigmented corn silk [35] as shown in Table 9. Some authors reports until 3644.9 mg/100 g in Serbian purple corn and Mexican pigmented corn reports 797.1 a 2602.4 mg/100 g [61]. Among the flavonoids identified and quantified in pigmented corn silk is the maysin with 12.6–17.1 mg/100 g [35], quercetin (1.58 mg/100 g) and narigenin glucoside (6.45 mg/100) [21].
Other organ of pigmented corn (blue, red and red dark) which represent higher concentration of total flavonoids is pollen (916.36–1087.69 mg/100 g) Table 9. The flavonoids identified are (Table 8) hyperoside, rutin and quercetin [60].
Flavonoid extraction methods in pigmented corn are made using simple extraction using organic solvents (methanol, ethanol and water in different proportions), centrifuge and using aqueous solution for analysis [21, 35, 53, 60].
Characterization and quantification of each one is made by chromatography techniques as HPLC and HPLC-MS [21, 53].
The most important biological activities of flavonoids in pigmented corns that are reported in the last 10 years are presented in Table 9.
Flavonoids of pigmented corns have been studied mainly for their antioxidant and neuroprotection activities. Corn flavonoids have also been reported, which can act as inductors of apoptosis and lipolysis of adipocytes.
Pigmented corns and its parts is a food that can be beneficial to the human because of the presence of phytochemicals and biological activities that are present. The studies of pigmented corns have been increased year after year, and they showed that the coloration blue, purple, pink and red is given by anthocyanins. Also, they have a large amount of phenolic acids and flavonoids. These compounds are present in the whole plant (kernel, cob, husk, silk), and their concentration is different depending on the organ.
The most abundant anthocyanins in corn plant are cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3- (6″-malonyl) glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3- (6″-malonyl) glucoside, pelargonidin-3- glucoside and pelargonidin-3-(6”malonyl) glucoside and the coloration of each corn is depending on the concentration and profile of these.
With reference to phenolic acids, the representatives are ferulic acid in the kernel, syringic acid in the cob and chlorogenic acid in the silk. Finally, the flavonoids are morin, kaempferol, naringin, maysin, rutin, quercetin and hyperoside; the concentrations of these compounds are high especially in purple silk. Each of these compounds has a biological activity, so in the case of anthocyanins is its anti-cancer activity, cardioprotective and anti-obesity activity; according to phenolic acids, the ferulic acid is a potential antioxidant and provides anticancer properties, and in general, flavonoids have antioxidant activity.
Therefore, pigmented corns are important for the development of new functional food products from the grain and for obtaining natural colorants and antioxidants from the other parts of the plant.
This chapter was supported by the PAPIIT-IT202318.
Common assets of rural destinations such as heritage, culture, food and landscape; inadvertently means there is a lack of distinct differentiation among rural tourism destinations [1], making it a challenge to identify or develop a sense of destination image, identity and awareness for rural destinations [1]. In addition, rural tourism destinations are limited in their drawing power and “individual rural destinations are often too small to form a critical mass required of a primary destination” ([2], p. 838). As a consequence, smaller destinations specifically those that are rural lack resources and capability to promote and market their destinations competitively. To overcome these limitations, the concept of relationship-based approach is indispensable to source for the much needed resources to embark on a destination branding process. In this circumstance, one of the ways rural destinations can address these limitations is to brand and initiate marketing efforts. More recent studies have recognised the important role of destination branding in rural tourism destinations [1]; and sustainable improvement of competitiveness in rural tourism destinations [3]. Likewise, more emphasis has been focused on how branding can be used to promote rural destinations [4].
Despite the importance of branding, the literature on destination branding points to a lack of theory for developing a rural tourism destination brand, one that considers rural settings and community stakeholders. The role of stakeholders in rural destination brand development is an essential component of destination brand development [5, 6]. This is important because very few tourism studies have analysed the roles of stakeholders in destination brand development [7], and further research has been suggested [8]. It is important to focus on the elements of tourism destination appeal [or attractions or ‘must sees’ or must dos’] [9], p. 7, destination attributes [10]; core resources and attractors (Ritchie & Crouch [11]); and destination image [2, 12, 13]. It is important to identify the relevant theories for rural tourism destination brand development that support the achievement of the purpose of this paper. Therefore, this study is underpinned by two of the relationship-based theories [stakeholder theory] ([14] p. 46; [15]), and relationship management theory [16, 17]. Notably, the main aim of this study is to develop a destination brand framework for rural tourism using the relationship-based approach – by asking the questions, “How should a rural destination brand best be developed?”, and “What are the existing frameworks for supporting this development?” To address these questions, the next section on existing literature works is focused on destination branding framework, approaches in destination branding and underpinning theories.
Extant literature on place and destination branding found that there are different frameworks developed over the years for place and destination brand development. These frameworks as presented in Table 1 were developed by scholars, but also place/destination branding management experts, consultants, and United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO).
Framework (Citations) | Strengths | Weaknesses |
---|---|---|
Diamond model [18] | Destination competitive advantage | Economic model for nations |
Brand equity, Aaker [19] | Useful in nation branding and products | Not suitable for rural destination |
CAGE model, Ghemawat [20] | Destination brand image formation | Focus on nation branding building of a country |
Destination branding, Cai [2] | Cooperative rural destination branding (multiple rural destinations) | Complex model and the focus is not on a single rural destination |
Destination branding, Laws [21] | Offers step-by-step process of destination branding planning | Provides relatively generic steps |
Destination branding model, Kaplanidou &Vogt [22] | Destination brand value from the tourist’s point of view | It focuses on brand identity tourists. These two components are not adequate to develop branding framework in rural destination |
Destination competitiveness, Ritchie & Crouch [11] | Tourism destination branding components are recognised: awareness, identity, image and the roles of stakeholders | It fails to describe the different appeals that are peculiar to each tourism destination. The model is too broad. |
Nation brand hexagon, Anholt [23] | Promotion of tourism and components of destination branding | The model is targeted at nation branding |
Relational network brand, Hankinson [24] | The model is focused on managing stakeholders relationship in order to build a favourable destination image | Not specific on destination brand building process for any given destination (e.g. city, nation or rural tourism destination) |
City image communication, Kavaratzis [25] | Perceptions and image through communication strategy | Focus on city image and not rural branding destination framework |
de Chernatony’s The Brand, Caldwell & Freire [26] | Relevant in destination brand identity, awareness and image | Model developed for physical products and not tourism place |
Destination branding model, Risitano [27] | Identified two types of brand equity - brand identity and brand knowledge | Too generic and narrow to develop a rural tourism destination branding Framework |
7As Destination branding model, Baker [28] | Extension of Law’s (2002) model. It highlighted adoption and attitudes as branding process | The focus is only on the stages involved in building destination brand in general terms |
City brand model, Gaggiotti et al. [29] | It explains component of place branding such as infrastructure and superstructure | The framework was developed and applied to Kazakhstan cities |
The conceptual model of destination branding [30] | Brand knowledge, brand trust and loyalty | Tourist-centred in destination brand model |
Destination branding model [31] | Featured destination brand development and destination brand maintenance | These two stages are inadequate to develop a branding framework for rural destination |
A model of destination branding [32] | Brand image and tourist future behaviours | Focus is on visitor’s behaviours destination image |
Strategic place branding model [33] | Key components: stakeholder engagement, brand identity, WOM, brand experience | Developed for place branding practitioners |
A framework of place branding [34] | Divided into three dimensions: destination management and marketing, destination brand identity, and destination brand equity. | Developed for place branding – country or nation branding, small city branding |
Stakeholder collaboration McComb et al. [35]. | Success factors and critical evaluation | Stakeholder collaboration within the Mournes, Northern Ireland |
Sustainable competitiveness Campón-Cerro et al. [3] | Sustainable improvement of competitiveness in rural destinations | The focus is on the quest for tourist loyalty in Spain |
Summary of strengths and weaknesses of existing framework (model).
Source: Developed for this study.
There are different approaches that researchers and practitioners on nation, place and tourism destination branding have adopted in previous studies. These approaches, strengths and weaknesses are presented in Table 2.
Approach (Citations) | Strengths | Weaknesses |
---|---|---|
Image building [2] | Destination identity and destination image | Image building not sufficient overlooked stakeholders’ roles |
Nation image [36] | Nation/Country image | The focus is on governance |
Stakeholder power [37] | Positional, reputational decision-making approaches | It suggests destination branding success depends on the power of stakeholders |
Stakeholder power [5] | Effect of stakeholder power on destination branding (DB) | It considers mainly the use of power in DB process |
Customer-based [38] | Customer-based brand equity (CBBE) | Focused on visitors’ benefits |
Stakeholder approach [39] | Destination stakeholder | Unity among stakeholders, overlooked destination branding strategies |
Customer equity-based approach [40] | Brand strategy and customer relations management | Focus only on visitors and overlooked CSFs |
Innovation and network [41] | The role of innovation and network approach | Target market is women between (20-40) years old in the Sapporo city in Japan |
Public relations [42] | Nation branding | Tends to replace image with public relations |
Identity-centred [43] | Evaluation of destination image | Destination image from the viewpoints of selected industry leaders – Iowa State in USA |
Identity-based Saraniemi, (2011) | Destination identity | Focused only on NTO in Finland |
Values-based [44] | Destination brand identity and values | Lacks consideration for destination branding strategies |
Tourist behavioural centred experience [45] | Destination loyalty and communication | Emphasised satisfaction, experience and loyalty |
Destination image and destination personality [46] | Factors contributing to destination image | Destination image – functional destination (tangible) and psychological features (intangible) |
Integrated approach [47] | Five dimensions of destination brand equity | The city of Rome was the case study. It focused on cultural assets only. |
Destination Competitiveness Law and Lo [48] | National park and tourist perspective | Focused on national park and not rural destination. |
Destinations’ loyalty Alves et al. [49]. | Enhancing relationship quality | Emphasised tourist loyalty through improving relationship building but not Enough to develop destination brand |
Existing destination brand approaches – Strengths and weaknesses.
Source: Developed for this study.
Based on the analysis of destination brand approaches in Table 2, it should be noted that most of the existing approaches and studies were conducted in cities, countries and regions with the exception of Cai [2], and Wheeler et al. [44]‘s studies which were carried out in rural destinations.
The concept of relationship management, otherwise known as relationship marketing, is an approach that is used in the marketing field [50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. The purpose of employing relationship marketing is to develop customers’ loyalty to the organisation’s products and services. The relationship-based approach is rooted in both relationship-based theories [55] and relationship management theory [16, 17]. Relationship-based approach is concerned with trust and commitment in terms of mutual benefits to be derived by participating parties (stakeholders and non-stakeholders) involved in relationship building in a tourism destination [45]. Aitken and Campelo [56] suggest that relationship forms one of the major components of place branding, and they suggest that relationship building has been a challenge for branding a destination. The use of relationship-based approach to study how a destination brand framework for rural tourism is developed is crucial because the process involved in developing a destination brand is very complex [57, 58]. There is a dearth of theoretical and empirical studies featuring the relationship building process in the literature in connection with developing a destination brand framework [45, 53, 59], and specifically in rural tourism. Notably, tourist expectations and tastes have been a challenge to several destinations because of various opportunities that present itself to the visitor in terms of preference over other destinations or switching capacity of the tourist in terms of where to spend their holiday. This leads to stakeholder theory as one of the relationship-based theories supporting this study.
Stakeholder theory is regarded as one of the relationship-based theories [55]. A stakeholder is defined as “any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of an organisation’s objectives” ([14] p. 46; [15]); and those groups who are vital to the survival of the organisation [60]. The stakeholder theory is important in rural tourism destination brand in order to identify the individuals or groups that are likely to affect or be affected by tourism related activities. The few studies that have applied the stakeholder theory in understanding the destination branding process have narrowed down the application of the stakeholder theory to specific aspects of destination branding. For example, Marzano [5], and; Marzano and Scott [6] have used the stakeholder theory to explore the power of stakeholders in destination branding. Quinlan [39] also adopted the stakeholder theory to study the branding of urban destinations. Other studies are complexity of tourism destination branding [61]; identity and salience [62].
In a rural destination context, recent studies indicate that the destination brand building process is a joint effort of different stakeholder groups which involved city authorities, residents, entrepreneurs, artists, craftsmen and community associations. For example, in Leineperi village Finland, a joint community association was set up to manage and promote the development of the rural destination brand of Leineperi and the 13 surrounding villages in southern Finland [63]. The responsibility of running the joint association was given to a hired employee who co-ordinates, collaborates and handles the information distribution. In addition, voluntary donations are made by the villages [63]. The involvement of different stakeholders could be traced to the expected mutual benefits that destination branding would bring to Leineperi and other villages. In addition, the existence of stakeholder collaboration has been suggested as a means of rural tourism destination success within the Mournes, Northern Ireland [35]. Based on the different explanations from literature sources presented in this section, the methodology section reveals research approach, data collection methods and analytic techniques adopted in this study.
This study is the first to empirically test the relationship-based approach of rural destination brand development, and the consideration for the inclusion of multiple stakeholders’ voices in terms of how they see themselves in connection to the development of the tourism destination brand. Therefore, the research paradigm is structured around interpretivism [64]; the method is qualitative in nature [65]; and reflective account of ‘the researchers in the tourism research’ ([66], p. 260).
Bario a rural tourism destination in Sarawak (Borneo) in Malaysia has been pre-selected from an extensive panel of researchers at the national level following a long-term research grant scheme (LRGS) of RM9 million (or US$3 million as of 2011) from the Ministry of Education Malaysia. Bario is one of the 10 rural destinations in the list ([67], p.8). The choice of Bario over other pre-selected rural destinations is because of its unique remote destination. Bario is not easily accessible; the means of transportation is limited to tourists compared to other rural tourism destinations in Malaysia with similar offerings such as Taman Negara, Royal Belum Park and Kota Kinabalu Park which are easily accessible to tourists by roads [68].
The primary data collection method for this study was the in-depth interview method; this was supplemented by participant observation and documentary evidence. A pilot study was first conducted in July 2013 by the first author with ten participants. This is consistent with Ghauri and Gronhaug [69], and Yin [70] that a pilot study or pretesting is a good approach of preparing the actual data collection, before refining the interview questions.
The participants were chosen based on the relationship-based approach to comprise of all levels and categories of stakeholders. For the study criteria as participants, the following procedures were followed. A total number of 55 participants were approached for this study and 48 were included for analysis. These participants included the tourists who were in Bario, specifically the selection criteria of having spent a considerable amount of time engaging with Bario community. All participants were informed with a request letter for participation in advance before the actual interviews were conducted. A semi-structured interview protocol was developed that focuses on the main question: ‘How can a destination brand framework for rural tourism be developed using the relationship-based approach? To provide answers to the main research question, this study provides the following specific research questions: (a) What are the tourism destinations’ appeals in developing a destination brand for rural tourism? (b) What are the destinations’ branding strategies involved in destination brand building for rural tourism? And (c) what are the roles of tourism destination stakeholders in developing a destination brand for rural tourism?
The in-depth interviews were conducted in five different locations namely, Bario, Miri, Kuching, Shah Alam and Putra Jaya: Prime Minister’s Department - Performance Management and Delivery Unit (PEMANDU) in Malaysia from April to September 2014. The in-depth interview sessions lasted an average of 60 minutes and were digitally recorded [71]. Transcription was undertaken immediately after the conclusion of the interview [72], so that the data collected from the participants would still be fresh in the researcher’s mind [73]. In addition to the in-depth interviews, participant observation was carried out in Bario for a total of 30 days. As a result, 50 pages of field notes were generated as a narrative account to record all the events, places visited and activities in Bario. In order to enhance the validity and reliability of participant observation, this study adopted the seven steps suggested for participant observation by Cresswell [74], pp.134-135. This study also followed the recommendation of Tilstone [75] that the participant observation should address the context (i.e. date, time, length of observation, and activities or events) and content (i.e. stakeholders’ involvement in local events) of the phenomenon being studied. In addition, documentary evidence such as brochures and printed materials in relation to Bario were also used to complement the data obtained from both in-depth interviews and participant observation. Scott [76]‘s four criteria for assessing the quality of documentary evidence (authenticity, credibility, representativeness and meaning) were used as a guide to assure validity and reliability of the collected materials.
Thematic analysis was adopted to analyse the data collected from the in-depth interviews. Thematic analysis was deemed fit because it is a qualitative analytic method that involves identifying themes by systematically reading the data very carefully and then re-reading the data several times [77]. The themes emerged from the study’s findings. This study also used the six stages of thematic analysis as recommended by Braun and Clarke [78] which sees the researcher: (1) familiarising with the data; (2) developing the initial codes (or open codes); (3) searching for the relevant themes; (4) reviewing themes that have emerged; (5) defining, labelling or naming the codes; and (6) producing a report of the findings. This analytic method specifically identified codes and themes that provide answers to the main questions. Finally, content analysis was used to analyse the field notes from the participant observation and documentary evidence as supplementary data to the in-depth interviews. Content analysis is widely used in tourism research [79].
This section presents the findings based on the triangulation of data sources (in-depth interviews, participant observation and documentary evidence) used in this study. The case study presents an in-depth investigation into Bario as a unique study context of a rural tourist destination in Malaysia. The main aim of this study is to develop a destination brand framework for rural tourism destinations using the relationship-based approach. The number of participants is presented in Table 3 and the main findings from the research questions are presented in three sections. For the purpose of anonymity, participant code number (PCN) representing identification of each of the participant were used.
Participants | No. of participants |
---|---|
Local residents, Kelabits in diaspora and tourism entrepreneurs in Bario | 17 |
Local tourist | 1 |
International tourists | 14 |
Government agencies – STB, PEMANDU, DoI, MOT, & MTTF | 6 |
Non-government organisations (NGOs) and volunteers | 5 |
Branding and marketing experts | 2 |
Academic researcher | 1 |
Airline Company (sole rural air services provider to Bario) | 1 |
Mechanised rice farming investor in Bario | 1 |
Total number of participants | 48 |
Participants’ profile.
Source: Developed for this study.
Legend: STB, Sarawak Tourism Board; DoI – Department of Immigration; MOT – Ministry of Tourism. MTTF, Miri Tourism Task Force; PEMANDU- Performance Management and Delivery Unit.
The 48 participants interviewed came from eight different countries or five continents of (Europe, North America, Asia, Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), and Africa) as shown in Table 3 and they are in the age range of 20 to 68. The number of days spent by these tourists was important because their experiences would have been enriched to provide relevant responses to the in-depth interview questions. This view is consistent with Prayag and Ryan [73] that this was important in order to capture the essence of the place and “where visitors’ experiences were complete”. The following section presents findings on research question one.
Thus far, this section has reported findings that seek to answer the first research question that reads: ‘What are the destination appeals in developing a destination brand for rural tourism?’ The objective was to identify tourism destination attractions. Findings indicate there are eight rural tourism destination appeals as presented in Table 4. These constructs contribute to the existing literature on the tourism destination appeals which are conceptualised in developing a destination brand framework for rural tourism using the relationship-based approach.
Main themes | Findings |
---|---|
Characteristics of rural tourism destinations | Communal relationship with people |
Destination image | a. Traditional longhouses as tourist product b. Educated community |
Destination awareness and identity | a. Food festival and cultural events b. World challenge organisation c. “Bario Revival” book |
Destination accessibility | Accessibility by smaller aircraft and logging road on 4WD viewed as adventure tourism and unique |
Hard factors | Historical and archaeological sites – megaliths and stone monuments |
Soft factors | a. Relationship building experience b. Sense of belonging |
Community-based tourism and Cultural events (CBTCEs) | a. Name changing ceremony (IRAU in Kelabit) b. Traditional wedding ceremony |
Local meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (L-MICE) | a. eBario knowledge fair or developmental conference b. Annual Bario revival anniversary and conference |
Tourism destination appeals.
Source: Authors.
The following are the extracts from the participants’ opinions on the tourism destination appeals. When asked if Bario is a rural tourism destination, comments from respondents illustrating this point include a statement from a key informant from the Ministry of Tourism in Sarawak:
Basically, if you look at the image of Bario, the geographic location itself is already rural. …in Bario most people will agree that it is still rural because you have difficulty in getting there, you stay in old Kelabit longhouses, there is no road and you don’t have 24 hours of electricity supply and water supply; so the characteristics of Bario itself is already rural. (PCN34).
Moreover, a director from PEMANDU in the Prime Minister’s Department in Malaysia echoed:
…If you have been to Bario it is remote; the jungle is also unique - that would be another area where people would also be interested to go and visit… the food…for example, is Bario rice is a form of highland specie you don’t see … anywhere else in the country.(PCN38).
The image of Bario seems to be of a unique destination due to its location, nature, traditional farming and food attractions. The positive perception of a rural tourism destination is important in order to draw the attention of would-be visitors. This view is shared by Anholt [80] that destination image is very crucial for the travel and tourism industry, and this accounts for the rationale why great importance has been attached to destination branding. The participants’ views on destination image are consistent with the literature on the attributes that determine the perceived destination image such as trekking, scenery, weather condition, hotel and self-catering accommodation, relaxation and gastronomy [12]. In Bario, there is no hotel facility but alternatively, there are traditional Bario (Kelabit) longhouses where visitors could stay with multiple family members. These longhouses are unique to rural destinations; more specifically, these longhouses are found in very few rural tourism destinations and Bario prides itself with significant numbers of longhouses. This traditional system of accommodation is a niche product in Bario’s tourism and hospitality services. By living in the longhouses, it provides the visitors an opportunity to learn quickly about the culture and lifestyle of the host. This is followed by findings from research question two.
This section addresses research question two. The aim was to identify the destination branding strategies in developing a destination brand for rural tourism. Findings show that there are eleven destination branding strategies for rural tourism destinations uncovered with the potential contributions in developing a destination branding framework as shown in Table 5.
Main themes | Findings |
---|---|
Understanding branding and description of rural tourism destination brand | a. Value added activities and experience b. Destination authenticity (real, untouched) |
Rationales for rural tourism destination brand | a. Building high-end tourism destination b. Geographic location and unique destination accessibility experience |
Roles of tourism attractions in rural destination brand development | a. Promoting jungle and pristine experience b. Premium destination – less is more, no mass tourism |
Strategic stages of destination brand building | a. Strong local leadership b. Provision of infrastructures and superstructures c. Destination brand management and sustainability |
Challenges of developing a destination brand | a. Lack of destination branding experts and manpower b. Lack of local leadership to drive the brand vision c. Geographic location and accessibility |
Managing the challenges of destination brand building | a. Strong leadership and relationship building with stakeholders and non-stakeholders b. Partnering with marketing and destination branding experts |
Critical success factors (CSFs) | a. Heart of Borneo project BIMP-EAGA b. Food, farming and forest (FFF) strategy c. Develop a community protocol d. Stakeholders’ relationship building e. Leadership of Rurum Kelabits Sarawak (RKS) |
Implementation and monitoring of CSFs | a. Promoting premium or mass tourism destination |
Destination brand influence and tourist destination of choice | a. Tourist willingness to pay (WTP) more b. Extending tourist length of days and nights |
Destination brand benefits | a. Promotion of sustainable tourism b. Preservation of traditional farming occupation c. Human capital and capacity development d. Agriculture and non-tourism investment |
Destination management and monitoring | a. Management of risks and crisis to protect brand values. |
Rural destination branding strategies.
Source: Authors.
Extracts from the participants’ opinions on the destination branding strategies include that of a tourist from the United States of America:
It has to start with the relationship building among the…Bario people… they should work with the local authority and the state to promote… and ensure that the destination image of Bario and its attractions are well communicated… (PCN24).
The destination branding strategies of tourism destinations are diverse and come from different segments of the tourism destination. Findings show that relationship building, local community involvement and communication of the brand are key success factors mentioned by the participants. Other strategies include the development of a destination logo and tagline because they remind the visitors about the destination. These findings are in line with the existing literature on destination branding strategies and critical success factors (CSFs) of developing a destination brand [34, 80]. Furthermore, a tourist from Austria commented:
I think it would also be good to have brochures about Bario to take along and show people all over the place is a beautiful place to visit, the attractions, the culture, megaliths, the paddy rice fields, the hospitable people in Bario, homestay, the longhouses, everything must be featured in the brochure something they can hold that is tangible to take along. (PCN32).
Brochures have been used in many destinations to promote tourism [81]. In the case of Bario brochures have not been used to really promote tourism and develop its destination brand. It is also being suggested that the heart of Borneo and East Asia Growth area (EAGA) strategy should be used. This is because EAGA is an international collaboration of four countries namely Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines (BIMP). Findings also indicate that Bario should be developed gradually and not overdeveloped in order to maintain its basic characteristics and preserve the tourist attractions. The establishment of a tourist and visitors information centre (TVIC) is suggested so that it would be a one stop centre where the visitors would have information on different tourism activities available and where to visit. Importantly, findings from research question three is presented in the following section.
This section addresses research question three. This study has uncovered eight constructs and potential contributions to tourism destination stakeholders’ roles. These contributions to the existing literature on the destination stakeholders’ roles are conceptualised in developing a destination brand framework for rural tourism using the relationship-based approach as presented in Table 6.
Main themes | Findings |
---|---|
Identification of rural tourism stakeholders | a. Tertiary stakeholder – logging companies b. Secondary or Non-tourism stakeholder - general public outside Bario, individuals and private organisations involved in the provision of infrastructures projects and developmental events. c. Primary stakeholder – tourist, researchers, NGOs and volunteers, local residents, government, DMMOs, travel, tour operators, transporters and airlines, local business and homestay operators. |
Tourism destination stakeholders’ roles | Tertiary stakeholder - logging companies or loggers investment in trees planting due to harvest of matured trees, specifically in Bario, linked logging road from Ba’kelalan to Bario |
Roles of destination management and marketing organisations (DMMOs) | a. Promoting Bario food and cultural festival b. Assurance on safety and security of the tourists c. Sustainability of tourism destination attractions |
Strategies and benefits of relationship building (stakeholders and non-stakeholders) | Strategies a. Build and maintain good relationship among stakeholders b. Integrity and quality of service c. Communication, honesty and transparency d. Alliance and consultation with destination branding experts e. Innovation and creativity f. Networking with non-stakeholders g. Progressive relationship, sense of ownership and trust Benefits a. Networking with branding experts and resource opportunities b. Provision of financial requirements c. Unique trust destination d. Inflow of business investment e. Infrastructure development and CSR projects f. Successful brand development and implementation g. Sustainable destination brand development |
Leadership initiative in relationship building | a. Rurum Kelabit Sarawak (RKS) community association b. Bottom-up approach: Stakeholder power through the rural community association and local leadership (e.g. RKS) |
Descriptions of tourism destination sustainability | Tourist spend reasonable number of days |
Stakeholders involvement in tourism destination sustainability | a. Building sustainable destination brand b. Develop training programmes on sustainability |
Future of tourism development and management in Bario | a. Educate and involve younger generation b. Gradual and balanced development avoid major transformation of Bario c. Improve eBario website and directory d. Promote archaeological sites as tourism attractions |
Destination stakeholders’ roles.
Source: Developed for this study.
Findings in this study also support extant literature on the issue of leadership in tourism destination which has always been an interesting subject and viewed by researchers and practitioners alike across different disciplines as very complex. The participants’ statements in relation to the sources of community leadership initiative in relationship building are presented in the following sections. According to a local resident, retiree and farmer in Bario said:
I think in Bario there are one or two community associations so they could appoint representatives or leaders among them who will be saddled with the responsibility of meeting with other stakeholders in Bario. (PCN4).
Comments from other participants on who should spearhead the responsibility and become a bridge builder [82] among the stakeholders include that of a tourist from Germany:
I think the local community should initiate it [leadership] if they want Bario to be branded through the local leaders in collaboration with other stakeholders… (PCN20).
Findings show that the leadership initiative to promote relationship building should be initiated from the local community because the local people know more about their community and how they want tourism to be promoted in Bario. In the case of Bario, findings also suggest that there is a need to educate and involve the younger generation in destination branding activities so that they can revive and preserve the culture which is one of the main tourism attractions in Bario. The empowerment for the younger generation is necessary because of the ageing population of most of the local residents in Bario. Besides that, there should be gradual and balanced development, but that avoids major transformation of Bario. Based on events in some tourism destinations such as Pankor Island, Langkawi Island, Cameroon Highland and Tioman Island where “it seems that tourists, as a force of change, have introduced ultramodern culture to the villagers” ([83], p.170), these destinations are in Malaysia where major economic transformations through tourism have dislocated the ecosystem. Additionally, documentary evidence was used to supplement findings from this study as presented in the following section.
The documentary evidence was grouped into three categories that include brochures, books and press releases, and archaeological research reports. Table 7 presents a comparison of findings uncovered from the three categories of documentary evidence in order to identify the extent to which these findings from documentary evidence corroborate findings from in-depth interviews.
Documentary evidence | Categories | Findings uncovered from in-depth interviews | Findings uncovered from documentary evidence |
---|---|---|---|
Brochures | Brochures on food and cultural festival | Tourism destination event | Promote local food culture and tourism through Bario food and cultural festival |
Bario knowledge fair downloaded from e-Bario website | Tourism destination event | Local MICE events or developmental conferencing | |
Books and press releases | The Bario Revival | a. Tourism destination event b. Destination image | a. Bario revival anniversary conference b Industry innovators award |
Education Excellence Awards | Destination image | Educated community | |
Slow Food Italy | a. Destination image b. Destination awareness and identity | Slow food praesidium award for Bario rice | |
World Teleport Association – press release | a. Destination image b. Destination awareness and identity | Intelligent community award | |
Archaeological research reports | Cultured Rainforest Project (CRP) | Hard factors | Megaliths and stone monuments sites |
Comparison of findings from In-depth interviews with documentary evidence.
Source: Developed for this study.
These findings include: (1) industry innovators award; (2) slow food praesidium award for Bario rice; and (3) intelligent community’s award. These three findings were not uncovered in the in-depth interviews which basically could be regarded as part of destination image, destination awareness and identity of Bario. On top of this, participant observation was adopted to supplement findings from both in-depth interviews and documentary evidence as follows.
Table 8 presents a comparison of these findings from in-depth interviews and participant observation. Based on the analysis of findings in this section and comparison with the in-depth interviews, it was discovered that most of the findings from participant observation support findings uncovered in the in-depth interviews.
Component of destination branding strategies | Findings uncovered from in-depth interviews | Findings uncovered from participant observation |
---|---|---|
Tourism Destination Appeals – Research Question 1 | ||
Tourism events | a. Food and cultural festival b. Local MICE | a. Food and cultural festival b. Local MICE – WWF/ Kalimantan Indonesia and Kelabit highlands Malaysia Meetings |
Destination Branding Strategies – Research Question 2 | ||
Critical success factors of tourism Destination branding | a. Brand communication benefits b. Brand promise | a. Effective brand communication benefits to the stakeholders b. Brand promise |
Destination Stakeholders’ Roles - Research Question 3 | ||
Analysis of stakeholders’ involvement in activities and events | Findings uncovered from in-depth interviews | Findings uncovered from participant observation |
Identification of destination stakeholders | a. Local residents b. Volunteers/NGOs c. Researchers d. Tourists e. Government agencies f. Local airline company g. Agro-business investor h Logging companies | a. Local residents b. Volunteers/NGOs c. Researchers d. Tourists e. Government agencies f. Local airline company g. Agro-business investor |
Community involvement and commitment in activities and events | a. Food and cultural festivals b. Host vs. guest relationship c. Local salt production d. Rice production e. Participation in exhibition | a. Food and cultural festivals b. Host vs. guest relationship c. Local salt production d. Rice production e. Participation in exhibition f. Trees planting g. Guest vs. guest relationship |
Tourist participation in events and relationship building | a. Food and cultural festivals b. Taking photographs c. Relationship building d. Visit archaeological sites | a. Food and cultural festivals b. Taking photographs c. Relationship building d. Visit archaeological sites e. Trees planting f. Participation in exhibition |
Involvement of other stakeholders in activities and events | a. Tree planting b. Painting of long houses c. Taking photographs d. Relationship building e. Participation in exhibition f. Food and cultural festivals g. Visit archaeological sites | a. Trees planting b. Painting of long houses c. Taking photographs d. Relationship building e. Participation in exhibition f. Food and cultural festivals g. Visit archaeological sites |
Comparison of findings from in-depth interviews and participant observation.
Source: Developed for this study.
This section summarises Table 4 and its relevant to Figure 1. Based on the analyses of the data, eight main themes of destination appeals or attractions have been identified that would help brand a rural destination namely: characteristics of rural tourism destinations; destination image; destination awareness and identity. Others include destination accessibility; hard factors attractions; soft factors attractions; community-based tourism and cultural events (CBTCEs); and (h) local meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (L-MICE). These findings are important because within this study, relationship building experience, staging of food and cultural festivals which include the name changing ceremony and the traditional wedding are unique tourism attractions. Similarly, the locally organised MICE that has featured the eBario Knowledge fair and the annual anniversary of Bario revival are destination appeals that would enhance the destination brand development of Bario. These constructs were conceptualised into the destination brand framework developed in this study as presented in Figure 1.
Destination brand framework for rural tourism: A relationship-based approach.
The focus of this section is derived from Table 5 as part of the components to develop a rural tourism destination brand framework as depicted in Figure 1. Analyses of data on destination branding strategies in Table 5 produced eleven strategic themes: understanding branding and description of rural tourism destination brand; rationales for rural tourism destination brand; roles of tourism attractions in rural destination brand development; strategic stages of destination brand building; challenges of developing a destination brand; and managing the challenges of destination brand building. Other branding strategies are critical success factors (CSFs); strategies for the implementation and monitoring of CSFs; destination brand influence and tourist destination of choice; destination brand benefits; and destination management and monitoring.
The third main component of the destination brand framework in Figure 1 is the destination stakeholders’ roles. Analyses of data in Table 6 produced eight main themes relevant to the construct of destination brand framework as follows: identification of rural tourism stakeholders – primary, secondary and tertiary stakeholders were identified; tourism destination stakeholders’ roles; roles of destination management and marketing organisations (DMMOs). Similarly, leadership initiative in relationship building – bottom-up approach through committed community leaders and associations; strategies and benefits of relationship building; destination sustainability; and future of tourism development and management in Bario. The main significant finding in this study is that the starting point in developing a destination brand for rural tourism is the bottom-up approach, community-driven which would allow relationship building between the host community and other destination stakeholders. In other words, it should not be a top-down approach from the government ministries, agencies and department.
This study has contributed to the scholarship of destination branding. From the theoretical view point, it has contributed to the existing theory on destination branding by developing a ‘destination brand framework for rural tourism using the relationship-based approach’ as presented in Figure 1 which is the main aim of this study. Findings from this study also indicate that the destination brand framework for rural tourism emphasises the significance of understanding relationship building among the local community, rural destination stakeholders and non-stakeholders (friends of the host community) to develop a destination brand for rural tourism. Other theoretical contributions are the rural tourism destination appeals, destination branding strategies and stakeholder power - through the rural community association and local leadership. The starting point is to adopt a bottom-up approach and engage committed community’s association leaders to drive the brand vision, planning and development are important elements.
This study has practical implications for policy makers and practitioners. Firstly, the destination brand framework can be used in practice for the destination brand building of Bario and transfer to other rural tourism destination using the relationship-based approach (RBA). This is because RBA encourages stakeholders to be involved in activities that will promote and develop the tourism destination brand. This suggestion is corroborated by Szondi [42] that relationship-based management in building a destination brand can lead to mutual understanding, collaboration efforts and shared values among the stakeholders and non-stakeholders. The second managerial contribution is the formation of community protocol and engagement behaviour of stakeholders and non-stakeholders to encourage sustainable and responsible rural tourism practices. Tourism practitioners should understand tourists’ behaviour in terms of their expectations by maintaining the remote image and identity of a rural destination and avoiding massive infrastructure development which may result in the number of tourist attractions being lost and reducing the number of tourist arrivals and receipts.
The study implication to the host community is that the development of a rural tourism destination brand has the potential to provide employment opportunities for the host community. This is because an increase in the number of tourist arrivals will require more local residents to be gainfully employed. Notably, increase in the tourist arrivals could draw the attention of the government and investors alike. A good example is the study context where we have private investments in rice production which has increased the number of rice output, employing more people from the community and provision of seven dams for rice irrigation planting system. In addition, is the preservation of core values of the rural tourism destination such as local culture, heritage and historical sites attractions, farming community status would be preserved. Besides that, tourist desire for authentic experience would be enhanced and this suggests that the rural destination appeals can be sustained in a longer term.
Transferability is important in qualitative research findings [84]. Transferability connotes external validity [70]. The following elements of the destination brand framework can be transferred or implemented in other tourism destinations brand building. These include: (a) the application of relationship-based approach suggests the involvement of the local community other rural destination stakeholders and non-stakeholders in the process involved of developing a destination brand for rural tourism; (b) the bottom-up approach and community-driven strategy through the stakeholder power delegated to the local community’s association leadership initiative; (c) local community association and leadership initiative in understanding the strategies and benefits of relationship building in destination brand development; (d) stakeholders’ involvement in rural tourism destination sustainability in building a destination brand; (e) identifying specific rural tourism destination appeals (hard and soft factors) that can be used in developing destination brand for rural destinations; and (f) communicating destination brand benefits specific to rural tourism destination.
This study has been conceptualised from the rural tourism destination context which may not be applicable to other large tourism destinations such as cities, states, regions and nations branding. Notably, a qualitative single case approach was used. It is suggested that future studies should adopt the multiple case studies approach in rural tourism destinations that are not uniquely positioned like Bario for comparison among the different study destinations. This is important to ascertain if similar results would be obtained. A longitudinal study is recommended because it would provide additional findings on the process involved in developing a destination brand for rural tourism over time.
To sum up, the application of the relationship-based approach in this study is strengthened by the existing study in destination branding which highlighted there is limited or no empirical studies in the relationship building approach in developing a destination brand [45].
The funding for this project is made possible through the research grant obtained from the Ministry of Education Malaysia Long Term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS) Programme [Reference No.:JPT.S (BPKI)2000/09/01/015Jld.4(67)].
Academic Advisors for their suggestions to improve the quality of this paper
Professor Vikneswaran Nair, Dean Graduate Studies and Research, University of The Bahamas.
Associate Professor Catheryn Khoo-Lattimore, Griffith Business School, Griffith University Australia, and Editor-in-Chief, Tourism Management Perspectives (TMP).
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