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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68611",title:"Sorption Capacities of a Lignin-Based Electrospun Nanofibrous Material for Pharmaceutical Residues Remediation in Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88621",slug:"sorption-capacities-of-a-lignin-based-electrospun-nanofibrous-material-for-pharmaceutical-residues-r",body:'As water scarcity becomes even more present in underdeveloped countries, developed states have to face a different challenge: water pollution from emerging contaminants [1]. Pollutants such as pharmaceutical residues come in a variety of forms and origins causing great issues [2, 3]. Many measures are established to reduce such contamination mostly in the form of water treatments and legislation [1]. However, great limitations are associated with the traditional techniques used in wastewater treatment plants. Most of them are due to either their cost or their low removal efficiency on emerging contaminants [4, 5]. For instance, degradation processes such as ozonation or chlorination were proven efficient for the degradation of organic molecules [6, 7]. However, these techniques have high operational costs and often cause dangerous degradation by-products that would follow the water flow and end up in rivers and lakes [8].
A specific technique distinguishes itself from the others; sorption. Such a treatment has the advantage of capturing contaminants with lower operational costs and without generating any dangerous by-products [5]. The most exploited sorbent is activated carbon (AC) which has high adsorption capacity and low specificity [5, 9]. Its efficiency comes from its high surface area on which contaminants can be adsorbed through interaction forces such as van der Waals [5]. It is often used for water purification through commercially available filters. Activated carbon can be made from various biological residues giving value to waste [9, 10, 11]. However, the synthesis of ACs necessitates the carbonization of the material itself and an activation step which can be costly and not environmentally friendly [5].
Another option is the production of adsorbents from highly available natural polymers. Therefore, the product would be green, inexpensive and biocompatible. As many biosorbents are still being studied throughout the world, their potential is not fully exploited, and low attention is given to polymers such as lignin. Lignin, the second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose, is a naturally occurring polymer composing wood at 20–40% [12, 13]. Giving resistance and rigidity to the cell walls of plants, this biopolymer is water insoluble and resistant to organic solvents [12]. Lignin is also a highly variable biopolymer which is composed of its three main monomers (coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol and p-coumaryl alcohol) in a random pattern [13]. Its composition is further randomized by the addition of functional groups (mainly sulfate and carboxyl groups) during its extraction phase [13]. Even though it is variable, all lignins contain phenols, aliphatic alcohols and ethers [14]. Right now, lignin is mostly used to produce energy in the pulp and paper industry (where it is mainly extracted) and regenerate chemical reagents [15]. Although it is not its main use, lignin has already been used as an adsorbent for heavy metals or even dyes [16, 17, 18, 19]. However, to our best knowledge, lignin has never been tested for pharmaceutical residues removal at trace levels. Therefore, the development of this lignin-based electrospun nanofibrous materials open up new opportunities for reducing inputs of pharmaceuticals into the environment.
To be able to achieve a satisfying adsorption capacity for trace contaminants and compete with AC, it is necessary to increase the surface area of the material. A simple way is the transformation of the polymer into nanofibres through electrospinning. This technique exploits the stretching of polymers exposed to a high voltage under defined experimental conditions [20, 21]. In electrospinning, a polymer is dissolved and introduced into a syringe (see Figure 1). Voltage is applied between the needle of the syringe and a collector plate. As a drop is formed at the tip of the needle, its surface tension will be disrupted by the electrical field and cause a Taylor cone and the formation of the fibres [22, 23]. Typically, fibres as thin as the nanometres scale are obtainable through this method [20, 24]. Because of its limited known uses, the electrospinning of lignin is not popular even if its electrospinnability with a co-polymer is known [23, 24, 25]. Hence, the material and the application are unprecedented.
Typical electrospinning setup.
In this study, electrospun lignin nanofibres will be exploited for the adsorption of pharmaceutical residues in water. Precisely, fluoxetine and venlafaxine (antidepressant), carbamazepine (anticonvulsant) and ibuprofen (anti-inflammatory) will be tested for adsorption on developed nanofibres. The material’s adsorption will be characterized by kinetic and isotherm studies. Its capacity to be reusable will also be determined by using various desorption environments.
Alkali lignin (AL) low sulfur (28,000 Da, CAS 8064-05-1) and poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) 98–99% hydrolysis (31,000–50,000 Da, CAS 9002-89-5) were provided by Sigma-Aldrich (St-Louis, MO, USA). Sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH) 98% (CAS 1310-73-2) and methanol HPLC grade (CAS-67-51-1) were provided by Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA). Hydrochloric acid (CAS 7647-01-0), acetonitrile HPLC grade (CAS 75-05-8), sodium citrate dihydrate (CAS 6132-04-3), sodium chloride (CAS 7647-14-5) and o-phosphoric acid HPLC grade 85% v/v (CAS 7664-38-2) were purchased from Fisher Scientific (Fair Lawn, NJ, USA). Fluoxetine hydrochloride (FLX) (CAS 56296-78-7), venlafaxine hydrochloride (VEN) (CAS 99300-78-4), carbamazepine (CAR) (CAS 298-46-4) and ibuprofen (IBU) (CAS 15687-27-1) were provided by Sigma-Aldrich (Oakville, ON, Canada). Citric acid anhydrous (CAS 77-92-9) was provided by Jungbunzlauer (Bale, Swiss). Commercial adsorbents used for comparison were Amberlyst® 15 (CAS 39389-20-3), Dowex® Marathon® C (CAS 69011-20-7), SiliaFlash® F60 40–60 μm particle size, fumed silica (CAS 112945-52-5) and Valfor® 100 sodium aluminosilicate zeolite respectively from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA), Sigma-Aldrich (St-Louis, MO, USA), Silicycle (Quebec City, QC, Canada), and The PQ Corporation (Valley Forge, PA, USA).
The electrospinning setup was composed of a syringe pump (Kd scientific) and a power supply (Gamma High Voltage Research). Two laboratory ovens (Fisher Scientific Isotemp Oven and ThermoScientific HERATherm oven) were used for conservation and stabilization of the membranes. An orbital shaker (Lab Line model 3520) and an environmental orbital shaker incubator (Lab Line model 3528) were used for adsorption tests. Nanofibres were characterized using a Hitachi SUI510 scanning electron microscope (SEM). A Shimadzu Prominence I-series high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC) coupled with a diode array detector (DAD) with a reverse phase column XB-C18, 100 Å, 150 × 3 mm, 2.6 μm particle size (Phenomenex, Kinetex®) was used to analyze contaminated water samples.
The electrospinning solutions were prepared as reported in Camire et al. [26]. Briefly, solution of AL and PVA 15% wt were prepared by dissolving AL in NaOH 1 M and PVA in water heated to 80°C for 60 min. After the dissolution, both solutions were mixed in a mass ratio of 1:1. This solution was stirred for an hour and settled at room temperature for another hour. The AL:PVA solution was then used directly for electrospinning or kept at 4°C in a refrigerator for a maximum of 1 month. Before use, the refrigerated solution was brought to room temperature in a hot water bath for an hour.
The previous prepared solution was injected in a 5 mL syringe with a 20-gauge needle for electrospinning. The syringe was set to the syringe pump and voltage was applied between the needle and the collector. The collector was a non-stick cookie sheet giving good electrospinning, reusability and easy recovery of the nanofibres. The electrospinning parameters were based on results obtained previously [26]. The conditions were a flow rate of 0.1 mL/h with an applied DC voltage of 15 kV. The collector was placed 20 cm away from the tip of the needle. The temperature was kept at 22°C and relative humidity maintained between 10 and 40%. A razor blade was used to recover the nanofibrous mat from the collector. All experiments were conducted in a customized electrospinning box. The electrospun nanofibre mat was then kept overnight in a laboratory oven at 80°C for drying and stabilization purposes.
Due to electrospun nanofibres’ high solubility in water, AL:PVA nanofibres mats were stabilized using two consecutive techniques. Both techniques are based on previous works [26]. The first method used the glass transition temperature of polymers to raise their crystallinity and hence their water resistance. Therefore, nanofibres were heated in a laboratory oven at 160°C for 3 h. Next, the membranes were immersed in a 0.5 M sodium citrate buffer pH 4.5 for a period of 3 h. This process aims to protonate AL’s phenol groups which were previously deprotonated during the preparation of the electrospinning solution in a method similar to the extraction methods of black liquor [15]. During this step, the morphology of the membrane changes drastically due to the dissolution of a part of the PVA. The dissolution causes a rise in the concentration of AL (the membranes become browner) and cross-linking of the nanofibres. After exposure to the buffer, the membranes were washed several times with purified water, stretched and dried on a metallic surface. Finally, the nanofibrous mats were recovered using a razor blade.
In this section, three types of tests were performed: adsorption of a single contaminant on AL:PVA membranes as well as commercial adsorbents, and adsorption of multiple contaminants on AL:PVA membranes. All adsorption tests were conducted in batches by adding a defined amount of adsorbent to a stirred solution containing a specific concentration of contaminants. All tested solutions were composed of purified water with 5% of methanol and contaminants adjusted at the targeted concentration. The organic solvent’s purpose was to ensure that pharmaceuticals were solubilized in water. Separate 2500 ppm standard solutions of FLX, VEN, CAR and IBU were prepared by dissolving the corresponding stock solutions in methanol. Those solutions were then diluted for adsorption tests. Before, during and after the adsorption test, aliquots of 500 μL of the contaminated water were sampled, diluted with 500 μL of mobile phase, vortexed and injected in HPLC-DAD to determine the concentration of contaminants in solution. For tests using one contaminant on AL:PVA membranes, 50 ppm FLX solution was used as a model contaminated water. For tests with commercial adsorbents, adjustments were made to compensate for the size difference between adsorbents. Therefore, solutions of 250 ppm FLX in 10 mL were prepared to keep the same contaminant to adsorbent mass ratio. For tests with multiple contaminants, 12.5 ppm of FLX, IBU, CAR and VEN were added to water to simulate contaminated water.
The adsorption tests were initialized by the addition of 25 mg of adsorbent (nanofibres or commercial adsorbent) to the solution. The tests were conducted over a period of 150 min to ensure that equilibrium was reached. Using a calibration curve and the area under the peaks on the chromatograms, the remaining concentration of the solution was calculated. From this value, the adsorption capacity at time
where
For samples containing one contaminant, samples injected in HPLC-DAD were eluted using a mobile phase composed of acetonitrile and a 0.1% solution of phosphoric acid (60:40% v/v ratio). The flow rate was adjusted at 0.45 mL/min for 3.75 min with a detection at 230 nm. For samples containing more than one contaminant, the mobile phase was composed of acetonitrile and 0.1% phosphoric acid with a ratio of 40:60% v/v. The flow rate was adjusted to 0.5 mL/min for a period of 20 min with a detection still at 230 nm. In all cases, 10 μL of the samples were injected using an autosampler. For all contaminants, a 10-point (0.5–100 ppm) calibration curve was established to determine the concentration. All tests were performed in triplicate.
Kinetic curves were obtained by sampling at intervals during the adsorption process. Samples were collected at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 120 and 150 min after the addition of the adsorbent. The equilibrium time of 150 min was determined by an initial kinetic test. The same sampling and injection processes as traditional adsorption tests were conducted for kinetic studies. By calculating the adsorption capacity through time, it is possible to obtain a kinetic curve which can be compared to adsorption kinetic models. Adsorption kinetic models give crucial information on the adsorption parameters and the limiting processes occurring during the adsorption. Typically, three steps occur during the adsorption: transfer of the adsorbate to the external surface of the adsorbent, internal diffusion of the adsorbate to active sites and sorption reaction with the adsorbent [27, 28]. In this study, three models were compared: pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order and Elovich. In all cases, the kinetic constants were calculated using Matlab’s curve fitting app. To determine the best fitting model, determination coefficients and root of mean square errors (RMSE) were compared. The pseudo-first order model is represented by Eq. (2):
In Eq. (2),
where
where
The adsorption isotherms were performed for AL:PVA membranes to obtain information on the adsorption sites and the type of reaction occurring. For these tests, 50 ppm solutions of FLX were prepared as typical adsorption tests. Samples were collected at 0 and 180 min (equilibrium). From those samples, the concentration (
Models | Non-linear equation | Equation |
---|---|---|
Freundlich | (5) | |
Langmuir | (6) | |
Sips | (7) | |
Redlich-Peterson | (8) |
Here,
The thermodynamic parameters (enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs’s free energy) are calculated through a thermodynamic study. These parameters are obtained by using the
where
where
The capacity of an adsorbent to be desorbed is also an important characteristic value since it can have a significant contribution on economics and life cycle assessment of the process. Therefore, the reusability of the AL:PVA membranes was evaluated by desorption. For this purpose, multiple conditions were tested to recover the contaminant safely. Hence, the nanofibres were exposed to solutions of methanol (to create an environment in which the contaminant is highly soluble), purified water (to verify the risk of desorption due to equilibrium), heated solutions (might be able to revert the sorption reaction), salts (ion exchange and/or competition) and combined techniques (except heated methanol solutions). In all cases, the membranes were immersed in 50 mL of solution for 4 h. For temperature effect, solutions were heated to 60°C to verify desorption. The salt used for desorption was sodium chloride since it is a simple and non-toxic substance, largely found in typical wastewater. Concentrations of sodium chloride of 1, 2 and 3 M were tested. Initial and final samples were injected in HPLC-DAD to determine the concentration of FLX recovered. The desorption solution showing the best desorption efficiency was used for repeated adsorption/desorption cycles to evaluate the reusability. Between each test, the membranes were recovered and dried in a vacuum desiccator to prevent humidity from interfering with the measured masses. For membranes exposed to salts, these were washed several times with purified water to dissolve salts, and then dried in a vacuum desiccator.
Mixed solutions of AL and PVA were prepared for the production of membranes for adsorption tests. Using the specified electrospinning parameters, it was possible to obtain steady nanofibre formation for periods of a few hours to produce thin nanofibrous mats. Those were thermally stabilized giving the nanofibres a brownish colour and more rigidity. Their immersion in a sodium citrate buffer finalized the stabilization process to provide fibres stability at various pHs enabling their use for adsorption. As shown in Figure 2, the stabilization process had a slight impact on the visual aspects of the membranes. However, the impact is more obvious when seen by scanning electron microscopy. Figure 2b shows that nanofibres of 183 ± 5 nm in diameter were obtained by the electrospinning with a low number of beads or defects. This size does not technically correspond to nanofibres (0–100 nm), but the adsorption properties shall be akin to real nanofibres considering the small difference. Figure 2d shows the nanofibres after a thermal process. This image shows a similar nanofibrous aspect with small variations of the nanofibre diameter (156 ± 5 nm). However, nanofibres seem to be closer to each other with slight cross-linking giving it rigidity. With the chemical stabilization (Figure 2f), the cross-linking is obvious due to swelling and fusing of nanofibres (188 ± 10 nm). However, it should be emphasized that this kind of treatment often causes the loss of porosity of the material. In fact, without the thermal process, the acid treatment causes the nanofibres to completely fuse together lowering the porosity of the material [26, 32].
Images of AL:PVA nanofibres after electrospinning (a), after thermal treatment (c) and after final chemical treatment (e) and corresponding MEB images at 2500× (b, d and f, respectively).
Interestingly, humidity had a real impact on the different steps of electrospinning. In fact, at low humidity (e.g., 10%), it was possible to electrospin, but the efficiency was lower. This might be due to the fast evaporation of the solvent during electrospinning which caused the drop of polymers at the tip of the needle to dry before electrospinning or the electrospinning jet to break before reaching the collector surface. The recovery of nanofibres was also more difficult due to higher adherence to the metal plates. At higher humidity (between 30 and 40%), the electrospinning resulted in a larger nanofibre mat surface area on the collector, which was easily peeled off, almost without the use of a razor blade. The advantages of the higher humidity also appeared during the stabilization step. Indeed, a higher humidity reduced the drying speed of the membranes, but also reduced their stickiness to the collector plate. It is therefore important to control the humidity within a certain range to achieve good nanofibre mat formation and easy processability.
The adsorption tests were first conducted for FLX since it has the most potential for adsorption. Therefore, 25mg of AL:PVA nanofibres were used to adsorb 50 ppm of FLX in a 50 mL solution. The test lasted 150 min with a sample collected at the beginning and at the end. Table 2 shows the results obtained for this adsorption test. For comparison purposes of the adsorption, the same test was also carried out using commercial adsorbents. However, considering the smaller size of the commercial adsorbent, adjustments were necessary to conduct adsorption tests without any bias. Hence, the volume of the solution was reduced to 10 mL and the concentration was risen to 250 ppm to keep the same mass of FLX (2.5 mg solution) for the same mass of adsorbents. Therefore, the maximum adsorption capacity obtainable for each test was 100 mg/g. The summary of these results is available in Table 2.
Adsorbent | Adsorption capacity (mg/g) |
---|---|
AL:PVA nanofibres | 78.24 ± 1.35 |
Amberlyst® 15 | 80.96 ± 0.35 |
Dowex® Marathon® C | 77.03 ± 0.94 |
Valfor® 100 | 49.00 ± 4.39 |
Fumed silica | 8.54 ± 0.62 |
Siliaflash® F60 | 4.25± 0.35 |
Adsorption capacity comparison of AL:PVA membranes with commercially available adsorbents.
As expected, unfunctionalized silica adsorbents (Siliaflash® and fumed silica) had low adsorption potential for FLX. This is due to the lack of functional groups for adsorption and/or ionic charges. Due to its ion-exchange properties, Valfor® had a better adsorption propensity than silica. However, considering the exchange mechanism (exchange with a sodium ion from the adsorbent) and the size of the FLX molecules, it is possible that the adsorption was limited by the number of available sites and competition between FLX molecules. This type of sorbent might be more appropriate for metal ions [33]. Both ion-exchange resins had good adsorption capacities. Both being cation exchange resins and strongly acidic, they possessed functional groups (sulfate) appropriate for the adsorption of ionic molecules such as alkaline pharmaceutical residues. It is therefore encouraging that a biosorbent made of lignin can yield similar or better adsorption capacities than commercial sorbents.
For a potential application in wastewater treatments, it is important to evaluate its capacity to adsorb multiple and various contaminants at the same time. Hence, the adsorption capacities of the developed nanofibres were compared with four contaminants, fluoxetine (antidepressant), venlafaxine (antidepressant), carbamazepine (anticonvulsant) and ibuprofen (anti-inflammatory). The adsorption was evaluated separately and simultaneously to detect possible competitions between contaminants (see Table 3).
Contaminant | Simultaneous adsorption capacity* (mg/g) | Individual adsorption capacity** (mg/g) |
---|---|---|
Fluoxetine (FLX) | 22.85 ± 0.28 | 78.24 ± 1.35 |
Venlafaxine (VEN) | 11.05 ± 1.02 | 49.76 ± 2.80 |
Carbamazepine (CAR) | 1.02 ± 0.02 | 8.04 ± 0.01 |
Ibuprofen (IBU) | 0.62 ± 0.39 | 5.00 ± 0.46 |
Affinity comparison of the AL:PVA nanofibres for various pharmaceutical contaminants.
Initial concentration of 12.5 ppm.
Initial concentration of 50 ppm.
The contaminants having the most affinity for the membranes were in the decreasing order FLX, VEN, CAR and IBU. IBU and CAR had a low affinity for the nanofibres with almost no adsorption in simultaneous adsorption. This follows the logical assumption that could be made from the structures of the molecules and their chemical properties. For instance, both FLX and VEN are alkaline pharmaceuticals that are easily protonated at a neutral pH. However, fluoxetine has more aromatic rings and possesses Fluor promoting hydrogen bonding and π-stacking. For CAR and IBU, the molecules are respectively neutral and anionic at pH 7 which completely prevent any ionic bonding between lignin’s phenols and cationic groups from pharmaceuticals. AL is also a weak acid which would hardly make any ionic bonds with an acidic compound such as IBU.
Kinetic studies give interesting data about the reaction order, type and time necessary to reach equilibrium. For this purpose, kinetic curves were plotted by observing the adsorption capacity at multiple times for FLX alone and for the simultaneous adsorption of contaminants. First, adsorption capacity for fluoxetine was measured at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 120 and 150 min to obtain a kinetic curve. Using Matlab®, the kinetic models’ parameters were calculated using non-linear regression analysis. These results are shown in Table 4. From Figure 3, it is possible to observe the different kinetic curves corresponding to pseudo-first and pseudo-second order and Elovich kinetic models as well as the experimental values. From Figure 3 and Table 4, it is clear that the pseudo-first order best fitted the experimental data. The pseudo-first order indicates that the adsorption occurs in one step. Good correlation with this model also shows that the reaction is regulated by the time necessary for the reaction and not by the diffusion in the nanofibrous material. However, the literature shows that no assumptions can be made from the kinetic model to determine the adsorption mechanism (physisorption or chemisorption for instance) [28]. Still, considering the chemical structure of lignin, physisorption is more logical. For physisorption, the main possible interaction forces are van der Waals, π-stacking, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobicity, steric and polarity interactions [10].
Kinetic model | Parameter | Value |
---|---|---|
Pseudo-first order | 0.9989 | |
RMSE | 0.7117 | |
0.086 | ||
63.98 | ||
Pseudo-second order | 0.9790 | |
RMSE | 3.046 | |
0.0017 | ||
71.14 | ||
Elovich | 0.9229 | |
RMSE | 5.832 | |
33.37 | ||
0.08453 |
Kinetic parameters for pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order and Elovich models.
Kinetic curve for the adsorption of FLX on AL:PVA nanofibres.
More information can also be obtained from Figure 3. For instance, following the observation of the graph, it is possible to conclude that equilibrium is obtained within 1 h and that most of the adsorption occurs in the first 20 min. Such a fast adsorption could allow multiple applications to the adsorbent in addition to the retention of contaminants in wastewater. Also, due to the sampling, the total amount of contaminant available is lower which causes a lower adsorption capacity during kinetics. During the test, it was also possible to follow the adsorption process by monitoring of the pH becoming more acid as the alkaline FLX was removed from the solution.
A kinetic experiment was also conducted with simultaneous contaminants. The kinetic curve for each contaminant is presented in Figure 4. For FLX, the curve was almost identical to the individual curve which suggests that no significant competition occurred for FLX. For VEN, the adsorption was significantly longer with equilibrium at 90 min. Its final adsorption capacity, however, remained similar by roughly adsorbing half of the initial concentration. For IBU and CAR, the adsorption was fast (equilibrium within 5 min) and their adsorption capacity was low. Their low adsorption capacities show that AL:PVA membranes might be ineffective for such contaminants except for really low quantities. Coupling AL:PVA nanofibres with other adsorbents could be an alternative to adsorb a wider pharmaceutical contaminants spectrum. For instance, recent studies on chitosan and poly (ethylene oxide) showed good adsorption capacities for IBU in water [32].
Kinetic curve for simultaneous adsorption of FLX, VEN, CAR and IBU.
The goal of the experiment is to understand the behaviour of adsorption sites while specific changes are made. By monitoring the variation of concentration and adsorption capacity at equilibrium while varying the mass of adsorbents, it is possible to obtain an isotherm curve which can be compared to isotherm models. The Freundlich, Langmuir, Sips (or Langmuir-Freundlich) and Redlich-Peterson models were compared to the data. The isotherm constants and statistical analysis of the fitting at various temperatures are presented in Table 5.
Isotherm | Parameter | 25°C | 40°C | 60°C |
---|---|---|---|---|
Freundlich | 0.9655 | 0.9510 | 0.8486 | |
RMSE | 4.716 | 6.200 | 6.113 | |
11.22 | 2.298 | 8.093 | ||
0.6441 | 1.131 | 0.6326 | ||
Langmuir | 0.9783 | 0.9374 | 0.8242 | |
RMSE | 3.746 | 7.006 | 5.893 | |
249.2 | 3.242e+4 | 175.3 | ||
0.02292 | 1.083e−4 | 0.02223 | ||
Sips | 0.9899 | 0.9510 | 0.8877 | |
RMSE | 2.859 | 6.933 | 6.079 | |
140.3 | 9.285e+4 | 82.32 | ||
0.05902 | 8.513e−5 | 0.06166 | ||
1.83 | 1.132 | 3.277 | ||
Redlich-Peterson | 0.9855 | 0.9510 | 0.8669 | |
RMSE | 3.423 | 6.933 | 6.620 | |
4.499 | 117.5 | 2.983 | ||
3.122e−4 | 50.23 | 1.523e−4 | ||
2.021 | −0.135 | 2.183 |
Isotherm parameters for various isotherm models at 25, 40 and 60°C.
Results show that, for all temperatures, the Sips model best fitted the experimental data with the highest R2 and RMSE coefficients. This model indicates that a contaminant will link to multiple adsorption sites simultaneously. Also, this model can also be reduced to both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms depending on the concentration of contaminants (low concentration and high concentration respectively) [10, 27, 30]. Considering that in real remediation conditions the concentrations are lower, it would be appropriate to predict the adsorption to be closer to a Freundlich isotherm. In the Freundlich model, the adsorption occurs in multi-layers with heterogenous sites adsorbing a single molecule [10]. In the Langmuir model, however, the adsorption is in monolayers on homogenous sites [10]. In these types of models, the pH, the temperature and the concentration remain the dominating factors affecting adsorption. This is further observed when the temperature increased and the adsorption capacity accordingly got lower. However, the isotherm models had much lower correlation as the temperature went up.
Thermodynamic parameters give interesting information on energy transfers during adsorption. Using the experimental data obtained from fluoxetine’s isotherms and Eqs. (9) and (10), standard enthalpy, standard entropy, standard Gibbs’s free energy were calculated. For enthalpy, a value of −7987 J/mol or −7.99 kJ/mol was obtained which indicates that the adsorption reaction is exothermic. This means that no heat is necessary for efficient adsorption and that supplying heat would be unfavourable for adsorption in this case. Also, this value falls into the energy range normally associated with hydrogen bonds (4–50 kJ/mol) and π-stacking (8–12 kJ/mol) [34, 35]. For entropy, a value of 42.01 J/mol. k was obtained. A positive value indicates that there is a gain in entropy and that the reaction is favourable. For ∆G° (at 25°C), a value of −20.51 kJ/mol was calculated which shows that the reaction is spontaneous. Moreover, values close to −20 kJ indicate that physisorption is prevalent [31].
Hence, the adsorption seems to be an appropriate method for water remediation against pharmaceutical contaminants since it consumes low to no energy. Its exothermic nature is also advantageous in cold climate countries like Canada since heating costs would be higher. In addition, it is possible to use the information obtained through thermodynamic to develop a desorption method for nanofibres. For this reason, the use of heated solutions for desorption will be investigated in the next section.
One of the benefits of sorption is the possibility of desorption. In this way, multiple adsorption and desorption cycles are possible, and the material is reusable. For these reasons, various desorption solutions were tested on AL:PVA nanofibres for the recovery of FLX. This step’s purpose also was obtaining a simpler matrix in which the contaminants can easily be recovered (dried form) or disposed safely. The solutions used had to be either non-toxic or easily evaporated and reused. The effect of temperature was also investigated for a simple desorption method. Results obtained for each tested desorption method are presented in Table 6. As shown in this table, the use of an organic solvent such as methanol has the disadvantage of causing degradation of the membranes in addition to the desorption. Even, it is possible that the desorption detected is due to the degradation of nanofibres. Therefore, pure methanol and 50% methanol solution were discarded. Using pure water, almost no desorption occurred which means that the strength of the bond is sufficiently strong to prevent a new equilibrium. When pure water is heated, however, FLX can be desorbed to some extent (30%) which follows the assumptions made in thermodynamic study. Then, sodium chloride was tested for the desorption of FLX. First, 1 M NaCl solution was tested at room temperature which indicated that salts were effective to recover the pharmaceutical contaminant. Afterwards, the same desorption was tested at 60°C. With this method, more than 90% of the fluoxetine could be recovered without affecting the membrane’s integrity. The concentration of salt was also varied to verify if a higher concentration would give a better desorption. Instead, higher salt concentrations reduced desorption capacity. Considering the difference in size of FLX compared to NaCl, this might be due to the saturation of the solution in which the fluoxetine cannot be dissolved.
Desorption solution | Fluoxetine recovered (%) | Qualitative result |
---|---|---|
100% methanol | 89 | High mass loss |
50% methanol | 36 | Slight mass loss |
100% water | 1 | None |
100% water 60°C | 30 | None |
1M NaCl 25°C | 52 | None |
1M NaCl 60°C | 92 | None |
2M NaCl 60°C | 76 | None |
3M NaCl 60°C | 19 | None |
Impact of various desorption solutions on desorption of fluoxetine and AL:PVA nanofibres.
To attest the reusability of the membranes, the best desorption method (1M NaCl solution heated to 60°C) was tested for three adsorption/desorption cycles (see Figure 5). In this process, the membranes were dried and weighed before each adsorption or desorption tests to observe possible mass loss.
Adsorption/desorption cycles for FLX using 60°C 1 M NaCl solution.
To simplify comparison, Figure 5 shows the mass of FLX instead of the adsorption capacity. First, it is interesting to observe that the amount desorbed is increasing with desorption cycles. This can be due to a higher number of FLX molecules on the membranes on the second and third cycle (the amount not desorbed on the previous cycles plus the amount adsorbed on the current cycle). Moreover, the adsorption capacity of the membranes was not affected by the desorption as shown by the small rise in mass adsorbed on the third cycle. The small weight gain could have been caused by a slight rise in porosity of the material due to stretching during adsorption and desorption tests. During this test, no significant mass losses were measured through the 3 cycles. Since the membranes are not degrading and do not lose adsorption capacity after the third cycle, it would be logical to assume that the synthetized membranes could still be used for even more cycles.
The potential of AL:PVA nanofibres was clearly demonstrated through our study. This promising new technology can be exploited in many fields that require adsorption. For instance, the main application dedicated in this study is the adsorption of pharmaceutical contaminants in wastewater. In such application, the membranes produced could be incorporated in dynamic systems in wastewater treatment plants or even at the source in hospitals or medical centre effluents. In this way, most of the potentially harmful pharmaceutical residues would be removed and would not enter aquatic ecosystems.
Meanwhile, our research is also investigating the use of nanofibres for the collection and analysis of illicit drugs such as cocaine or methamphetamine. Results obtained from this study will be the object of a future study. However, encouraging results with more than 90% of retention was obtained for both drugs (unpublished results). Moreover, desorption is also efficient. In this way, illicit drugs in complex matrices could be transferred to a simpler matrix for direct analysis in liquid chromatography during forensic investigation.
As of now, the efficiency of the nanofibres was proven for alkaline pharmaceutical contaminants. However, its efficiency is rather poor for contaminants that are neutral or acidic such as CAR or IBU. Therefore, an interesting avenue would be the coupling or sequential use of AL:PVA nanofibres and another biosorbent such as chitosan. In fact, works from our research group showed that chitosan nanofibres are efficient for adsorption of IBU in aqueous medium [32]. Therefore, it would be interesting to test a nanofibrous structure composed of AL and chitosan or a sandwich-like structure made of both types of fibres on mixtures of contaminants. In addition, surface chemical modifications are considered in the near future.
Novel alkali lignin and poly (vinyl alcohol) (AL:PVA) nanofibrous membranes were tested for adsorption of pharmaceutical contaminants. Its efficiency to adsorb was first studied on a model contaminant, fluoxetine. An adsorption capacity of 78 mg/g was obtained which corresponds to the adsorption of 78% of fluoxetine present in the water. With further adsorption cycles, the membranes can adsorb up to 90% of contaminants. Compared to commercially available adsorbents (ion-exchange resins, zeolites and silica), the results are similar to costly ion-exchange resins (75–80 mg/g). Using kinetic and isotherm models, it is possible to conclude that nanofibres follow a pseudo-first order kinetic model and Sips’ isotherm model which indicate that the adsorbent is of the physical type with adsorption of the contaminants on multiple sites at the same time in a multi- or monolayer pattern (depending on the concentration). Looking at thermodynamics, adsorption on AL:PVA nanofibres is a favourable, spontaneous and exothermic reaction. This information could be used for the design of a desorption method in which the fluoxetine can be retrieved safely, and the membrane reused for at least two more cycles. The adsorption of multiple pharmaceutical contaminants (fluoxetine, venlafaxine, carbamazepine and ibuprofen) showed that nanofibres have more affinity for alkaline compounds, which adsorb more given the right amount of possible intermolecular forces occurring. Hence, for remediation applications, it would become necessary to combine this adsorbent with another one for maximum retention efficiency.
The authors would like to thank the UQTR Foundation, the Innovations Institute for Ecomaterials, Ecoproducts and Ecoenergies Biomass Based, the EcotoQ Research Group and the Forensic Research Group for their financial support during this study. Special thanks are addressed to Agnes Lejeune for her assistance during the collection of SEM images. All technicians at the UQTR are also acknowledged for their technical support.
No conflict of interest to declare.
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Among these disasters—earthquake is the most- scary and damaging. The effects of a disaster, whether natural or human induced, are often long lasting. The Gorkha earthquake of 25 April 2015 enormously affected human, socio-economic and other multiple sectors and left deep scars mainly in the economy, livelihood and infrastructure of the country. Besides the natural factors, the damages from disasters in Nepal are in increasing trend due to the human activities and inadequate proactive legislations. Fundamentally, the weak structures have been found as the major cause of damage in earthquakes. This underlines the need for strict compliance of building codes. Thus, proactive disaster management legislation focusing on disaster preparedness is necessary. This paper analyses and shows the critical gaps and responsible factors that would contribute towards seismic risk reduction to enable various stakeholders to enhance seismic safety in Nepal. Additionally, this chapter aims to pinpoint the deficiencies in disaster management system in Nepal with reference to the devastating Gorkha earthquake and suggest appropriate policy and advanced technical measures for improvement.",book:{id:"7660",slug:"earthquakes-impact-community-vulnerability-and-resilience",title:"Earthquakes",fullTitle:"Earthquakes - Impact, Community Vulnerability and Resilience"},signatures:"Shiva Subedi and Meen Bahadur Poudyal Chhetri",authors:[{id:"285969",title:"Mr.",name:"Shiva",middleName:null,surname:"Subedi",slug:"shiva-subedi",fullName:"Shiva Subedi"},{id:"293220",title:"Dr.",name:"Meen",middleName:null,surname:"Paudyal Chhetri",slug:"meen-paudyal-chhetri",fullName:"Meen Paudyal Chhetri"}]},{id:"60778",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76014",title:"The Earthquake Disaster Risk in Japan and Iran and the Necessity of Dynamic Learning from Large Earthquake Disasters over Time",slug:"the-earthquake-disaster-risk-in-japan-and-iran-and-the-necessity-of-dynamic-learning-from-large-eart",totalDownloads:1102,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This book chapter targets how learning from large earthquakes disasters occurred and developed in Japan and Iran in the last 100 years. As research case studies, large earthquake disasters in Japan and Iran were investigated and analyzed. Normal distribution was found to be a good estimate of the magnitude distribution for earthquakes, in both the countries. In Japan, there is almost a linear correlation between magnitude of earthquakes and number of dead people. However, such correlation is not present for Iran. This lack of correlation in Iran and existence of linear correlation in Japan highlights that the magnitude of earthquakes directly affects the number of fatalities and extent of destruction in Japan, while in Iran, there is an increased complexity with regard to the factors affecting earthquake consequences. A correlation is suggested between earthquake culture and learning from large earthquake disasters in both Japan and Iran. Learning from large earthquake disasters is impacted by a multitude of factors, but the rhythm of learning in Japan is much higher if compared with Iran. For both Japan and Iran, a reactive learning approach based on past earthquake disasters needs to be constantly backed up by a proactive approach and dynamic learning.",book:{id:"6564",slug:"earthquakes-forecast-prognosis-and-earthquake-resistant-construction",title:"Earthquakes",fullTitle:"Earthquakes - Forecast, Prognosis and Earthquake Resistant Construction"},signatures:"Michaela Ibrion and Nicola Paltrinieri",authors:[{id:"209369",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Michaela",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrion",slug:"michaela-ibrion",fullName:"Michaela Ibrion"},{id:"244752",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Paltrinieri",slug:"nicola-paltrinieri",fullName:"Nicola Paltrinieri"}]},{id:"28219",doi:"10.5772/28044",title:"Recent Landslide Damming Events and Their Hazard Mitigation Strategies",slug:"recent-landslide-damming-events-and-their-hazard-mitigation-strategies",totalDownloads:2232,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2049",slug:"advances-in-geotechnical-earthquake-engineering-soil-liquefaction-and-seismic-safety-of-dams-and-monuments",title:"Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering - Soil Liquefaction and Seismic Safety of Dams and Monuments"},signatures:"Ahsan Sattar and Kazuo Konagai",authors:[{id:"72541",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahsan",middleName:null,surname:"Sattar",slug:"ahsan-sattar",fullName:"Ahsan Sattar"},{id:"121222",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",middleName:null,surname:"Konagai",slug:"kazuo-konagai",fullName:"Kazuo Konagai"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"47538",title:"An Updated Seismic Source Model for Egypt",slug:"an-updated-seismic-source-model-for-egypt",totalDownloads:3414,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"4488",slug:"earthquake-engineering-from-engineering-seismology-to-optimal-seismic-design-of-engineering-structures",title:"Earthquake Engineering",fullTitle:"Earthquake Engineering - From Engineering Seismology to Optimal Seismic Design of Engineering Structures"},signatures:"R. Sawires, J.A. Peláez, R.E. Fat-Helbary, H.A. Ibrahim and M.T. García\nHernández",authors:[{id:"77194",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:"A.",surname:"Peláez",slug:"jose-pelaez",fullName:"José Peláez"},{id:"171273",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashad",middleName:null,surname:"Sawires",slug:"rashad-sawires",fullName:"Rashad Sawires"},{id:"171274",title:"Dr.",name:"María Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"García Hernández",slug:"maria-teresa-garcia-hernandez",fullName:"María Teresa García Hernández"},{id:"171275",title:"Dr.",name:"Raafat El-Shafey",middleName:null,surname:"Fat-Helbary",slug:"raafat-el-shafey-fat-helbary",fullName:"Raafat El-Shafey Fat-Helbary"},{id:"171276",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamza Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hamza-ahmed-ibrahim",fullName:"Hamza Ahmed Ibrahim"}]},{id:"47738",title:"Earthquakes and Dams",slug:"earthquakes-and-dams",totalDownloads:3261,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4488",slug:"earthquake-engineering-from-engineering-seismology-to-optimal-seismic-design-of-engineering-structures",title:"Earthquake Engineering",fullTitle:"Earthquake Engineering - From Engineering Seismology to Optimal Seismic Design of Engineering Structures"},signatures:"Hasan Tosun",authors:[{id:"79083",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}]},{id:"47881",title:"Simplified Multi-Block Constitutive Model Predicting the Seismic Displacement of Saturated Sands along Slip Surfaces with Strain Softening",slug:"simplified-multi-block-constitutive-model-predicting-the-seismic-displacement-of-saturated-sands-alo",totalDownloads:1163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"4488",slug:"earthquake-engineering-from-engineering-seismology-to-optimal-seismic-design-of-engineering-structures",title:"Earthquake Engineering",fullTitle:"Earthquake Engineering - From Engineering Seismology to Optimal Seismic Design of Engineering Structures"},signatures:"Constantine A. Stamatopoulos",authors:[{id:"171228",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantine",middleName:null,surname:"Stamatopoulos",slug:"constantine-stamatopoulos",fullName:"Constantine Stamatopoulos"}]},{id:"67102",title:"Impacts of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake: Lessons Learnt from Nepal",slug:"impacts-of-the-2015-gorkha-earthquake-lessons-learnt-from-nepal",totalDownloads:2248,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Nepal is highly vulnerable to a number of disasters for example: earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires, epidemics, avalanches, windstorms, hailstorms, lightning, glacier lake outburst floods, droughts and dangerous weather events. Among these disasters—earthquake is the most- scary and damaging. The effects of a disaster, whether natural or human induced, are often long lasting. The Gorkha earthquake of 25 April 2015 enormously affected human, socio-economic and other multiple sectors and left deep scars mainly in the economy, livelihood and infrastructure of the country. Besides the natural factors, the damages from disasters in Nepal are in increasing trend due to the human activities and inadequate proactive legislations. Fundamentally, the weak structures have been found as the major cause of damage in earthquakes. This underlines the need for strict compliance of building codes. Thus, proactive disaster management legislation focusing on disaster preparedness is necessary. This paper analyses and shows the critical gaps and responsible factors that would contribute towards seismic risk reduction to enable various stakeholders to enhance seismic safety in Nepal. Additionally, this chapter aims to pinpoint the deficiencies in disaster management system in Nepal with reference to the devastating Gorkha earthquake and suggest appropriate policy and advanced technical measures for improvement.",book:{id:"7660",slug:"earthquakes-impact-community-vulnerability-and-resilience",title:"Earthquakes",fullTitle:"Earthquakes - Impact, Community Vulnerability and Resilience"},signatures:"Shiva Subedi and Meen Bahadur Poudyal Chhetri",authors:[{id:"285969",title:"Mr.",name:"Shiva",middleName:null,surname:"Subedi",slug:"shiva-subedi",fullName:"Shiva Subedi"},{id:"293220",title:"Dr.",name:"Meen",middleName:null,surname:"Paudyal Chhetri",slug:"meen-paudyal-chhetri",fullName:"Meen Paudyal Chhetri"}]},{id:"63029",title:"An Estimation of “Energy” Magnitude Associated with a Possible Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Electromagnetic Coupling Before the Wenchuan MS8.0 Earthquake",slug:"an-estimation-of-energy-magnitude-associated-with-a-possible-lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere-elect",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"A large scale of abnormities from ground-based electromagnetic parameters to ionospheric parameters has been recorded during the Wenchuan MS8.0 earthquake. All these results present different anomalous periods, but there seems one common climax leading to a lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere electromagnetic coupling (LAIEC) right on May 9, 3 days prior to the Wenchuan main shock. Based on the electron-hole theory, this chapter attempts to estimate the “energy source” magnitude driving this obvious coupling with the Wenchuan focus zone parameters considered. The simulation results show that the total surface charges fall in ~107–108 C, and the related upward electric field is ~108–109 V/m. These corresponding parameters are up to 109 C and 1010 V/m when the main rupture happens, and the order of the output current is up to 107 A. The electric field increasing in the interface between the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere, on one hand, can cause electromagnetic parameter abnormities of ground-based observation, with the range beyond 1000 km. On the other hand, it can accumulate air ionization above pre-earthquake zone and lead to ionospheric anomaly recorded by some spatial seismic monitoring satellites.",book:{id:"6564",slug:"earthquakes-forecast-prognosis-and-earthquake-resistant-construction",title:"Earthquakes",fullTitle:"Earthquakes - Forecast, Prognosis and Earthquake Resistant Construction"},signatures:"Mei Li, Wenxin Kong, Chong Yue, Shu Song, Chen Yu, Tao Xie and\nXian Lu",authors:[{id:"236284",title:"Dr.",name:"Mei",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"mei-li",fullName:"Mei Li"},{id:"243785",title:"MSc.",name:"Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"chen-yu",fullName:"Chen Yu"},{id:"243786",title:"MSc.",name:"Chong",middleName:null,surname:"Yue",slug:"chong-yue",fullName:"Chong Yue"},{id:"243788",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"tao-xie",fullName:"Tao Xie"},{id:"243789",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenxin",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",slug:"wenxin-kong",fullName:"Wenxin Kong"},{id:"243790",title:"BSc.",name:"Shu",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"shu-song",fullName:"Shu Song"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"778",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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