Some perovskites and corresponding properties [1].
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8732",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sino-Nasal and Olfactory System Disorders",title:"Sino-Nasal and Olfactory System Disorders",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Our sense of smell is of critical importance in our daily lives and it contributes to our personal wellbeing and safety as well as communication with others. However, it is only when disease or injury impairs its function that we appreciate the relevance of this sensory modality. During the past three decades, research of the olfactory sense has seen an ever-growing interest in this exciting field of study. This book provides the reader with an overview of the latest developments in sino-nasal and olfactory system disorders and focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this area. This book addresses disorders, dysfunctions, diseases, and syndromes of the olfactory system ranging from molecular, cellular, and systems to cognitive and behavioral topics. Individual chapters center around recent advances in specific areas of chemosensory pathological conditions, while other chapters focus on technological developments to study the function and dysfunction of the olfactory pathways.",isbn:"978-1-83880-951-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-950-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-952-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80149",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sino-nasal-and-olfactory-system-disorders",numberOfPages:212,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2170e4de59f7b95f9fad8d3dc343aae0",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Balwant Singh Gendeh",publishedDate:"October 21st 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8732.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8184,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 6th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/70569/images/system/70569.jfif",biography:"Thomas Heinbockel, Ph.D., is Professor and Interim Chair, Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC. He holds an adjunct faculty position in both the Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology and the Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD. Dr. Heinbockel studied biology at Philipps-University Marburg, Germany. He began his studies of the brain during his MS thesis work at the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology, Starnberg/Seewiesen, Germany. Dr. Heinbockel earned a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Arizona. After graduating, he worked as a research associate at the Institute of Physiology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany. Dr. Heinbockelʿs research is focused on understanding how the brain processes information as it relates to neurological and psychiatric disorders. His laboratory at Howard University concentrates on foundational and translational topics such as drug development, organization of the olfactory and limbic systems, and neural signaling and synaptic transmission in the central nervous system.",institutionString:"Howard University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Howard University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67669/images/system/67669.png",biography:"Dr Balwant Singh Gendeh is a senior consultant ENT surgeon with sub-specialty interest in rhinology (allergy, Sino nasal diseases, endoscopic sinus, anterior and ventral skull base surgery and functional and cosmetic nasal surgery). He was an ENT registrar at the Royal Infirmary, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom in 1993 and subsequently a JW Fulbright scholar at the University of Pittsburgh, USA in 1997. During his Fulbright experience, he also worked at the Hospital of University of Pennsylvania (HUP), Philadelphia and St Joseph’s Hospital, Chicago, USA with sub-specialty interest in rhinology and aesthetic nasal surgery. Dr BS Gendeh retired after 38 years government service as a consultant ENT surgeon at the National University of Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC) in 2014, and presently is a Visiting Professor at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery at UKMMC and is a resident ENT consultant at Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur since 2014. Is an executive member of numerous National and International bodies including Board Chairman of Malaysian American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE) from 2013-2015. Due to his vast contribution to the academia in research and clinical publication, he was elected as a Diploma of Fellowship Academy of Medicine Malaysia (FAMM) in October 2000, International Fellow of the Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery in April 2004, Fellow of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (FASc) in April 2016 and as Fellow of Malaysian Scientific Association (FMSA) in September 2017. He has written 96 scientific papers with more than 550 citations and editor/co-editor of 8 books and 37 book chapters an H index of 15.",institutionString:"Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1098",title:"Otolaryngology",slug:"otorhinolaryngology-otolaryngology"}],chapters:[{id:"73247",title:"Introductory Chapter: Dysfunction of the Olfactory System and Nasal Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93596",slug:"introductory-chapter-dysfunction-of-the-olfactory-system-and-nasal-disorders",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Thomas Heinbockel and Balwant S. Gendeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73247",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73247",authors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"},{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"70716",title:"Imaging in Sinonasal Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90773",slug:"imaging-in-sinonasal-disorders",totalDownloads:894,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Computed tomography (CT) is the “working horse” in sinonasal imaging and should always be the first choice. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is complementary to CT when complications to rhinosinusitis or neoplasm are suspected. Imaging of the paranasal sinuses is common due to stuffy nose. In order to correct interpretation, proper imaging technique as well as knowledge of bony anatomy and variants and mucosal incidental findings are of outmost importance. Acute rhinosinusitis is very common and does not need imaging unless complications are suspected. In chronic rhinosinusitis, a CT examination is needed to find the cause and site of the mucociliary obstruction and to rule out other causes as odontogenic and fungal sinusitis and neoplasms.",signatures:"Heidi Beate Eggesbø",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70716",authors:[{id:"65505",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidi Beate",surname:"Eggesbø",slug:"heidi-beate-eggesbo",fullName:"Heidi Beate Eggesbø"}],corrections:null},{id:"70261",title:"Sinusitis, Asthma and Headache",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90210",slug:"sinusitis-asthma-and-headache",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sinusitis is the infection of sinuses. Sinuses are four hollow cavities in face which are connected to nasal pathways to help moisten, warm and filter the air which we breathe in. Sinuses get irritated due to bacteria, virus and allergens. It is often associated with asthma and headache. Pressure in the sinuses is built by over production of mucous and leads to sinus headache. Asthma gets severe with the sinusitis as both are related to sino-nasal pathway. Treatment includes steroids, nasal decongestants, antibiotics and to avoid allergens which not only reduce the symptoms of asthma but also sinusitis. Acute sinusitis may turn into chronic sinusitis including narrowing of nasal passages, deviated septum and lumps in the nose (polyp). It can be treated with surgical procedures. The only way to prevent sinusitis is by precaution and medication. Post nasal drip may also associate with asthma causing bronchial constriction.",signatures:"Fozia Masood",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70261",authors:[{id:"302764",title:"Dr.",name:"Fozia",surname:"Masood",slug:"fozia-masood",fullName:"Fozia Masood"}],corrections:null},{id:"71245",title:"Septoplasty: Endoscopic and Open Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91435",slug:"septoplasty-endoscopic-and-open-techniques",totalDownloads:1007,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Septoplasty is one of the most commonly performed procedures by rhinologists. This article will provide a brief review of the surgical anatomy and the operative techniques of this procedure. Both endoscopic and open septoplasty procedures will be addressed. However, more than 15% of patients undergoing septoplasty fail to achieve symptomatic relief. Incomplete separation of the bony-cartilaginous junction and inadequate correction of the caudal septal deviation are the main reasons for persistent septal deviation after primary septoplasty. In revised septoplasty, correction of the caudal septal deviation can be done by proper correction of the cartilaginous curvature and strengthening of the structure using a batten graft.",signatures:"Yi-Tsen Lin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71245",authors:[{id:"311313",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Tsen",surname:"Lin",slug:"yi-tsen-lin",fullName:"Yi-Tsen Lin"}],corrections:null},{id:"70344",title:"REAHs and REAH-Like Lesions: Underdiagnosed lesions Often Misconfused with Nasal Polyps",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90327",slug:"reahs-and-reah-like-lesions-underdiagnosed-lesions-often-misconfused-with-nasal-polyps",totalDownloads:897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"REAH is the eponym for respiratory epithelial adenomatoid hamartoma. The disease is under diagnosed. It is clearly a disease in the olfactory cleft. It is characterized by a polypoid process located in the olfactory cleft which does not evolve in inverted papilloma or malignancy set at 10–15 cm. The lesion can be isolated in one or both olfactory cleft. It can be asymptomatic or can cause nasal obstruction and impairment of smell. More commonly the lesions, often multiple, are associated to the recurrence of the nasal polyposis. They can contribute to the development of loss of smell, nasal obstruction or even the blockage of the frontal recesses. The definitive diagnostic is based upon the histologic examination. Surgery is the treatment. In case of isolated lesion, complete excision without complete ethmoidectomy is the option. In case of lesions embedded in a recurrent massive polyposis, a complete exenteration of the olfactory clefts associated to a revision of full house ethmoidectomy and even a Draf III must be considered.",signatures:"Ph. Eloy, C. Fervaille and M.C. Nollevaux",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70344",authors:[{id:"308649",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",surname:"Eloy",slug:"philippe-eloy",fullName:"Philippe Eloy"}],corrections:null},{id:"70727",title:"Neuro-Olfactory Regulation and Salivary Actions: A Coordinated Event for Successful Blood-Feeding Behavior of Mosquitoes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90768",slug:"neuro-olfactory-regulation-and-salivary-actions-a-coordinated-event-for-successful-blood-feeding-beh",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The synergistic actions of the nongenetic and genetic factors are crucial to shape mosquitoes’ feeding behavior. Unlike males, adult female mosquitoes are evolved with unique ability to take blood meals from a vertebrate host for reproductive success which eventually makes them a potential vector. Processing and integration of chemical information in the neuro-olfactory system followed by salivary actions facilitate blood meal uptake process. Thus, deciphering the underlying molecular mechanism of odor sensing through the detection machinery (olfactory system), odor processing and decision-making by decision machinery (brain), and regulation of saliva secretion by the action machinery (salivary gland) is likely to reveal molecular pathways which can be targeted to disrupt mosquitoes’ feeding behavior. Here we summarize how smart actions of highly specialized neurosensory systems guide and manage feeding behavior associated complex events of (i) successful navigation to find a suitable host, (ii) making food choice decisions, and (iii) regulation of the salivary gland actions in mosquitoes.",signatures:"Tanwee Das De and Rajnikant Dixit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70727",authors:[{id:"309585",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanwee",surname:"Das De",slug:"tanwee-das-de",fullName:"Tanwee Das De"}],corrections:null},{id:"73363",title:"Neurological and Neuropsychiatric Disorders in Relation to Olfactory Dysfunction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93888",slug:"neurological-and-neuropsychiatric-disorders-in-relation-to-olfactory-dysfunction",totalDownloads:489,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Olfaction is an underestimated sensory modality in terms of its predictive value as an indicator of disorders. It is a well-known phenomenon that a significant percentage of people afflicted with certain prevalent disorders causing degenerative neuropathology, progressive loss of memory and communication function, normal age-based decline of physiological functions, intellectual challenges, depressive and anxiety disorders as well as post-traumatic stress disorders, present with a range of olfactory deficits. Here, we review our understanding of these deficits and their relation to various clinical manifestations such as neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases and disorders. At the outset, we will briefly describe the olfactory pathway from olfactory sensory neurons in the nasal epithelium to the olfactory bulb and on to olfactory cortical and subcortical structures involved in olfaction such as the amygdala.",signatures:"Naina Bhatia-Dey and Thomas Heinbockel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73363",authors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"},{id:"321965",title:"Dr.",name:"Naina",surname:"Naina Bhatia-Dey",slug:"naina-naina-bhatia-dey",fullName:"Naina Naina Bhatia-Dey"}],corrections:null},{id:"70048",title:"Cross-Modality Dysfunction between the Visual and Olfactory Systems in Parkinson’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90116",slug:"cross-modality-dysfunction-between-the-visual-and-olfactory-systems-in-parkinson-s-disease",totalDownloads:804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cross-modality in function is a fundamental ability in humans and is closely associated with the basic functions. Several studies have demonstrated that vision strongly influences other senses such as hearing, touch, taste, and smell. However, the dysfunction in this cross-modality caused by disease, is poorly understood. In addition to evidence that Parkinson’s disease (PD) impairs various cognitive functions including olfaction, a recent study showed that olfactory function is unaffected by visual information in patients with PD. This finding suggests that the link between vision and olfaction is underactive in PD. This chapter reviews the cross-modal dysfunction and dwells on the possibility of a novel precursor assessment for PD.",signatures:"Motoyasu Honma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70048",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70048",authors:[{id:"307293",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Motoyasu",surname:"Honma",slug:"motoyasu-honma",fullName:"Motoyasu Honma"}],corrections:null},{id:"71191",title:"Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks and Encephaloceles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91374",slug:"cerebrospinal-fluid-leaks-and-encephaloceles",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Encephaloceles and cereberospinal fluid (CSF) leaks of the ventral skull base resulting from trauma (surgical and non-surgical), neoplasm, congenital, and spontaneous are a complex problem typically managed by rhinologists/skull base surgeons. Conservative management is often the first step in managing these complex problems. Endoscopic repair of CSF leaks and encephaloceles has greatly evolved with the evolution of endoscopic visualization and instrumentation. Endoscopic repairs of CSF leaks are effective and offer decreased morbidity compared to open approaches with comparative success rates. Meticulous technique is key to success in repair of skull base defects. Materials used are often less important than quality of repair.",signatures:"Henry P. Barham, Harry E. Zylicz and Christian A. Hall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71191",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71191",authors:[{id:"310763",title:"M.D.",name:"Henry",surname:"Barham",slug:"henry-barham",fullName:"Henry Barham"},{id:"314852",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Hall",slug:"christian-hall",fullName:"Christian Hall"},{id:"314854",title:"Mr.",name:"Harry",surname:"Zylicz",slug:"harry-zylicz",fullName:"Harry Zylicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"71249",title:"Optical Fiber-Based Sleep Apnea Syndrome Sensor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91060",slug:"optical-fiber-based-sleep-apnea-syndrome-sensor",totalDownloads:679,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A noninvasive sleep apnea syndrome (SAS) sensor using optical fibers, the \t“F-SAS sensor,” has been evaluated in a clinical application ranging in age from 13 to 78 years and with BMIs of 19.2–39.3. The respiratory disturbance index (RDI) from the F-SAS sensor corresponded well with the apnea hypopnea index (AHI) from polysomnography (PSG). Concurrent measurement of the RDI and the AHI had a correlation coefficient of 0.71. This means that the F-SAS is well-suited for preliminary SAS screening. They would also be useful for screening potential SAS sufferers during normal sleep at home. Then, we have succeeded in downsizing F-SAS sensor and have recognized that it is highly correlated with PSG and pulse oximetry. Next, we applied the compact F-SAS sensor to examining SAS diagnosis in a child patient (2–12 years) and report on improved pediatric analysis. The analysis results revealed the correlation value to be R = 0.87 was a significant improvement over the correlation value of R = 0.697 between the AHI obtained by a sleep apnea syndrome examination apparatus (SAS 2100) and RDI obtained by the conventional F-SAS sensor.",signatures:"Seiko Mitachi, Ken Satoh, Kumiko Shimoyama, Makoto Satoh and Takeshi Sugiyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71249",authors:[{id:"311538",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Seiko",surname:"Mitachi",slug:"seiko-mitachi",fullName:"Seiko Mitachi"},{id:"311719",title:"Prof.",name:"Ken",surname:"Satoh",slug:"ken-satoh",fullName:"Ken Satoh"},{id:"311721",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kumiko",surname:"Shimoyama",slug:"kumiko-shimoyama",fullName:"Kumiko Shimoyama"},{id:"311722",title:"Prof.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Satoh",slug:"makoto-satoh",fullName:"Makoto Satoh"},{id:"311723",title:"Dr.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Sugiyama",slug:"takeshi-sugiyama",fullName:"Takeshi Sugiyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"69510",title:"2D- and 3D-QSRR Studies of Linear Retention Indices for Volatile Alkylated Phenols",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89576",slug:"2d-and-3d-qsrr-studies-of-linear-retention-indices-for-volatile-alkylated-phenols",totalDownloads:444,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, 29 volatile alkylated phenols were subjected to a quantitative structure retention relationships (QSRR) studies; we have developed two- and three-dimensional quantitative structure retention relationships (2D- and 3D-QSRR) for this series; and these molecules were subjected to a 2D-QSRR analysis for their retention property using stepwise multiple linear regression (MLR) and 3D-QSRR analysis using partial least squares (PLS). The 28 descriptors are calculated for the 29 molecules using the ChemOffice and ChemSketch software to construct 2D-QSRR model. The 3D-QSRR models were constructed using comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) method. The models were used to predict the linear retention indices of the test set compounds, and agreement between the experimental and predicted values was verified. The statistical results indicate that the predicted values are in good agreement with the experimental results (r2 = 0.980; r2CV = 0.977 and r2 = 0.998; r2CV = 0.959 for MLR and CoMFA methods, respectively). To validate the predictive power of the resulting models, external validation multiple correlation coefficient was calculated; in addition to a performance prediction power, this coefficient has a favorable estimation of stability for the two methods (rtest = 0.938 and rtest = 0.955 for MLR and CoMFA methods, respectively).",signatures:"Assia Belhassan, Samir Chtita, Tahar Lakhlifi and Mohammed Bouachrine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69510",authors:[{id:"309348",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Assia",surname:"Belhassan",slug:"assia-belhassan",fullName:"Assia Belhassan"},{id:"309349",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",surname:"Chtita",slug:"samir-chtita",fullName:"Samir Chtita"},{id:"309350",title:"Prof.",name:"Tahar",surname:"Lakhlifi",slug:"tahar-lakhlifi",fullName:"Tahar Lakhlifi"},{id:"309351",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Bouachrine",slug:"mohammed-bouachrine",fullName:"Mohammed Bouachrine"}],corrections:null},{id:"68836",title:"Smelling “Zuko”: Incense Rubbing into the Hands and Smelling the Hands Activates Specific Brain Regions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88987",slug:"smelling-zuko-incense-rubbing-into-the-hands-and-smelling-the-hands-activates-specific-brain-regions",totalDownloads:630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this study is to clarify the effects of the smelling “Zuko”, incense rubbing into hands and putting the hands for the human brain. From our previous studies on the smelling an incense odor with putting the hands together, the activities of “Zuko” incense are also considered to be promoted as the imitation of habitual behaviors by mirror neurons and the default mode network in our brain. In this experiment, the brain activation was measured in 10 healthy adult volunteers who did or did not have a habit of putting their hands together and magneto-encephalography (MEG) data were recorded while the participants smelled “Zuko” incense and putting their hands together. The peak response of MEG P300m for the “auditory odd-ball paradigm” was also measured for a rare auditory pulse stimulation and was more enforced by the smelling “Zuko” incense. We used alpha-amylase value as an index of the stress state measured in the state before and after smelling “Zuko” and MEG experiments. 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The mineral CaTiO3 was discovered by Geologist Gustav Rose in the Ural Mountains in 1839, and it was named perovskite in recognition beholden to Count Lev Alexevich von Perovski, an eminent Russian mineralogist [1–5]. The name perovskite represented any compound that has ABC3 formula where an octahedron of C ions surrounded the B ion. The Earth’s crust contains various types of perovskites and the most abundant ones are MgSiO3 and FeSiO3. Perovskite family includes several types of oxides like transition metal oxides with the formula ABO3. Some examples of ABO3 perovskites and their corresponding properties are summarized in Table 1 [1, 2, 5].
Perovskite oxides exhibit an array of electrical properties and a variety of solid-state phenomena from insulating, semiconducting, metallic, and superconducting characters; therefore, they are very fascinating to be studied and applied in a large scale. Many of ABO3 perovskites are cubic or nearly cubic in structure in their ideal form; however, one or more phase transitions may be achieved particularly at low temperature. In addition, many of them showed magnetic ordering and as a result, large variety of magnetic structures can be found. Some perovskites contained localized electrons, some contained delocalized energy-band states, and the behavior of other perovskites was a transition between these two types. The perovskite structures can incorporate ions of various size and charge showing great flexibility of composition. Moreover, substitutions of ions into the A- and/or B-sites or deviation from ideal stoichiometry resulted in altering the electronic properties of the perovskites. Perovskites exhibit atomic arrangement in the form of 3-dimensional array of corner sharing octahedra. On the other hand, layered perovskites included 2-dimensional layers of corner sharing octahedral separated by cations layers. As a result, the electronic energy bands of perovskites and layered perovskites are very unusual and their structure is unique in properties [1, 2]. Perovskites displayed diversity of electric, optical, and magnetic properties because of the fact that 90% of the elements in the periodic table can be stable in the perovskite structure and the feasibility of partial substitutions of cations in A- and B-sites forming A1-
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | SrTiO3 (n-type) | \n\t\t
WO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tReO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPbCrO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNaxWO3 (t) | \n\t\t
NaTaO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNaWO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLaCrO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tKxWO3 (t) | \n\t\t
SrTiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tKMoO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCaMnO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tKxWO3 (h) | \n\t\t
BaTiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSrNbO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLaMnO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tRbxWO3 (h) | \n\t\t
KTaO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLaTiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLaCoO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCsxWO3 (h) | \n\t\t
LiNbO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLaWO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLixWO3 (h) | \n\t\t
In the ABO3 form, B is a transition metal ion with small radius, larger A ion is an alkali earth metals or lanthanides with larger radius, and O is the oxygen ion with the ratio of 1:1:3. In the cubic unit cell of ABO3 perovskite, atom A is located at the body center, atom B is located at the cube corner position, and oxygen atoms are located at face-centered positions (Figure 1). The 6-fold coordination of B cation (octahedron) and the 12-fold coordination of the A cation resulted in the stabilization of the perovskite structure. The perfect perovskite structure was described by Hines et al. as corner linked BO6 octahedra with interstitial A cations [1–10]. Some distortions may exist in the ideal cubic form of perovskite resulted in orthorhombic, rhombohedral, hexagonal, and tetragonal forms (Figure 1) [3–7]. Figure 2 represented the distortion from cubic perovskite to orthorhombic one. In general, all perovskite distortions maintaining the A- and the B-site oxygen coordination was achieved by the tilting of the BO6 octahedra and an associated displacement of the A cation [4].
V.M. Goldschmidt presented much of the early work on the synthetic perovskites and developed the principle of the tolerance factor
where
Generally, two requirements should be fulfilled for perovskite formation:
Electroneutrality; the perovskite formula must have neutral balanced charge therefore the product of the addition of the charges of A and B ions should be equivalent to the whole charge of the oxygen ions. An appropriate charge distribution should be attained in the forms of A1+B5+O3, A4+B2+O3 or A3+B3+O3.
Ionic radii requirements;
Different perovskite unit cells. Blue spheres represent the A cations, yellow spheres represent the B cations and red spheres represent oxygen anions forming an octahedra [
Perovskite distortion from (a) cubic to (b) orthorhombic [
Perovskite exhibited a variety of fascinating properties like ferroelectricity as in case of BaTiO3 and superconductivity as in case of Ba2YCu3O7. They exhibited good electrical conductivity close to metals, ionic conductivity and mixed ionic and electronic conductivity. In addition, several perovskites exhibited high catalytic activity toward various reactions. Table 2 contains a summary of typical properties of perovskites. Several typical properties will be discussed in this section like ferroelectricity, magnetism, superconductivity, and catalytic activity [9].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ferromagnetic property | \n\t\t\tBaTiO3, PdTiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Piezoelectricity | \n\t\t\tPb(Zr, Ti)O3, (Bi, Na)TiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Electrical conductivity | \n\t\t\tReO3, SrFeO3, LaCoO3, LaNiO3, LaCrO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Superconductivity | \n\t\t\tLa0.9Sr0.1CuO3, YBa2Cu3O7, HgBa2Ca2Cu2O8\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ion conductivity | \n\t\t\tLa(Ca)AlO3, CaTiO3, La(Sr)Ga(Mg)O3, BaZrO3, SrZrO3, BaCeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Magnetic property | \n\t\t\tLaMnO3, LaFeO3, La2NiMnO6\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Catalytic property | \n\t\t\tLaCoO3, LaMnO3, BaCuO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Electrode | \n\t\t\tLa0.6Sr0.4CoO3, La0.8Ca0.2MnO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Typical properties of perovskite oxides [9].
There are some properties inherent to dielectric materials like ferroelectricity, piezoelectricity, electrostriction, and pyroelectricity. One of the important characteristic of perovskites is ferroelectric behavior, which is obvious in BaTiO3, PdZrO3, and their doped compounds. The ferroelectric behavior of BaTiO3 was strongly related to its crystal structure. BaTiO3 was subjected to three phase transitions; as the temperature increases, it was converted from monoclinic to tetragonal then to cubic. At temperature higher than 303 K, BaTiO3 does not show any ferroelectric behavior as it crystallizes into cubic structure. BaTiO3 showed high dielectric constant based on the anisotropy of its crystal structure resulting in large dipole moment generation in BaTiO3 [9].
One of the obvious properties of perovskites is superconductivity. Cu-based perovskites act as high-temperature superconductors, and La-Ba-Cu-O perovskite was first reported. The presence of Cu in B-site is essential for the superconductivity and various superconducting oxides can be manufactured with different A-site ions. Some examples of high temperature superconductors are YBa2Cu3O7, Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10, and HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+
Perovskites showed excellent catalytic activity and high chemical stability; therefore, they were studied in a wide range in the catalysis of different reactions. Perovskites can be described as a model of active sites and as an oxidation or oxygen-activated catalyst. The stability of the perovskite structure allowed the compounds preparation from elements with unusual valence states or a high extent of oxygen deficiency. Perovskites exhibited high catalytic activity, which is partially associated with the high surface activity to oxygen reduction ratio or oxygen activation that resulted from the large number of oxygen vacancies. Perovskites can act as automobile exhaust gas catalyst, intelligent automobile catalyst and cleaning catalyst, etc., for various catalytic environmental reactions. It was reported in the literature that perovskites containing Cu, Co, Mn, or Fe showed excellent catalytic activity toward the direct decomposition of NO at high temperature, which is considered one of the difficult reactions in the catalysis (2NO
Perovskite showed a great impact as an automobile catalyst; intelligent catalyst. Pd-Rh-Pt catalysts was utilized as an effective catalyst for the removal of NO, CO and uncombusted hydrocarbons. There is another catalyst that consists of fine particles, with high surface-to-volume ratio, and can be utilized to reduce the amount of precious metals used. However, these fine particles exhibited very bad stability under the operation conditions leading to catalyst deactivation. Therefore, perovskite oxides can be used showing redox properties to preserve a great dispersion state. Upon oxidation, Pd is oxidized in the form of LaFe0.57Co0.38Pd0.05O3 and upon reduction; fine metallic particles of Pd were produced with radius of 1–3 nm. This cycle resulted in partial replacement of Pd into and sedimentation from the framework of the perovskite under oxidizing and reducing conditions, respectively, displaying a great dispersion state of Pd. Also, this cycle improved the excellent long-term stability of Pd during the pollutants removal from the exhaust gas. Exposing the catalyst to oxidizing and reducing atmosphere resulted in the recovery of the high dispersion state of Pd. This catalyst is known as intelligent catalyst because of the great dispersion state of Pd and the excellent stability of the perovskite structure [9].
In solid-state reactions, the raw materials and the final products are in the solid-state therefore nitrates, carbonates, oxides, and others can be mixed with the stoichiometric ratios. Perovskites can be synthesized via solid-state reactions by mixing carbonates or oxides of the A- and B-site metal ions corresponding to the perovskite formula ABO3 in the required proportion to obtain the final product with the desired composition. They are ball milling effectively in an appropriate milling media of acetone or isopropanol [11, 12]. Then the obtained product is dried at 100 °C and calcined in air at 600 °C for 4–8 h under heating/cooling rates of 2 °C/min. After that, the calcined samples are ground well and sieved. Then it was calcined again at 1300–1600 °C for 5–15 h under the heating/cooling rate of 2 °C/min to confirm the formation of single phase of perovskite. Again grinding and sieving was carried out for the calcined samples [11, 13, 14]. The synthesis of BaCeO3-based proton conductor perovskites [13] and BaCe0.95Yb0.05O3−
Gas phase reaction or transport can be used for the deposition of perovskite films with a specific thickness and composition. Laser ablation [15], molecular beam epitaxy [16], dc sputtering [17], magnetron sputtering [18], electron beam evaporation [19], and thermal evaporation [20] techniques were developed for gas phase deposition. Gas phase deposition can be categorized into three types: (i) deposition at a low substrate temperature then postannealing at high temperature, (ii) deposition at an intermediate temperature of 873 to 1,073 K then postannealing treatment, and (iii) deposition at the crystallization temperature under suitable atmosphere. YBa2Cu3O7 films can be synthesized by the coevaporation of Y, Cu, and BaF2 then annealing at high temperatures in O2 atmosphere wet with water vapor to reduce the annealing time and substrate interaction [20].
These methods included the sol-gel preparation, coprecipitation of metal ions using precipitating agents like cyanide, oxalate, carbonate, citrate, hydroxide ions, etc., and thermal treatment [21], which resulted in a single-phase material with large surface area and high homogeneity. These methods presented good advantages such as lower temperature compared to the solid-state reactions, better homogeneity, greater flexibility in forming thin films, improved reactivity and new compositions and better control of stoichiometry, particle size, and purity. Therefore, they opened new directions for molecular architecture in the synthesis of perovskites. Solution methods were classified based on the means used for solvent removal. Two classes were identified: (i) precipitation followed by filtration, centrifugation, etc., for the separation of the solid and liquid phases and (ii) thermal treatment such as evaporation, sublimation, combustion, etc., for solvent removal. There are several factors must be taken in consideration in solution methods like solubility, solvent compatibility, cost, purity, toxicity, and choice of presumably inert anions [10].
This method is built on the assimilation of oxalic acid with carbonates, hydroxides, or oxides producing metal oxalates, water, and carbon dioxide as products [22]. The solubility problem is minimized as the pH of the resulting solution is close to 7. An oxidizing atmosphere like oxygen was used during calcination to avoid the formation of carbide and carbon residues [23]. Clabaugh et al. utilized an aqueous chloride solution with oxalic acid to obtain unique and novel complex compound of BaTiO(C2O4)2 4H2O as a precursor for the preparation of finely divided and stoichiometric BaTiO3 [24].
This method is often used due to its low solubility and the possible variety of precipitation schemes. The sol-gel process can be used to produce a wide range of new materials and improve their properties. It presented some advantages over the other traditional methods like chemical homogeneity, low calcination temperature, room temperature deposition, and controlled hydrolysis for thin film formation. BaZrO3 powders in its pure crystalline form can be prepared by the precipitation in aqueous solution of high basicity [25]. LaCoO3 was prepared by the simultaneous oxidation and coprecipitation of a mixture containing equimolar amounts of La(III) and Co(II) nitrates producing a gel containing hydroxide then calcination at 600 °C [26].
Different perovskites were prepared by mixing acetate ions alone or together with nitrate ions with the metal ions salts. La1-
Citrate precursors can be used and undergo several decomposition steps in the synthesis of perovskite [29]. These steps included the decomposition of citrate complexes and removal of CO32– and NO3¯ ions. LaCo0.4Fe0.6O3 can be prepared by this method, and the mechanism was investigated by thermogravimetry, XRD, and IR spectroscopy.
Rare earth orthoferrites (REFeO3) and cobalt compounds (RECoO3) were prepared using cyanides complexes via thermal decomposition of the rare earth ferricyanide and cobalticyanide compounds [30]. LaFe(CN)6 6H2O, LaCo(CN)6 5H2O, and even ferrocyanides such as NH4LaFe(CN)6 5H2O are precipitated from the aqueous solution. This method presented some advantages like control of stoichiometry and low calcination temperature. The same method was used for the preparation of europium and other rare earth hexacyanoferrate compounds [31].
The freeze-drying method can be achieved through the following steps: (i) dissolution of the starting salts in the suitable solvent, water in most cases; (ii) freezing the solution very fast to keep its chemical homogeneity; (iii) freeze-drying the frozen solution to get the dehydrated salts without passing through the liquid phase; and (iv) decomposition of the dehydrated salts to give the desired perovskite powder. The rate of heat loss from the solution is the most important characteristic for the freezing step. This rate should be as high as possible to decrease the segregation of ice-salt. Also, in case of multicomponent solutions, the heat loss rate should be high to prevent the large-scale segregation of the cation components [10, 12, 21].
This method was applicable to various precursors, including gaseous, liquid, and solid materials. It was applied for the preparation of various ceramic, electronic, and catalytic materials. It presented many advantages in terms of economy, purity, particle size distribution, and reactivity. This method was achieved through two steps: (i) injection of the reactants and (ii) generation and interaction of the molten droplets (with substrate or with the previously generated droplets). The thick film of YBa2Cu3O
A redox reaction, which is thermally induced, occurs between the oxidant and fuel. A homogenous, highly reactive, and nanosized powder was prepared by this method. When compared with the other traditional methods, a single-phase perovskite powder can be obtained at lower calcination temperatures or shorter reaction times. One of the most popular solution combustion methods is citrate/nitrate combustion, where citric acid is the fuel and metal nitrates are used as the source of metal and oxidant. It is similar to the Pechini process “sol-gel combustion method” to a large extent, but in citrate/nitrate combustion, ethylene glycol or other polyhydroxy alcohols are not used. In addition, in citrate/nitrate combustion, the nitrates are not eliminated in the form of NO
The microwave irradiation process (MIP), evolving from microwave sintering, was applied widely in food drying, inorganic/organic synthesis, plasma chemistry, and microwave-induced catalysis. MIP showed fascinating advantages: (i) fast reaction rate, (ii) regular heating, and (iii) efficient and clean energy. The microwave preparations were achieved in domestic microwave oven at frequency of 2.45 GHz with 1 kW as the maximum output power. Dielectric materials absorbed microwave energy converted directly into heat energy through the polarization and dielectric loss in the interior of materials [43]. The energy efficiency reached 80–90% which is much higher than the conventional routes. MIP was recently utilized to prepare perovskites nanomaterials reducing both the high temperature of calcination (higher than 700 °C) and long time (greater than 3 h) required for pretreatment or sintering [10]. GaAlO3 and LaCrO3 perovskites with ferroelectric, superconductive, high-temperature ionic conductive and magnetic ordering properties, faster lattice diffusion, and grain size with smaller size were prepared in MIP [44–47]. CaTiO3 powders prepared in MIP presented a fast structural ordering than powders dealt in ordinary furnace [48]. Hydrothermal conventional and dielectric heating were utilized to prepare La–Ce–Mn–O catalysts. Hydrothermal MIP leads to formation of La1−
The different properties of perovskites and their catalytic activity are highly affected by the method of synthesis, conditions of calcination (time, atmosphere, fuel, temperature, etc.), and A- and/or B-site substitutions. The catalytic activity of the perovskite is highly affected by partial or total substitutions on A- and/or B-site cations because of the oxidation state modification, the variation of the chemical state of the elements at A- and/or B-site, the generation of oxygen vacancies, the mobility of oxygen lattice, and the formation of structural defects [58–60]. The powerful bond between the B-site metal ions and the oxygen ions can be used to determine the basic characters of perovskites, and as a result, the B-site cation is responsible for the perovskite catalytic activity [61, 62]. Therefore, partial substitution of B-site cation with other metals M in AB1-
Upon doping A- and/or B-sites in ABO3 perovskite oxides, the catalytic activity, ionic and electronic conductivity, and flexible physical and chemical properties can be altered for utilization in various applications [63–66]. Different cations with different sizes and charges can be hosted in the A- and B-sites of these perovskites; thus, many studies can be performed to utilize doped perovskites in various applications. Multiple cationic substitutions can be accepted in the stable perovskite lattice provided that Goldschmidt tolerance factor ranged between 0.75 and 1 and electroneutrality are preserved [59, 67, 68]. Therefore, variable amounts of different structural and electronic lattice defects can be accommodated in the perovskite structure as a result of their nonstoichiometry. This will further affect the activity of the perovskite and stabilize the unusual valence states of different metal ions [61, 67]. Some physical characteristics of perovskite-type oxides seriously associated with structural characters were affected greatly by the structural deformations from the ideal cubic structure of the perovskite [69].
The type of the metal ion at the B-sites and their partial substitutions can be used to determine the catalytic activity of perovskites. The substitution of B-site metal ion with various metal ions M in the doped perovskite AB1-
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) can be used to differentiate the different phases of the prepared perovskites. Single-crystal XRD is another analysis used to characterize the structure of the perovskite. Thermal stability of the prepared perovskites can be tested using thermal analysis techniques like TGA, DTA, and DSC. On the other hand, scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopies can be utilized to identify the different morphological and surface characteristics of the prepared perovskites. Also, BET can be utilized for surface area measurement. In addition, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can be used to completely identify the formed phases [10, 86–88].
XRD can be used for the phase identification and the relative percents of different phases of the prepared materials. Also, some structural parameters like particle size, lattice parameters (a, b, and c), lattice volume, and theoretical density can be calculated from the XRD data. Also, XRD can be used to optimize the preparation conditions of the different perovskites [3, 87–89]. Galal et al. prepared SrPdO3 by citrate/nitrate combustion method at different pH values; 2, 7, and 10 at calcination temperature 750 °C for 3 h and the XRD patterns of these samples were shown in Figure 3A. The XRD data were compared with the ICCD card of SrPdO3 (card number 00-025-0908). For pH 2, the experimental data and the theoretical one are well matched and supported the formation of the primary orthorhombic perovskite phase of SrPdO3 (the major diffraction peak 110) and the appearance of secondary phase SrPd3O4 (210). Only SrPd3O4 phase appeared in case of samples prepared at pH 7 and 10 as (110) peak disappeared. Therefore, pH 2 was the optimal pH for SrPdO3 preparation. Also, the type of fuel (citric acid, urea, and glycine) used in the preparation of SrPdO3 can be optimized using XRD (Figure 3B). SrPdO3 was the primary phase in all cases but with different percents of SrPdO3 (110) with respect to SrPd3O4 (210). The high percent was in case of urea and the small one in case of citric acid. Some structural parameters were calculated and summarized in Table 3 with good matching with theoretical data.
XRD patterns of SrPdO3 prepared by combustion method at different pH values (A) and different fuels (B). Miller indices (h, l,k) are written in black line for SrPdO3, red line for SrPd3O4 and the symbol (*) for SrCl2. 6H2O [
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Standard SrPdO3\n\t\t\t\t (ICCD card; 00-025-0908) | \n\t\t\tOrthorhombic | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | a = 3.977 b = 3.530 c = 12.82 | \n\t\t\t179.98 | \n\t\t\t4.47 | \n\t\t
citrate-nitrate method | \n\t\t\tOrthorhombic | \n\t\t\t34.0 | \n\t\t\ta = 3.983 b = 3.541 c = 12.80 | \n\t\t\t180.59 | \n\t\t\t4.45 | \n\t\t
urea-nitrate method | \n\t\t\tOrthorhombic | \n\t\t\t45.4 | \n\t\t\ta = 3.954 b = 3.563 c = 12.82 | \n\t\t\t180.63 | \n\t\t\t4.45 | \n\t\t
glycine-nitrate method | \n\t\t\tOrthorhombic | \n\t\t\t25.7 | \n\t\t\ta = 3.972 b = 3.527 c = 12.83 | \n\t\t\t179.69 | \n\t\t\t4.47 | \n\t\t
Structural parameters calculated from XRD data [89].
SEM and TEM can be used to study the morphology and surface characteristics of the perovskite nanomaterials. The preparation conditions, synthesis method, type of A- and B-site metal ions, and doping A- and/or B-sites affected greatly the SEM of the prepared perovskites [88–94]. Galal et al. prepared LaNiO3, LaCoO3, LaFeO3, and LaMnO3 by the microwave-assisted citrate method at 720 W as operating power for 30 min under microwave irradiation. The SEM images for the different perovskites were shown in Figure 4 presenting different morphologies depending on the kind of metal ion at B-site, respectively. LaNiO3 showed compact surface with high degree of ordering while LaCoO3 and LaMnO3 showed spherical grains agglomerations with smaller grain size in case of LaMnO3. LaFeO3 showed dissimilar morphology with a porous surface containing particles with bonelike shape. In addition, LaFeO3 presented greater electrocatalytic activity toward hydrogen evolution reaction compared to other types of perovskites [90].
Furthermore, the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) can be used to show the different morphologies and particle characteristics of the different perovskites [86, 88, 95]. HRTEM images for LaNiO3, LaCoO3, LaFeO3, and LaMnO3 by the microwave-assisted citrate method were shown in Figure 5, respectively. The HRTEM images clearly showed orthorhombic phase with high crystallinity in case of LaFeO3, while HRTEM images of LaNiO3, LaCoO3, and LaMnO3 showed hexagonal distorted rhombohedral phases. The diffraction patterns obtained via HRTEM for the different perovskites were comparable with the XRD data [86, 95].
SEM micrographs of (A) LaNiO3, (B) LaCoO3, (C) LaFeO3 and (D) LaMnO3 prepared by the microwave-assisted citrate method at 720 W for 30 min, with a magnification of 35,000 times [
HRTEM micrographs of (A) LaNiO3, (B) LaCoO3, (C) LaFeO3 and (D) LaMnO3 prepared by the microwave-assisted citrate method at 720Wfor 30 min [
The electrochemical performance and electrocatalytic activity of the perovskites are greatly associated with the specific surface area of the materials; therefore, it is necessary to measure the specific surface area of the prepared materials. The surface area values of different perovskites can be measured by Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) nitrogen adsorption. The preparation conditions, synthesis method, type of A- and B-site metals, and presence of different dopants can greatly affect the surface area of the prepared perovskites [86, 87, 95]. Biniwale et al. prepared LaFeO3 via different methods, namely, sol-gel, combustion, and coprecipitation and measured the corresponding surface area and the average pore diameter of the prepared perovskites. The order of decreasing the surface area of the prepared LaFeO3 was sol-gel (16.5 m2 g–1) > combustion (9.3 m2 g–1) > coprecipitation method (5.4 m2 g–1). The order of increasing the average pore diameter of the prepared LaFeO3 was sol-gel (119 °A) < coprecipitation method (140 °A) < combustion (205 °A). Sol-gel and combustion methods resulted in porous surface with internal pores contributing to higher surface area, while coprecipitation method resulted in less internal pores and lower surface area due to longer calcination time [87].
Thermal analysis can be utilized to identify the thermal stability and the decomposition temperature of the prepared perovskites. The optimum calcination temperature of any perovskite can be identified using thermal analysis [88, 96, 97]. Galal et al. prepared SrPdO3 for the first time, and its optimum calcination temperature was investigated using TGA and DTG of the citrate complex of Sr and Pd (Figure 6A). The breakdown of the citrate complex occurs at ~330 °C through a smooth weight loss step. SrPdO3 formation was achieved at ~750 °C through a sharp weight loss step [96].
(A) TG spectrum of Sr and Pd mixed citrate complex, heating rate was 10 °C min−1 [
The chemical bonding and chemical structure of the prepared perovskites can be investigated via FTIR. The FTIR can give structural confirmation similar to that obtained via XRD [87, 97–100]. Biniwale et al. prepared LaFeO3 via different methods: sol-gel, combustion, and coprecipitation, and the FTIR for them was shown in Figure 6B [87]. The FTIR of LaFeO3 showed an absorption band at 558 cm–1 related to the stretching vibration mode of Fe-O. Another band appeared at 430 cm–1 was related to the deformation vibration mode of O-Fe-O. LaFeO3 prepared via coprecipitation method showed a sharp band at 3609 cm–1, which is related to La-O in lanthanum oxide. In case of the other two methods, the band at 3600 cm–1 disappeared indicating the formation of relatively pure perovskite phase. Other bands appeared at 1360 and 1480 cm–1, indicating other phases in case of coprecipitation method. As a result and as mentioned in literature, the absorption peak around 558 cm–1 was related to the stretching modes of metallic oxygen bond [87, 97–100].
The surface compositions of the various components of the prepared perovskites can be identified via XPS [101–106]. Lee et al. prepared La0.9FeO3 and LaFeO3 samples and identify their structural composition via XPS analysis [102]. Figure 7 showed the XPS spectra of La (3d), Fe (2p), and O (1s) in La0.9FeO3 and LaFeO3 samples. The binding energy of La (3d5/2) was 833.5 eV and 833.8 eV in case of LaFeO3 and La0.9FeO3, respectively, corresponding to the La3+ ions in the form of oxide. By contrast, the binding energy of Fe (2p3/2) was 710.2 eV for both samples corresponding to Fe3+ ions in the form of oxide. The Fe (2p) XPS signal cannot distinguish between Fe3+ and Fe4+. The XPS signal of O (1s) was divided into two peaks in case of La0.9FeO3 appearing at 529.9 and 532.1 eV. While for LaFeO3, O (1s) XPS signal was divided into three peaks appearing at 529.4, 531.9, and 534.4 eV. The O (1s) binding energy values at 529.9 and 529.4 eV in both samples are attributed to lattice oxygen species. The peaks at 532.1 and 531.9 eV are ascribed to the chemisorbed oxygen species as OH¯ or O¯. The chemisorbed oxygen species appeared at binding energy higher than that of lattice oxygen species by 2.1–2.5 eV. The peak appeared at 534.4 eV in case of LaFeO3 was ascribed to the adsorbed water species associated with the surface lanthanum oxide which is highly hygroscopic [102].
XPS spectra of La(3d), Fe(2p) and O(1s) in La0.9FeO3 and LaFeO3 samples [
Inorganic perovskite-type oxides exhibited attractive physical and chemical characteristics such as electronic conductivity, electrically active structure, the oxide ions mobility through the crystal lattice, variations on the content of the oxygen, thermal and chemical stability, and supermagnetic, photocatalytic, thermoelectric, and dielectric properties. They are fascinating nanomaterials for wide applications in catalysis, fuel cells, and electrochemical sensing. The catalytic activity of these oxides is higher than that of many transition metals compounds and even some precious metal oxides.
Nanoperovskites are recently utilized in electrochemical sensing of alcohols, gases, amino acids, acetone, glucose, H2O2, and neurotransmitters exhibiting good selectivity, sensitivity, unique long-term stability, excellent reproducibility, and anti-interference ability. Moreover, they have been utilized as catalysts in oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution reactions exhibiting high electrocatalytic activity, lower activation energy, and high electron transfer kinetics. In addition, some perovskites are promising candidates for the development of effective anodic catalysts for direct fuel cells showing high catalytic performance.
There are a number of requirements that the materials utilized as gas sensors must satisfy, namely, good resemblance with the target gases, manufacturability, hydrothermal stability, convenient electronic structure, resistance to poisoning, and adaptation with existing technologies. There is a wide variety of materials that can be used as gas sensors like semiconductors, namely, SnO2, In2O3, and WO3, and perovskite oxides, namely, LaFeO3 and SrTiO3. Perovskite oxides are fascinating materials as gas sensors due to their perfect thermal stability, ideal band gap “3–4 eV,” and difference in size between the cations of A- and B-sites, allowing different dopants addition for controlling semiconducting properties and their catalytic properties. Perovskites including titanates, ferrites, and cobaltates were utilized as gas sensors for detecting CO, NO2, methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbons [107–110]. LaCoO3 prepared via high-energy ball milling exhibited the highest amount of grain boundaries, the best CO gas sensing properties, and the smallest crystallite size of 11 nm compared to that prepared via solid-state and sol-gel reactions. The maximum response ratio increased to 26% in case of milling method with maximum response ratio temperature of 125 °C compared to 7% and 17% in case of solid-state reaction and sol-gel method. In addition, the specific surface area increased greatly from 4 m2 g–1 to 66 m2 g–1 by extra milling step, and the mobility of the oxygen was enhanced by growing the extra milling step and surface area [107]. A summary of various perovskite oxides for different gas sensing was given in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
LaCoO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCO | \n\t\t\t75% for 100 ppm CO in dry air at 125 ◦C | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[107] | \n\t\t
La0.9Ce0.1CoO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCO | \n\t\t\t240 % with respect to 100ppm CO in air | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[108] | \n\t\t
NdFe1–xCoxO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCO | \n\t\t\t1215% at 170 ºC for 0.03% CO gas | \n\t\t\tWhen x<0.3; p-type conduction behavior, when x > 0.3; n-type. | \n\t\t\t[109] | \n\t\t
La0.8Pb0.2Fe0.8Cu0.2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCO | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[111] | \n\t\t
La0.8Pb0.2FeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tmethanol | \n\t\t\t146.6 at 230 ◦C for 400 ppm methanol | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[112] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[113] | \n\t\t
LaMg0.1Fe0.9O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[114] | \n\t\t
SrFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[115] | \n\t\t
SmFe0.9Mg0.1O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[116] | \n\t\t
LaMnO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[117] | \n\t\t
La0.875Ba0.125FeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tsensitivity to 500 ppm ethanol is 58 at 170 °C | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[118] | \n\t\t
CaxLa1-xFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[119] | \n\t\t
LaCo0.1Fe0.9O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[120] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[121] | \n\t\t
La1−xPbxFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tethanol | \n\t\t\t80% for 100 ppm in a wide temperature range of 140–240 ◦C | \n\t\t\tx = 0.30; p-type, x = 0.32–0.50; n-type | \n\t\t\t[122] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3 and SmFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNO2, CO | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[123] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[124] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNOx\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[125] | \n\t\t
SrTi1−xFexO3−δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\thydrocarbons | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[126] | \n\t\t
LnFeO3 (Ln = La, Nd and Sm) | \n\t\t\thydrocarbons | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tp-type | \n\t\t\t[127] | \n\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for gas sensing.
It is very important to analytically determine H2O2 and glucose in many fields like food, clinic, and pharmaceutical analyses. H2O2 is considered one of the most important oxidizing agents in chemical and food industries. Glucose is a fundamental metabolite for most of the living organisms and for the clinical examination of diabetes mellitus, a worldwide health problem. As a result, it is very important to construct biosensors for the sensitive determination of H2O2 and glucose [128–137]. Different types of enzymatic glucose sensors were constructed and used in the literature exhibiting the advantages of simplicity and sensitivity. However, enzymatic glucose sensors suffered from the lack of stability and the difficult procedures required for the effective immobilization of enzyme on the electrode surface. The lack of enzyme stability was attributed to its intrinsic nature because the enzyme activity was highly affected by poisonous chemicals, pH, temperature, humidity, etc. As a result, most attention was given for sensitive, simple, stable, and selective nonenzymatic glucose sensor. Different novel materials were proposed for the electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose like noble nanometals, nanoalloys, metal oxides, and inorganic perovskite oxides. Inorganic perovskite oxides as nanomaterials exhibited fascinating properties for glucose sensing like ferroelectricity, superconductivity, charge ordering, high thermopower, good biocompatibility, catalytic activity, and the ability of the perovskite structure to accommodate different metallic ions [128–137]. Zhen Zhang et al. utilized carbon paste electrode modified with Co0.4Fe0.6LaO3 as a promising nonenzymatic H2O2 and glucose sensor. This sensor displayed perfect electrocatalytic activity toward H2O2 and glucose oxidation in alkaline medium due to the presence of large amount of active sites in the modifier. The linear dynamic range for H2O2 at this surface was 0.01 to 800 μM with low detection limit of 2.0 nM. For glucose, two ranges were obtained from 0.05 to 5 μM and from 5 to 500 μM with detection limit of 10 nM. The proposed sensor exhibited rapid response, excellent long-term stability, and anti-interference ability toward ascorbic acid, uric acid, and dopamine [132]. Furthermore, Atta et al. have recently modified SrPdO3 perovskite with a film of gold nanoparticles to be utilized as a nonenzymatic voltammetric glucose sensor. The studied sensor exhibited high electrocatalytic activity toward glucose oxidation exploring the effective synergism between SrPdO3 and gold nanoparticles. SrPdO3 perovskite facilitated the charge transfer process and acted as an effective supporting substrate for gold nanoparticles. The catalytic activity of SrPdO3 was attributed to the deficiency of the surface for oxygen which resulted in enhanced intrinsic reactivity toward glucose oxidation. Another reason for the catalytic activity of SrPdO3 was the matrix effect induced by the stable crystal structure of the perovskite where there is a homogenous distribution of Pd4+ cations in the inert matrix of the perovskite during the reaction. This nanocomposite showed good performance toward glucose sensing in terms of highly reproducible response, high sensitivity, wide linearity, low detection limit, good selectivity, long-term stability, and applicability in real urine samples and blood serum [137]. A summary of different types of perovskites used for enzymatic and nonenzymatic H2O2 and glucose sensing was given in Table 5, exhibiting high sensitivity, wide linear range, low detection limit, anti-interference ability, applicability in real samples, and long-term stability.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
graphite/SrPdO3/Aunano\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tglucose | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t10.1 μmol L-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t422.30 μA/ mmolL-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[137] | \n\t\t
LaTiO3-Ag0.1 | \n\t\t\tglucose | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t2.50 × 10−9 M | \n\t\t\t7.80 × 102 µA mM−1cm−2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[128] | \n\t\t
LaNi0.5Ti0.5O3/CoFe2O4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH2O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t23 nM | \n\t\t\t3.21 µA µM−1 cm−2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[129] | \n\t\t
LaNi0.6Co0.4O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH2O2 and glucose | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t1 nM H2O2\n\t\t\t\t 8 nM glucose | \n\t\t\t1812.84 µA mM−1 cm−2 for H2O2 and 643.0 µA mM−1 cm−2 for glucose | \n\t\t\t[130] | \n\t\t
CPE–La0.66Sr0.33MnO3–GOx (glucose oxidase) | \n\t\t\tglucose | \n\t\t\tEnzymatic | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t158.1 µAmol−1 L | \n\t\t\t[131] | \n\t\t
Co0.4Fe0.6LaO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH2O2 and glucose | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t2 nM H2O2 and 10 nM glucose | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[132] | \n\t\t
LaTiO3–Ag0.2 | \n\t\t\tglucose | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t2.1×10−7 M | \n\t\t\t784.14 µA mM−1 cm−2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[133] | \n\t\t
LaNi0.5Ti0.5O3–NiFe2O4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tglucose | \n\t\t\tEnzymatic | \n\t\t\t0.04 mM | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[134] | \n\t\t
La0.6Ca0.4Ni0.7Fe0.3O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH2O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[135] | \n\t\t
La0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH2O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[136] | \n\t\t
La0.7Sr0.3NiO3 /chitosan/GCE | \n\t\t\tH2O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tEnzymatic | \n\t\t\t9.0×10-8 mol/L | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[138] | \n\t\t
LaNiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH2O2 and glucose | \n\t\t\tNon-enzymatic | \n\t\t\t33.9 nM H2O2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[139] | \n\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for H2O2 and glucose sensing.
Dopamine (DA) is an essential catecholamine neurotransmitter that exists in the mammalian central nervous system. The depletion of DA can lead to Parkinson’s disease; therefore, its determination is very crucial. The interference of ascorbic acid (AA) and uric acid (UA) with DA is the major problem in DA detection [89, 140–143]. Therefore, it is very important to present a modified surface which can be sensitively and selectively detect DA even in presence of high concentration of AA and UA. Atta et al. presented carbon paste electrode modified with SrPdO3 (CpE/SrPdO3) as a promising electrochemical DA sensor in biological fluids with unique long-term stability and low detection limit of 9.3 nmol L−1. CpE/SrPdO3 can simultaneously detect DA in the presence of high concentrations of AA and UA and can successfully detect DA in human urine samples with excellent recovery results in terms of selectivity, accuracy, precision, and detection limit. The proposed sensor showed high sensitivity, good selectivity, and anti-interference ability [89]. Moreover, higher response toward DA oxidation was achieved at CpE/SrPdO3 compared to electrodeposited palladium nanoparticles modified CpE (CpE/Pd) with equivalent loading of Pd4+ salt. The higher catalytic activity at CpE/SrPdO3 was explained in terms of the oxygen–surface interaction between the oxygen atoms of the hydroxyl groups and the transition element in the perovskite. One characteristic of perovskite is the deficiency of its surface for oxygen. As a result, the “dihydroxy”-oxygen adsorb onto perovskite surface with the formation of a “moderate” bond between oxygen atoms and the transition element in the oxide [89]. Furthermore, the descriptor that controls the catalytic process in perovskites is the type of transition metal in the perovskite, which is related to the number of occupied d orbital states of a specific symmetry, for example, of the active metal. This is associated with the surface ability to bond oxygen on the basis of the calculations of the density functional theory. Therefore, the oxygen adsorption energy represented a perfect descriptor for the oxidation of DA at CpE/SrPdO3. A summary of different perovskites used for neurotransmitters sensing was given in Table 6.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
LaFeO3 microspheres made up of nanospheres | \n\t\t\tDA | \n\t\t\t2 ×10-8 – 1.6 × 10-6 M | \n\t\t\t59 | \n\t\t\t[140] | \n\t\t
CpE/SrPdO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDA | \n\t\t\t7 – 70 µmol L−1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t9.3 | \n\t\t\t[89] | \n\t\t
Graphite/SrPdO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tL-dopa EP, NE, DA, DOPAC and ST | \n\t\t\t0.6 – 9 μmol L−1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t\t[141] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3 nanostructure dendrites | \n\t\t\tDA | \n\t\t\t8.2 × 10−8 – 1.6 × 10−7 M | \n\t\t\t62 | \n\t\t\t[142] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3 nanoparticles | \n\t\t\tDA | \n\t\t\t1.5×10−7 – 8.0×10−4 M | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t[143] | \n\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for neurotransmitters sensing.
Fuel cells have come into view as efficient alternatives to combustion engines due to their potential to minimize the environmental influence of the use of fossil fuels. A fuel cell uses certain type of chemical fuel as its energy source, and there is a direct transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy like a battery. Fuel cells are attractive because of their great efficiency, modular and distributed nature, low emissions, zero noise pollution, and role in any future hydrogen fuel economy. There are several types of fuel cells depending on operating temperature, fuel type, electrolyte type, and mobile ions. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, molten carbonate, phosphoric acid or alkali fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cell are the most common examples of fuel cells [144]. Table 7 contained some fuel cells types and some selected features [144]. Here we will concern on solid oxide fuel cells. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), based on conducting electrolyte in the form of an oxide-ion, can generate electricity and heat and they are considered as energy-saving, environment-friendly, and effective energy conversion devices. SOFCs exhibited several features compared to the other types of fuel cells like high-energy conversion efficiency, cheap materials, low sensitivity to the fuel impurities, low pollution emissions, environmental compatibility, and excellent fuel flexibility [145–160]. Figure 8 showed the working principle of a solid oxide fuel cell [157]. The high temperature of SOFC operation resulted in the difficult choice of the proper materials and the decreased cell durability. Thus, providing materials for SOFCs with good performance at intermediate temperatures (500–800 °C) is very essential so that the cell cost and the startup and shut down time can be reduced and its long-term stability can be improved [148, 155]. Perovskite oxides exhibited fascinating properties like good electrical conductivity similar to that of metals, high ionic conductivity, and perfect mixed ionic and electronic conductivity. Depending on the differences in the electrical conductive characteristics of perovskites, they are chosen as an effective component in SOFC [9]. In addition, mixed-conduction perovskite oxides possess beneficial electrochemical reaction; structural, thermal, and chemical stabilities; high electrical conductivity; high catalytic activity toward the oxygen reduction; and ideal mixed electronic and ionic conductivities to be used as effective component for intermediate temperatures SOFC (IT-SOFC) [147–160]. Shao and Haile utilized Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3-
Schematic diagram showing the working principle of a solid oxide fuel cell [
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
PEM: polymer electrolyte membrane or proton exchange membrane | \n\t\t\t70–110 | \n\t\t\tH2, methane | \n\t\t\tSulphonated polymer (Nafion) | \n\t\t\t(H2O)nH+\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
AFC: Alkali fuel cell | \n\t\t\t100–250 | \n\t\t\tH2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tAqueous KOH | \n\t\t\tOH¯ | \n\t\t
PAFC: Phosphoric acid fuel cell | \n\t\t\t150–250 | \n\t\t\tH2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH3PO4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tH+\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
MCFC: Molten carbonate fuel cell | \n\t\t\t500–700 | \n\t\t\tHydrocarbons, CO | \n\t\t\t(Na, K)2CO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCO3\n\t\t\t\t2-\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
SOFC: Solid oxide fuel cell | \n\t\t\t700–1000 | \n\t\t\tHydrocarbons, CO | \n\t\t\t(Zr, Y)O2-δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tO2-\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Fuel cell types and selected features [144].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3-δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tHumidified H2 (~3% H2O) | \n\t\t\t600 500 | \n\t\t\t1010 402 | \n\t\t\t[145] | \n\t\t
Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.2Fe0.8O3-δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tHumidified H2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t800 | \n\t\t\t266 | \n\t\t\t[147] | \n\t\t
La0.7Sr0.3Co0.5Fe0.5O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[148] | \n\t\t
La0.6Sr0.4Fe0.8Co0.2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tglycerol | \n\t\t\t800 | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[149] | \n\t\t
LaBaCuFeO5+x\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tHumidified H2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t700 550 | \n\t\t\t327 105 | \n\t\t\t[150] | \n\t\t
LaBaCuCoO5+x\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tHumidified H2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t700 550 | \n\t\t\t432 171 | \n\t\t\t[150] | \n\t\t
Y0.8Ca0.2BaCoFeO5+δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCathode | \n\t\t\tHumidified H2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t650 | \n\t\t\t426 | \n\t\t\t[151] | \n\t\t
NdFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tanode | \n\t\t\tsulfur vapor or SO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t620 650 | \n\t\t\t0.154 0.265 | \n\t\t\t[153] | \n\t\t
Sm0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tcathode | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t700 | \n\t\t\t936 | \n\t\t\t[158] | \n\t\t
Sr2Fe1.4Mo0.6O6−ı\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tcathode | \n\t\t\tH2 or methanol | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[159] | \n\t\t
La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.5Mn0.5O3 | \n\t\t\tanode | \n\t\t\tmethane | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[162] | \n\t\t
Sr2MgMnMoO6-δ\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tanode | \n\t\t\tdry methane | \n\t\t\t800 | \n\t\t\t438 | \n\t\t\t[161] | \n\t\t
La0.8Sr0.2Cr0.97V0.03O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tanode | \n\t\t\tdry methane | \n\t\t\t800 | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[163] | \n\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for SOFC.
Perovskite oxides can be widely used as catalyst in modern chemical industry, exhibiting appropriate solid-state, surface, and morphological properties [6]. Several perovskites exhibited enhanced catalytic activity toward different reactions like hydrogen evolution and oxygen evolution and reduction reactions [9].
Because of the advantages of high heat of combustion, abundant sources, and no pollution, hydrogen is considered as an ideal fuel. Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is a fascinating reaction in the renewable energy field. This reaction is very important in (i) metal electrodeposition and corrosion in acids, (ii) storage of energy through production of hydrogen, and (iii) as the hydrogen oxidation reaction reverse in low-temperature fuel cells. One of the most studied reactions in electrochemistry is the electrocatalysis in HER. The material used for HER should have (i) intrinsic electrocatalytic activity, (ii) considerable active surface area per unit volume, and (iii) good stability. To reduce the cost of electrolytic HER, the overpotential required for the operation of the electrolyzer at considerable current densities should be reduced. The overpotential reduction can be achieved through the electrode active surface area enhancement or by the selection of electrode materials of high catalytic activity. The steps of the reaction in acidic solutions are as follows:
The first step in HER is the proton discharge (volume reaction, Eq. (1)), which is followed by electrodesorption step (Heyrovsky reaction, Eq. (2)) or proton recombination step, physical desorption, (Tafel reaction, Eq. (3)) [93]. Galal et al. confirmed the high catalytic activity of different perovskite oxides toward hydrogen evolution reaction [90–94, 96]. LnFeO3 perovskites (Ln= Gd, La, Sm, and Nd) were prepared by the microwave assistant-citrate method, and single-phase perovskites were formed with uniform distribution of small average particle size. Tafel and electrochemical impedance measurements were used to study the catalytic activity of LnFeO3 toward HER showing the effect of the type of the lanthanide ion on HER and the partial substitution effect at the La-site in La1-
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
NdFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-107.82 | \n\t\t\t24.68 | \n\t\t\t0.72 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst | \n\t\t\t[94] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-367.37 | \n\t\t\t41.15 | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst | \n\t\t\t[94] | \n\t\t
SmFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-147.23 | \n\t\t\t57.89 | \n\t\t\t0.41 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst | \n\t\t\t[94] | \n\t\t
GdFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-451.86 | \n\t\t\t81.37 | \n\t\t\t0.72 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst | \n\t\t\t[94] | \n\t\t
La0.75Sm0.25FeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst | \n\t\t\t[94] | \n\t\t
SrPdO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−946.3 | \n\t\t\t27.9 | \n\t\t\t0.86 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst | \n\t\t\t[96] | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−105.6 | \n\t\t\t51.61 | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[90] | \n\t\t
LaCoO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−348.9 | \n\t\t\t45.37 | \n\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[90] | \n\t\t
LaNiO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−158.5 | \n\t\t\t41.15 | \n\t\t\t0.94 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[90] | \n\t\t
LaMnO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−41.9 | \n\t\t\t55.05 | \n\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[90] | \n\t\t
SrRuO3 (microwave) | \n\t\t\t−5326.0 | \n\t\t\t6.67 | \n\t\t\t1.14 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[92] | \n\t\t
SrRuO3 (sol-combustion) | \n\t\t\t−425.5 | \n\t\t\t49.45 | \n\t\t\t0.98 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[92] | \n\t\t
SrRuO3 (coprecipitation) | \n\t\t\t−298.0 | \n\t\t\t86.32 | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[92] | \n\t\t
CaRuO3 (coprecipitation) | \n\t\t\t-1064.9 | \n\t\t\t42.60 | \n\t\t\t0.94 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[93] | \n\t\t
BaRuO3 (coprecipitation) | \n\t\t\t-3687.2 | \n\t\t\t17.68 | \n\t\t\t1.03 | \n\t\t\tadsorption of hydrogen | \n\t\t\t[93] | \n\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for HER catalysis.
Oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are considered one of the most important electrode reactions in many industrial processes like fuel cells, metal electrowinning, water electrolysis, electro-organic synthesis, cathodic protection, and rechargeable metal air batteries [95, 164–166]. Platinum-based catalysts and precious metal oxides are the most common catalysts for ORR or OER, but they are expensive and scarce. Therefore, it is very important to develop other catalysts for ORR or OER. Mixed metal perovskite oxides of transition and rare earth metals are promising low-cost alternatives to precious metal catalysts for both ORR and OER [165]. Perovskite oxide exhibited unique electronic and magnetic properties, defective structure, and good cation ordering resulting in disorder-free channels of oxygen vacancies and enhanced mobility of oxygen ions [164]. Some perovskite oxides were reported as electrocatalysts for ORR and OER and summarized in Table 10 [95, 164–166]. Ruizhi Yang et al. prepared Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3 by sol-gel method and utilized it as ORR or OER catalyst in basic medium of KOH. The proposed catalyst exhibited higher catalytic activity toward OER than the unmodified electrode [164]. Furthermore, Galal et al. prepared LaFeO3 by microwave-assisted citrate method and studied its catalytic activity toward OER in acid medium of HClO4. LaFeO3 exhibited greater electrocatalytic activity toward OER by about 100-folds compared to the unmodified electrode. The current density at 1.5 V increased from 3.6 × 10−5 in case of unmodified electrode to 1.2 × 10−3 A/cm2 in case of modified one. The calculated activation energy was 20 kJ/mol, which is much lower than that reported for other iron compounds and even some precious metal oxides like RuO2. This was attributed to the matrix effect induced by the stable crystal structure of the perovskite [95]. In addition, La0.6Ca0.4CoO3, prepared by the sol-gel method, showed high catalytic activity and relative stability toward oxygen electrochemistry in basic medium of KOH. La0.6Ca0.4CoO3 exhibited single-phase perovskite structure, high conductivity, and large surface area [165, 166].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHClO4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.24×10−5\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20.13 | \n\t\t\t0.82 | \n\t\t\tDifficult to be determined | \n\t\t\t[95] | \n\t\t
Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tKOH | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[164] | \n\t\t
La0.6Ca0.4CoO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tKOH | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[165] | \n\t\t
La1-xCaxCoO3 series (0 < x < 0.6) | \n\t\t\tKOH | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[166] | \n\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for ORR or OER catalysis.
Solar energy is a green source of energy that can be used instead of energy sources based on fossil fuels. Solar radiation can be directly converted into electrical energy in a suitable way creating various applications for solar energy. Solar energy can be efficiently converted into electricity using photovoltaic solar cells based on silicon. The obvious disadvantage of silicon-based solar cell is the high price of electricity generated from it so that there is a potential need to develop solar cell with low cost. Recently, attention was paid to solar cells based on organic/inorganic solid-state methylammonium lead halide (CH3NH3PbX3, X=Br, I) hybrid perovskite. This type of solar cells presented effective points such as a conversion efficiency of about 20%; its cost is lower than that of conventional silicon solar cells and the availability of the raw materials. These 3D organometal halide perovskite exhibited excellent intrinsic properties for photovoltaic applications like excellent stability, appropriate band gap (~1.55 eV), high absorption coefficient (1.5 × 104 cm–1 at 550 nm), long hole-electron diffusion length (~100 nm for CH3NH3PbI3 and ~1 μm for CH3NH3PbI3-
(a) ABX3 perovskite structure showing BX6 octahedral and larger A cation occupied in cubo-octahedral site. (b) Unit cell of cubic CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite [
The quality of the perovskite film is very crucial for solar cells. Several methods have been used to form perovskite films with high quality such as single step solution method, vapor assistant solution process, sequential deposition of inorganic and organic precursor, and coevaporation of the precursors [167]. CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite film was prepared with high quality by adding small amounts of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone and a mixture of g-butyrolactone and dimethylsulfoxide via a solution method. A power conversion efficiency of 11.77% with fill factor of 80.52% was obtained based on the structure of ITO/PEDOT:PSS (poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrenesulfonate)/perovskite/ PCBM (fullerene-derivative phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester)/Ca/Al under one sun illumination (100 mW cm–2) [167]. Table 11 contained a summary of different models based on perovskites used for solar cells applications with the values of power conversion efficiency, fill factor, method of perovskite formation, solar cell composition, cost, and stability.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
ITO/PEDOT:PSS/ CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite/ PCBM/Ca/Al | \n\t\t\tSolution method | \n\t\t\t11.77 % | \n\t\t\t80.52 % | \n\t\t\tlow | \n\t\t\thighly stable | \n\t\t\t[167] | \n\t\t
conducting polymer (poly-aniline) CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite | \n\t\t\tSolution method | \n\t\t\t21 % | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\tlow | \n\t\t\tNot reported | \n\t\t\t[168] | \n\t\t
Mesoporous TiO2/CH3NH3PbI3/ graphite paste | \n\t\t\tSolution method | \n\t\t\t1.11 % | \n\t\t\t44.5 % | \n\t\t\tlow | \n\t\t\tslightly stable | \n\t\t\t[174] | \n\t\t
Ti foil/TiO2 nanotubes (TNTs) with organic– inorganic halide perovskite absorber “CH3NH3PbI3” and transparent carbon nanotube electrode | \n\t\t\tSolution method | \n\t\t\t8.31 % | \n\t\t\t64 % | \n\t\t\tlow | \n\t\t\thighly stable | \n\t\t\t[175] | \n\t\t
ITO/conductive-polymer/CH3NH3PbI3/C60/BCP/Ag | \n\t\t\tSolution method | \n\t\t\t16.5 % | \n\t\t\t75 % | \n\t\t\tlow | \n\t\t\thighly stable | \n\t\t\t[177] | \n\t\t
glass/ITO/RGO/CH3NH3PbI3/PC61BM/bathocuproine (BCP)/Ag | \n\t\t\tSolution method | \n\t\t\t10.8 % | \n\t\t\t71.6 % | \n\t\t\tlow | \n\t\t\thighly stable | \n\t\t\t[179] | \n\t\t
A summary of different models based perovskites for Solar cells applications
Inorganic perovskite-type oxides are excellent nanomaterials for wide applications in catalysis, fuel cells, and electrochemical sensing, exhibiting attractive physical and chemical characteristics. They showed electronic conductivity, electrically active structure, the oxide ions mobility through the crystal lattice, variations on the content of the oxygen, thermal and chemical stability and supermagnetic, photocatalytic, thermoelectric, and dielectric properties. Nanoperovskites have been utilized as catalysts in oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution reactions exhibiting high electrocatalytic activity, lower activation energy and high electron transfer kinetics. In addition, some perovskites are promising candidates for the development of effective anodic catalysts for direct fuel cells showing high catalytic performance. Moreover, they are recently utilized in electrochemical sensing of alcohols, gases, glucose, H2O2, and neurotransmitters. They can enhance the catalytic performance in terms of unique long-term stability, sensitivity, excellent reproducibility, selectivity, and anti-interference ability. In addition, organometallic halide perovskites exhibited efficient intrinsic properties to be utilized as a photovoltaic solar cell with good stability and high efficiency.
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from Cairo University through the Vice President Office for Research Funds.
The Quality of Health Services influences the dynamics of Health Institutions and determines the care provided to users, which are co-producers in a logic of interactivity. The collection of citizens’ opinions about the Quality of Health Services, allows for a subjective report distinct from other quality measures (e.g., quality indicators). It is usually carried out in a structured, offline, and conventional way (e.g., satisfaction surveys) [1, 2], but globalization and the internet have brought a novel feedback source called analysis of online comments and classifications (OCC) [3, 4].
OCC are considered a form of electronic-word-of-mouth as they capture the essence of consumers’ direct sharing of experiences just as the traditional word-of-mouth. Word of mouth is one of the most pervasive forms of disseminating information about customer experiences. As a form of interpersonal influence is acknowledged as one of the more important drivers that influence customer purchase decisions, notably when the services that are being evaluated for purchase involve intangible attributes that cannot be experimented and assessed a priori. Online media has created an enormous arena of opportunity for companies and customers to share information. As such we have witnessed in recent years an explosion of voluntary testimonials from customers about their service encounters in a mode of expression that has been labeled as electronic word of mouth that are usually shared together with service ratings and classifications. Altogether electronic word of mouth and customer ratings altogether designed as OCC, offer a rich source of information for customer preservice evaluations. Moreover, they are also an enormous source of data and insights to inform the quality management function in the company. The remaining challenge is to devise structured methods to make sense of all the available – often unstructured – information. OCC are being produced at increasing rates and provide a different understanding of user satisfaction compared to traditional measures [5]. For many services, and particularly for the context of the health sector, the current debate concerns how to make this information relevant to support the decisions of users and hospital managers, notably by allowing for the development of methods of analysis that help in the identification of quality gaps [1, 2, 6, 7].
Studies have already been developed within the scope of OCC analysis in other areas of the industry (e.g., research goods, restaurants, hotels), but transposing these methodologies to health services is not straightforward. The investigations carried out in this area are international and are directed only at the user’s decision and do not explore methods that assist managers in the continuous improvement of the quality of health services. Having such methods and tools available, health service managers would have a better understanding of the quality of the service provided, and thus have more informed decisions about how service quality can be improved. Moreover, its existence in the Portuguese context is unknown.
This investigative gap, added by factors such as the increase in the volume of this information and the apparent lack of structured methods or tools to systematically extract useful information, determined the development of this study and the identification of the following general objectives: (1) to explore ways to analyze and summarize large volumes of information available online generated by users in the context of health; (2) to devise ways for summarizing information and to propose methods to support the decision making of health institution’s managers.
The analysis was conducted using a mixed method approach that involves bringing together qualitative and qualitative sources of data in a meaningful manner. Research about the quality of services has been characterized by the prevalence of quantitative approaches, building on data from questionnaires that aimed to capture customer perceptions about the various service attributes. OCC put on the table a mix of customer ratings and customer generated (narrative) content that were addressed in this work: ratings attributed by service consumers were mixed with qualitative analysis from the narrative content. The quantitative analysis, by itself, was also made mixing well known computer algorithms with a thorough manual content analysis. This chapter has five sections. The first section was the introduction to the topic and elaborated on the motivation and relevance of the topic; section two provides background and related work information; section three explains how the sample data was specified and collected; the fourth section presents the data extraction results and respective analysis. The chapter ends in Section 5 offering some discussion and conclusions.
In health, consumers do not have a passive role, but rather actors whose opinion about service experience can be decisive to support the performance of managers, notably for the continuous improvement of the service quality. It is important to create mechanisms that facilitate users’ feedback, as it is difficult to give a voice to the user, but even more difficult is to incorporate the voice of the users in the decision-making processes of the management teams [8]. Thus, users’ OCC can be a vehicle that facilitates communication between users and health institutions.
The concept of quality in health has evolved over time. Health services are considered credible or high-risk services and have characteristics and particularities that differentiate them from other services or products. They are considered heterogeneous, intangible and require a large citizen participation [5, 9, 10, 11]. It is not generally possible to assess its quality before experiencing it, fand the possibility of returns is also limited. It is only possible to correct surgical complications or reduce consequences that can be harmful for the user himself (e.g., incapacity at work), for the family and for society itself (e.g., increased health spending). The same does not happen with research goods or products (e.g., purchase of a smartphone) or in experience services (e.g., restaurant). In health services there is an information asymmetry between the user and the superior care provider compared to other services [11, 12].
Donabedian [13] proposed a model in which quality in health depends on interventions aimed at the three pillars: Structures of care provision, that is, attributes of the environment such as material and human resources, facilities and organization; Processes arising from the provision of care such as technical and interpersonal skills of health professionals; Results, understood as the reflection of health care in the user, which include rehabilitation and recovery of users, control of chronic illness, change in behaviors and lifestyles, and satisfaction with the care provided [14, 15, 16]. The Donabedian model is analogous to the division suggested by Rothenfluh and Schulz [16], which categorizes health care into characteristics of a research, experience, and credibility nature. For WHO, OECD & World Bank [17] Quality in Health is a continuous and dynamic process where care is sought at the right time, in a coordinated manner, responding to the needs and preferences of the citizen, minimizing damage, and wasting resources, seeking to increase the probability desired health outcomes. It is a complex process [6] and its measurement is a great challenge [16].
There are several models proposed for the evaluation of the quality of health services, namely the theoretical model of Donabedian [13], the model of Grönroos [18] and the model of Parasuraman [19, 20, 21, 22]. The model by Grönroos and Parasuraman et al. they were initially developed for most services, and the Grönroos model is not as perfected as that of Parasuraman, whereas the Donabedian model was developed specifically for health services.
The abandonment of the paternalistic and hierarchical health model and the adoption of the model based on shared decision, fostered the centrality of the citizen. The growing awareness of the citizen forced organizations to take an interest and to promote Quality and continuous improvement policies in the pursuit of organizational excellence [23]. Thus, users’ perceptions of service quality have become a critical component for measuring the quality of health care and services [24]. The authors describe two ways of assessing Quality in the health Services: health outcomes or Quality indicators (Order No. 5739/2015, May 29) [25]; and user experience assessment instruments [26], which subjectively reflect the quality of health care, in a unique and individual perspective, containing valuable information on distinct aspects of services.
There are several ways to listen to the user, namely classic or conventional methods and more recently, OCC have emerged. Classical methods are usually constituted by a standardized set of questions about the care received from a specific provider (health unit or professional), such as face-to-face, digitized or telephone satisfaction surveys [27]. This form of feedback implies the non-voluntary participation of the user, whose collaboration initiative comes from the health institution, which also has the responsibility of selecting the questions, mostly consisting of closed questions, and translating into a numerical result, as well as it is also the institution that determines the frequency with which it is applied [28].
OCC can represent a new way of assessing Quality in Health, understood as positive, negative, or neutral online publications and reviews, carried out by real or potential users, about a service or product [6]. They are an unsolicited way, therefore, voluntary for users to write opinions or perceptions about aspects related to health services online. Usually, this information is not standardized [26] and can only be translated into a punctuation (e.g., number of stars) and/or a free text, the wording of which does not obey any prerequisite in terms of structuring [11, 27, 29].
The use of OCC has advantages compared to traditional measures, particularly: websites are easy to access and use [1, 30] they are a form of information that promotes transparency, since data are made available online and are accessible to most people [28, 31]; they are a real-time barometer of public opinion, in a context of rapid and constant change, and allow the identification of prominent issues [11, 32]. They can be a substitute, instantaneous or almost in real time, for the analysis of the users’ experience, with the possibility of using automated methodologies, which facilitate their analysis [31, 33, 34] and it is in this sense that the present study will seek to make a major contribution; they offer a convenient, safe, low-cost mechanism for organizations to hear users’ voices [31, 34], being an important means of alarm to signal the deterioration in the quality of care [16] or, on the other hand, to identify successful practices [31].
On the other hand, there are several limitations that are mentioned in the literature to the use of OCC, which include: influence of other factors, in addition to the quality of care; anonymity and vulnerability to fraud [7]; the risk of not being representative of the general population [30, 31], noting that the literature refers that they are the youngest female users, with a higher degree of academic training, living in metropolitan areas [3, 35] and those who use health care (e.g. chronically ill) most frequently write this information.
Although consumer opinion websites have been in existence for more than two decades, the first study on health OCC was published in 2009 [36], and most studies were published after 2010 [33]. Studies published before 2010 used content analysis with small samples, whereas more recent studies recovered and studied a larger data set using automated technologies [33].
Most of the studies turn out to be descriptive, where the numerical classifications are analyzed with the determination of their frequency. There are other descriptive studies that analyze the narrative comments of OCC, understood as content analysis. If at an early stage, they used traditional qualitative methods to find the main categories of these comments [33], more recently used advanced techniques, such as Natural Language Processing (NLP) (“natural language processing”). They are, therefore, advanced analytical methods that allow the content analysis of thousands of narrative comments.
Research authors use diversified indicators to collect their data, such as the number of stars [7], the number of words [37], gender [38] or the total score. The studies that carry out content analysis may suggest a great diversity of categories within the scope of Quality in Health to group the collected data. It is also common for authors to perform sentiment analysis [39] and to classify textual data according to positive, negative, neutral and/or mixed perspectives.
OCC are increasingly important sources of information for making diverse types of decisions [40]. Understanding and systematizing them is urgent and essential for the citizen and the manager [2]. The following model (Figure 1) shows that a systematic collection and analysis of this information by the Manager can feed and have a direct impact on the continuous improvement of the Quality of Health Services.
Collection cycle and analysis of OCCs and their importance in the Manager’s intervention.
The main purpose of this work is to develop and discuss methods to process the diverse and rich information that is available in the online platforms, and that is offered predominately in an unstructured format. Despite the richness, diversity and volume of this information, managers still lack structured approaches to deal with such large volumes of data, and to make sense of it for supporting decisions and initiatives for quality management. In this work we offer a contribution for the advancement in the knowledge about how to extract and categorize existing online customer generated content offering a structured approach to make sense of the data. Specifically, the research work builds on prevalent service quality models, that offer an established multidimensional approach that has validated over the year a range of distinct service quality constructs (e.g. reliability, empathy, etc.) that frame the domains of assessment that customers consider when evaluation service experiences. The study builds on such service quality conceptualization to classify the customer reviews content and develop summary metrics to inform quality management though in the context of health services. The study offers a stepwise view of the content analysis deriving highlights about critical aspects in the extraction of data, as well as in the process of cleaning the extracted data for the purpose of delimiting a meaningful sample of customer comments. The advancements in such data extraction and analysis are of critical importance, particularly for medium sized organizations, who might lack the resources to devote specific capacity to make use of the available information. Moreover, as the pace of expansion of the available customer content continues to accelerate, the need to deploy methods to analyze content that are aligned with the prevalent quality models, that are embedded in current managerial knowledge is an urgent matter.
An exploratory-descriptive, cross-sectional, and qualitative study was developed using content analysis after selecting a rational and criterial non-probabilistic sample. It seeks to respond to the following specific objectives: to identify relevant variables for the segmentation of content generated by users; identify relevant indicators that allow monitoring the behavior of this information and signal the moment when the manager must extract and analyze the content generated by the users; and to identify categories that classify the content contained in the online comments generated by citizens in the context of health, in line with the quality models in health services.
The data was extracted from Google’s online platform and is freely accessible to anyone. The choice of this platform is due to accessibility, reach and the fact that it covers all services and national territory. Ethical considerations were safeguarded since the data that could identify the population or sample studied were hidden and submitted to codification, preserving anonymity and confidentiality.
The determination of the sample that was intended to be representative of the comments, was a complex and time-consuming process associated with the dispersion and volume of information, as well as the diversity and form of organization of the Portuguese Health Institutions, as shown in Table 1, implying continuous methodological adjustments. It included two stages, namely the delimitation of the Institutions to be included in the sampling process and the second stage, which focused on extracting comments and selecting valid comments, that is, on determining the units of analysis.
Management model | Hospitals (Hs) | Typology (portaria n° 82/2014) | N° of Hs Total | N° of OCC | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | II | III | IV-a | IV - b | IV - c | ||||
ULS | 8 | — | — | — | — | — | |||
CH | 11 | 5 | 5 | — | — | — | |||
H | 5 | 3 | — | — | — | 1 | |||
I | — | — | — | 3 | — | — | |||
ULS | — | — | — | — | — | — | |||
CH | — | — | — | — | 1 | 1 | |||
H | — | — | — | — | — | — | |||
I | — | — | — | — | — | — | |||
ULS | — | — | — | — | — | — | |||
CH | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | ||
H | 3 | — | — | — | — | — | 3 | ||
I | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | ||
Distribution of the number of OCC in the different hospital institutions.
Entities not discriminated by portaria n° 82/2014 (10 abril).
EPE: Entidades Públicas Empresariais (public business entity); SPA: Sociedade Pública Administrativa (administrative public society); PPP: Parceria Público-Privada (public-private partnership).
In the first stage, we applied preliminary delimitation criteria (typology of Hospital Institutions (IH’s), total number of OCC and IH management models) and all SPEs except Braga Hospital and group IV were selected. Of the initial 8866 OCC, 7188 OCC remained, so it was necessary to carry out an additional delimitation, using the formation of clusters according to additional and previously defined criteria (Type of HIs; Population covered (year 2018); No. of consultations (year 2018); number of urgencies (year 2018); number of surgeries (year 2018); total number of OCC), to form homogeneous groups. In this sub step, 4 Type IHs (ULS in the Northeast, the West CH, the Baixo Vouga, the ULS of the Alentejo Coast) were selected; 1 Type IHs (CHU of the Algarve); 1 Typology III HIs (CHU S. João) revealing a set of HIs that are representative of the country’s diversity and accounted for a total of 1088 OCC.
In the second stage, the extraction of the OCC was done automatically, using the research team’s software, to a database elaborated using Microsoft® Excel® Office 365MSO, which is organized based on previously defined indicators. The definition of the indicators to be included in the study were based on two sources: indicators used in previous investigations (narrative commentary, number of stars, gender, number of words) [7, 38] and indicators defined in the scope of this study (date, location, language, total score of the institution and number of Likes).
After a posterior extraction of 1179 OCC, which included the previous 1088 and increased due to the dynamic character of these data and platforms, a preliminary selection of comments was made eliminating obsolete data, specifically the 437 OCC that did not present characters and the 150 irrelevant OCC (with meaningless criticism or with a meaningless argument) (Table 2). Subsequently, for the 592 OCC included in the study, the units of analysis were defined, fragmenting the comments into different thematic categories. The thematic categories resulted from the joining of the perspective of two authors: the model of Parasuraman et al. [20] and Gillespie and Reader [41]. This combination made it possible to define four categories to be used in the present study: “Tangibility”, “Response Capacity”, “Empathy” and “Reliability/Guarantee”. The models selected for the definition of the categories to be used in the present study are Quality models, which, although one of them is old, still presents current dimensions for the existing services, namely in the scope of health services. Thus, in the 592 OCC selected, 898 sub-comments were identified, which constituted the units of analysis of the present study.
Total of extracted OCCs: 1179 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Excluded | Included | ||||
Typology/Cluster | Hs | No text | Irrelevant | Relevant | After Categorization |
I / 1 | ULSN | 21 | 4 | 15 | 24 |
I / 3 | CHBV | 73 | 20 | 99 | 111 |
I / 3 | CHO | 76 | 25 | 74 | 140 |
I / 4 | ULSLA | 23 | 9 | 19 | 36 |
II | CHUA | 104 | 35 | 219 | 339 |
III | CHUSJ | 140 | 57 | 166 | 248 |
Distribuition of OCC.
The present study combined computerized automatic analysis with qualitative techniques for the analysis of feelings and the categorization of comments in the domains of Quality in Health. The relevant comments considered in the analysis were categorized as shown in Table 2.
The comments were mostly written in Portuguese, but 15 other languages were also found (e.g., Korean, Finnish, Slovak, Turkish, Indonesian, etc.). The translation was automatic, using Google translator, a methodological option justified by the need to facilitate the replicability of the present study. The HIs with the highest percentage (37%) of foreign comments was type II, possibly associated with the tourist flow.
The OCC were performed mainly by men, except for the I/1 ULSN typology and III CHSJ typology. The genre was obtained from the nickname associated with the comment, but some publications were made by foreign citizens with characters related to their language (e.g., Korean), which makes it impossible to automatically classify them. The remaining results will be presented according to each of the three specific objectives outlined previously in point 2.
The information contained in data was quite disorganized and unstructured, which made it difficult or impossible to analyze. It was noticed that, similarly to what happens in the platforms of other industries (e.g., TripAdvisor), its pre-segmentation would facilitate the extraction and analysis of data, the specification of which could be previously defined in pre-filled fields outlined in the online writing platforms. Available to users using health services. The sentiment analysis (negative, neutral, and positive) of the comment was obtained through a state-of-the-art platform for content analysis in Portuguese called Linguakit [42]. A prior automatic classification was carried out for each of the comments. However, the automatic analysis of the feeling of the text, in the negative, neutral, and positive categories, has not proved to be very robust because it often has wrong syntactic constructions, resulting from the context of free and informal writing in which they originate. This forced this automatic classification to be compared with a second manual classification, to guarantee the reliability and validity of the results. In this manual classification of feeling, a new dimension was introduced, called “mixed,” when the comment refers to various aspects of Quality of Service or to several episodes experienced in health care, where the positive and negative feeling coexist simultaneously.
A comment was considered positive (when the editor mentions aspects of health quality that made him happy or pleased with health care), negative (when the editor mentions unpleasant aspects related to health services), neutral (when the comment has neither a positive nor a negative feeling) and a mixed feeling (when in the same comment the writer simultaneously mentions positive aspects, but also negative experiences related to health care). Subsequently, the feeling and the number of stars were related, where a negative feeling in the user’s textual account, would demonstrate from the outset that he would be dissatisfied with his experience in health care and would score it with 1 or 2 stars, if the comment were neutral, would give 3 stars and if it were positive, it would give the value of 4 or 5 stars.
In summary, from the results presented, it is concluded that, it is extremely important that online publishing platforms find mechanisms that predispose the user to explain the feeling affection to the report about their experience in health care, since, this care prior facilitates the visualization, as well as the collection and treatment of the data made available about the user’s opinion and therefore facilitates the management of information and the intervention of the manager, allowing him to provide himself with easily accessible information that can be useful for the improving the performance of the health organization. Since, and as our results demonstrate, treating and classifying
Classification | Feeling | 1 star | 2 stars | 3 stars | 4 stars | 5 stars |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
49 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 3 | ||
13 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | ||
12 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 17 | ||
68 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | ||
2 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 1 | ||
2 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | ||
2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 19 | ||
19 | 3 | 2 | −2 | -2 | ||
−11 | −2 | −2 | 1 | −1 | ||
2 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | ||
−10 | −1 | −3 | 1 | 2 |
Process used to determine the differential between automatic classification and manual classification for type 1, cluster 3 CHBV.
Tangibility | Responsiveness | Empathy | Reliability/Warranty | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Typology/Cluster | IH | n | % | Average PE | n | % | Average PE | n | % | Average PE | n | % | Average PE |
I / 1 | ULSN | 4 | 17% | 3,0 | 6 | 25% | 1,8 | 6 | 25% | 2,3 | 8 | 33% | 3,0 |
I / 3 | CHBV | 11 | 8% | 1,8 | 60 | 43% | 1,4 | 32 | 23% | 2,4 | 37 | 26% | 2,1 |
I / 3 | CHO | 20 | 18% | 2,3 | 43 | 39% | 1,9 | 26 | 23% | 2,5 | 22 | 20% | 2,8 |
I / 4 | ULSLA | 4 | 11% | 1,8 | 8 | 22% | 1,5 | 8 | 22% | 2,6 | 16 | 44% | 2,8 |
II | CHUA | 37 | 11% | 2,2 | 112 | 33% | 2,0 | 70 | 21% | 3,0 | 120 | 35% | 2,6 |
III | CHUSJ | 31 | 13% | 3,2 | 102 | 41% | 1,7 | 41 | 17% | 2,7 | 74 | 30% | 2,9 |
Distribution of comments by average star ratings.
Subtitles:
From the previous results, one of the difficulties that the manager may face when dealing with this data is related to the question of the reliability of the automatic analysis of the content. On the other hand, greater reliability will require manual analysis, and this involves spending additional resources (e.g., time, human resources) for management. The results of the present study suggest that instead of an automatic classification followed by a manual classification, a viable alternative would be to do an automatic analysis, to check the consistency between the number of stars and the sentiment and finally, manually analyze those comments where the sentiment is the inverse of the score. In other words, the alternative is to carry out automatic classification first, and then, only in case of incongruities, a subsequent manual classification.
One of the purposes of the present investigation was to identify categories to classify the online content generated by users. This was carried out in two ways: automatic and manual analysis of feelings as developed in point I. and the categorization of comments in the domains related to Quality in Health, previously defined: “Tangibility”, “Response Capacity”, “Empathy” and “Reliability” /Guarantee”. For this last categorization, an automatic classification was attempted, which proved to be inefficient, due to the characteristics of the text, since it presented some peculiarities, namely sarcasm, irony, spelling errors, acronyms, abbreviations, and stories. Therefore, the author classified manually in the four categories and one of the elements of the research team made an independent review, and in the case of disagreement, the categorization was discussed and resolved between the two elements.
The results show that in relation to the sentiment, in the total of the 6 IHs it was found that 65% of the comments were negative (383/592), 1% neutral (6/592), 8% mixed (48/592) and 26% positive (155/592). In literature was found that there is no consensus, and the present investigation is in line with the results found in the study by Emmert et al. [39].
Emmert et al. [38] refer that 80% of all comments (average length of 45.3 words ±42.8) were classified as positive, 4% as neutral and 16% as negative. And that longer narrative comments were more likely to be negative, while shorter comments were more likely to be positive. When an association was made between the sentiment and the size of the OCC (measured by automatically counting the number of words in each comment) it was found that the average dimension (in number of words) of the positive comments (43.98 words) differs from the negative ones (61.69 words) for the analyzed sample (t test, Sig. 0.000). Thus, we verified through the t test that the negative comments were longer than the positive ones, in accordance with the literature and similarly to the results obtained in the studies by Rastegar-Mojarad, et al. [37] and Emmert et al. [39]. Information-rich analyzes tend to be longer, with a consequent increase in utility for readers [43] and even though longer narratives were more likely to be negative [28]. In this way, it is understood that the longer comments say more and tend to be mostly negative. Thus, the results of the present investigation show that the manager must be aware of the behavior of this indicator when analyzing online data.
It was also found that users put more likes in negative comments. The results show that there are differences between the number of likes of positive comments (average 0.95) and negative ones (average 1.41) (t test, Sig. 0.000). When the association between sentiment and the average score in stars was made, it is not possible to infer that the number of stars in the positive comments differed from the negative ones (t-test, Sig. 0.144). In particular, the average number of stars for positive comments was 4.60, for the sample analyzed, and the number of negative comments was 1.31.
Understanding what topics are most often spoken by the user’s “voice” can help caregivers, managers, and administrators of health institutions to improve the user-centered health system. This type of content analysis provides the manager with richer information that can support the development of improvement actions.
All sub comments were liable to be classified under an attribute of Quality in Health, as can be seen in Table 4, with none remaining unclassified. But there is a wide diversity of results, an irregular pattern that made it difficult to appreciate and, therefore, the establishment of associations.
The most debated topics in users’ online newsrooms are about the “Response Capacity” dimensions (for 3 of the HIs - I / 3 CHBV typology, I /3 CHO typology and III CHUSJ typology) and “Reliability /guarantee” in the remaining 3 IHs (typology I /1 ULSN, typology I/4 ULSLA and typology II CHUA). If, on the one hand, the literature stresses that, the user may not have the competence or knowledge capable of evaluating the technical or clinical aspects of care, that is, aspects related to the “Reliability / Guarantee” dimension and that its evaluation may be inaccurate [16, 21], on the other hand, in this study it appears to be an aspect in which users focus their attention, as can be seen for the values related to the dimension “Reliability/Guarantee”.
“Tangibility” was the least mentioned dimension for all the HIs in the studied sample, being, therefore, the subject least mentioned by users (Table 4). It was observed that the aspects of “Tangibility” are the least highlighted in the comments available to all IHs by users, compared to the other dimensions of QeS, so that a change in this proportion, that is, the increase in the percentage of tangible aspects in view of the other domains, it could be an alarm signal that is the target of investigation and intervention by the manager of the health organization. Thus, and given the national context where most public health institutions were built several years ago, resulting from the triggering of the NHS, and that the Portuguese historical and economic context, as well as the financial crisis that hit Europe and that had repercussions in the divestment in the facilities and material resources of public services, may be an explanatory factor for users to have tolerance regarding the tangible aspects existing in the services of the HIs. Not least because, much of the investment made in the health sector was directed to flagrant problems such as the increase in the prevalence of chronic diseases resulting from the increase in average life expectancy [44]. It is a fact that, it seems natural that users have elevated expectations about the functioning of public health services, as these are financed by their taxes, but their attention is focused on aspects related to “Capacity response” and “Reliability/Guarantee” and not so much for the characteristics related to the appearance of the facilities, professionals, and equipment. Health services are a type of service that is not visible to everyone because they are characterized by an asymmetry of information between the user and health professionals [11]. In addition, these services are produced while they are consumed, and therefore have an intangible and heterogeneous character [5, 10, 11].
The “Response Capacity” seems to be the dimension to which users are less satisfied in this investigation since there is a lower average score value in stars for all the target HIs studied. And there was no average score in the number of stars above 3.2, it appears that the degree of user satisfaction with the selected HIs will not be high.
The volume and diversity of information available online about health services implies challenges in the analysis, scarce methods or tools that facilitate its use by the manager in the continuous improvement of the Quality of Health Services. Health systems must, increasingly, be attentive to the opinions of the users who are the ones who experience the care, arranging economic tools that allow to listen to their perception and to effectively profit from the preciousness of these data. Since the standard tools for extracting and analyzing this information are not adapted to the syntactic characteristics of users’ newsrooms.
The present study intended, on the one hand, to contribute to fill the investigative gap present in the national community, as well as to find effective and facilitating ways of making the most of these data, in a health system marked by the scarcity of resources. This scarcity of resources ended up being exponentiated by the current context of the pandemic, and the real impact of the pandemic on the health system, on public administration, on society in general and on each one of us has yet to be investigated.
The study allowed the identification of relevant variables for segmenting the content generated by users: hospital episode, editor, service, professional and the feeling of the comment (e.g., positive, negative), as the results showed that the automatic classification (positive/negative) differs significantly manual classification, demonstrating the complexity of its
It is possible to identify some limitations in the present study, some of which have already been described by other researchers, namely, the fact that it contemplates data from only one platform (Google) [43, 45], with the risk of non-representativeness of the general population. Moreover, the study is focused on the exploration of customer content for the specific domain of health services, therefore leaving out particularities of other service sectors (e.g. hospitality, education, etc.). Nevertheless, and as explained in the results section, the method applied can be replicated in such sectors given that there is a necessary and preliminary revision of the service attributes used for the classification of customer reviews and content to match those that in the literature, have been identified as pertinent for each case.
In terms of future research, the following fields of intervention are suggested: development of software capable of processing and classifying data produced by users, adapted to their style of writing; explore, develop and adapt methodologies to other health institutions (e.g. health centers, long-term care units and private health units); and elaborate a project applicable to hospital units, allowing the results of the study to be transferred from the paper to measures and proposals for effective and practical improvement in health institutions. As mentioned by Hong et al. [33] the results of the investigations should go beyond simple descriptive analysis and theory-based hypothesis testing to provide more clinical and political implications.
This work was financially supported by the research unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policy (UIDB/04058/2020) + (UIDP/04058/2020), funded by national funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Very young children are regular users of smartphones and tablet, so their early digital engagement poses new challenges to parent-child relationships and parental role. First, the chapter introduces the “digital parenting” construct, moving through the literature from “traditional” parenting styles to more recent studies on “parental mediation,” that is, the different behaviors parents adopt to regulate children’s engagement with the Internet and digital media. Second, the chapter reviews empirical researches on different parental mediation practices (active or restrictive behaviors) and how they are adjusted according to the child’s characteristics (age, digital competences, etc.) or parent’s media competence and beliefs. Finally, from a bidirectional perspective of parent-child relationships, the chapter discusses the role of youths’ social involvement, communication, self-disclosure, and digital skills on parent’s beliefs and practices. 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A particular parenting style influences all phases of development and life style of adolescent. Helicopter parents overly protect their children from the difficulties by setting some set of instructions without consideration of the uniqueness of their children. Recent literature has got huge attention on this parenting style and debating the pros and cons on the development of child. Higher life satisfaction and better psychological wellbeing have been found in the children of highly intrusive parents. When there are positive effects of helicopter parenting, there are negative outcome and impacts that have also been studied. The difficulties in emotional regulation, academic productivity, and social skills among children raised by helicopter parenting have been reported in the literature. Low self-efficacy, lack of trust on peers, and alienation from peers have also been associated with helicopter parenting. The chapter highlights the associated aspects of childhood and adolescence, raised by helicopter parenting. As parents have their own concern about raising their children in certain manner, it is important to understand the underlying mechanism of parenting style. Therefore, this chapter also describes the theoretical framework. The associated mental health issues and supportive psychological intervention to be also discussed.",book:{id:"9043",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective"},signatures:"Deepika Srivastav and M.N. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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