\r\n\tThe study of populations and plant communities in their different aspects; ecological, structural, functional and dynamic, it is essential to establish a posteriori models of forest and agricultural management.
\r\n
\r\n\tFor this, the methodological approaches on the type of sampling are considered essential, since there are differences between the purely ecological and the phytosociological methods, despite the fact that both pursue the same objective. \r\n\tAlthough the ecological method for the knowledge of the vegetation is widely extended, the phytosociological one is no less so, since in the European Union it has been developed as a consequence of policies on sustainability, through which regulations have been issued, such as the habitats directive.
\r\n
\r\n\tOn the other hand, research on plant dynamics and knowledge of the landscape in an integral way, have multiplied in the last 30 years, which has favored a deep knowledge of the floristic and phytocenotic wealth, which is fundamental for agricultural management, livestock and forestry.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-386-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-385-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-387-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",keywords:"Climatic Factors, Bioclimate, Thermotype, Flora, Conservation, Phytocenosis, Plant Dynamics, Landscape, Cartography, Vegetation Series, Crops, Reforestation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cano Carmona and colleagues have directed 12 doctoral theses and more than 200 publications among articles, books, and book chapters. He has participated in national and international congresses with about 250 papers. He has held a number of different academic positions, including Dean of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences at the University of Jaen, Spain, and founder and director of the International Seminar on Management and Conservation of Biodiversity.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Ricardo Jorge Quinto Canas is currently an Invited Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Sciences and Technology at the University of Algarve – Portugal, and a member of the Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve. His current research projects focus on Botany, Vegetation Science (Geobotany), Biogeography, Plant Ecology, and Biology Conservation, aiming to support Nature Conservation.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Ana Cano Ortiz's fundamental line of research is related to botanical bioindicators. She has worked in Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Central America. It presents more than one hundred works published in various national and international journals, as well as books and book chapters; and has presented a hundred papers to national and international congresses.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Carmelo Maria Musarella is a biologist, specialized in Plant Biology. He is a member of the permanent scientific committee of the International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management” guested by several European universities. He has participated in several international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops and presented oral communications and posters.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/87846/images/system/87846.png",biography:"Eusebio Cano Carmona obtained a PhD in Sciences from the\nUniversity of Granada, Spain. He is Professor of Botany at the\nUniversity of Jaén, Spain. His focus is flora and vegetation and he\nhas conducted research in Spain, Italy, Portugal, Palestine, the\nCaribbean islands and Mexico. As a result of these investigations,\nDr. Cano Carmona and colleagues have directed 12 doctoral theses\nand more than 200 publications among articles, books and book\nchapters. He has participated in national and international congresses with about\n250 papers/communications. He has held a number of different academic positions,\nincluding Dean of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences at the University of Jaen,\nSpain and founder and director of the International Seminar on Management and\nConservation of Biodiversity, a position he has held for 13 years. He is also a member of the Spanish, Portuguese and Italian societies of Geobotany.",institutionString:"University of Jaén",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Jaén",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"216982",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Quinto",middleName:null,surname:"Canas",slug:"ricardo-quinto-canas",fullName:"Ricardo Quinto Canas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216982/images/system/216982.JPG",biography:"Ricardo Quinto Canas, Phd in Analysis and Management of Ecosystems, is currently an Invited Assistant Professor in the Faculty\nof Sciences and Technology at the University of Algarve, Portugal, and member of the Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR),\nUniversity of Algarve. He is also the Head of Division of Environmental Impact Assessment - Algarve Regional Coordination\nand Development Commission (CCDR - Algarve). His current\nresearch projects focus on Botany, Vegetation Science (Geobotany), Biogeography,\nPlant Ecology and Biology Conservation, aiming to support Nature Conservation.\nDr. Quinto Canas has co-authored many cited journal publication, conference articles and book chapters in above-mentioned topics.",institutionString:"University of Algarve",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"203697",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Ortiz",slug:"ana-cano-ortiz",fullName:"Ana Cano Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203697/images/system/203697.png",biography:"Ana Cano Ortiz holds a PhD in Botany from the University of\nJaén, Spain. She has worked in private enterprise, in university\nand in secondary education. She is co-director of four doctoral\ntheses. Her research focus is related to botanical bioindicators.\nDr. Ortiz has worked in Spain, Italy, Portugal and Central America. She has published more than 100 works in various national\nand international journals, as well as books and book chapters.\nShe has also presented a great number of papers/communications to national and\ninternational congresses.",institutionString:"University of Jaén",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Jaén",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"276295",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Musarella",slug:"carmelo-maria-musarella",fullName:"Carmelo Maria Musarella",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276295/images/system/276295.jpg",biography:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, PhD (Reggio Calabria, Italy –\n23/01/1975) is a biologist, specializing in plant biology. He\nstudied and worked in several European Universities: Messina,\nCatania, Reggio Calabria, Rome (Italy), Valencia, Jaén, Almeria\n(Spain), and Evora (Portugal). He was the Adjunct Professor\nof Plant Biology at the “Mediterranea” University of Reggio\nCalabria (Italy). His research topics are: floristic, vegetation,\nhabitat, biogeography, taxonomy, ethnobotany, endemisms, alien species, and\nbiodiversity conservation. He has authored many research articles published in\nindexed journals and books. He has been the guest editor for Plant Biosystems and a\nreferee for this same journal and others. He is a member of the permanent scientific\ncommittee of International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management”, which includes several European universities. He has participated in several\ninternational and national congresses, seminars, workshops, and presentations of\noral communications and posters.",institutionString:'"Mediterranea" University of Reggio Calabria',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6893",title:"Endemic Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3290be83fff5bc015f5bd3d78ae9c6c7",slug:"endemic-species",bookSignature:"Eusebio Cano Carmona, Carmelo Maria Musarella and Ana Cano Ortiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6893.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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4.1. Introduction
General aims of these observations were to biochemically examine all the gastrointestinal tissues in both animals and humans. The outstanding point was that from 1965 to date, we have been unable to know the exact details of different regulatory mechanisms (by neural, hormonal, pharmacological, immunological and nutritional pathways) under normal (non-ulcerated) and damaged conditions. When we undertook clinical pharmacological studies, we had to face different hard-to-understand medical facts:
We had no scientific knowledge on the possible correlation between drug actions and biochemisms in the GI mucosa of animals and humans;
We only had different suggestions for the development of hypoxia-induced mucosal damage in the GI mucosa at the time of ulcer development; however, we had no evidence for the existence of this situation;
The regulatory mechanisms at the levels of out of gastrointestinal tract and of only in the gastrointestinal tract are absolutely indicated a gap between them;
Though the classical, histological definition of peptic ulcer is unchanged, many contradictory “actual discoveries” (new hormones, new growth factors, many chemical compounds, new trends in the medical and surgical treatments, Helicobacter pylori, etc.) appeared in the etiology of ulcer disease;
Our principal scientific question was in the period 1965–1970: How was the peptic ulcer healed in the human gastrointestinal tract without any decrease of gastric acid secretion? We suggested an answer to this question by applying different and precise biochemical methods in the study of human gastrointestinal tract (with and without the presence of the classical ulcer). Unfortunately, we had no methodology to answer this question.
These observations maintained the main trends of clinical pharmacology (e.g., time period with drugs, to keep the time period after cessation of treatment); however, we introduced the biochemical methodology to the pharmacology.
We tried to approach the biochemical events in the whole tissue by simultaneously using more parallel biochemical measurements (using the same tissue samples, with the measurements carried out at the same time).
Before the human biochemical examinations, we learned the biochemical methodology in animal experiments.
4.2. Methodologies of experimental models and clinical studies
The observations were carried out in CFY (Sprague-Dawley) (Gödöllő, Hungary) strain rats, weighing 180–210 g, and on the resecates of stomach and small intestine of patients who underwent gastric surgery because of unhealed ulcer disease (during 1970–1980).
The patients suffered from classical peptic ulcer diseases (PUD) with clinical symptoms (decreased appetite, feeling of dullness and pain in the epigastric region of the abdomen, pyrosis, impaired gastric emptying and retention syndrome). These patients presented one month before the surgical intervention. The presence of gastroduodenal ulcers was endoscopically diagnosed, and thereafter these patients received medical treatments (anticholinergic agents, late H2 receptor antagonist and antacids for one month). A possibility of surgical interventions was evaluated for those patients who were not healed after the treatment.
The indication of gastric surgery was done by physicians [consultations between internists (gastroenterologists) and surgeons] independently from us]. The resecates of stomach and small intestine (according to the method of Billroth II). A small group of patients underwent classical partial gastrectomy (according to the method of Billroth II), and jejunal ulcer was developed. These patients were also medically (pharmacologically) treated during 1970–1980.
During surgical intervention, the stomach and small intestine were removed immediately and these were cut into two parts. One part was given for histological evaluation of resected tissues and the other part was immersed (after separation of mucosa and muscular layer) in liquid nitrogen and used for biochemical examinations. The mucosa specimens were also separated from each other (depending on the distance of ulcer edge). Both the biochemical measurements from the mucosa specimens and muscular layers (independently from the number of tissue specimens), obtained from one patient, and the surgical intervention were carried out at the same time.
The animal observations were carried out in both sexes of CFY-strain rats.
The following experimental models were used:
Pylorus ligation was carried out according to the method of Shay et al., (1945) (using different experimental time periods after pyloric ligation: 1, 4, 7, 24 hours);
Pylorus ligation plus surgical vagotomy (using different experimental time periods after surgical intervention);
Gastric mucosal damage was caused by aspirin given intragastrically according to the method of Guth et al., (1979);
Gastric mucosal preventive actions of atropine, vitamin A and β-carotene in 4-hour pylorus-ligated, aspirin-treated rats;
Indomethacin model (4 hours);
Gastric mucosal preventive effects of atropine, cimetidine, vitamin A and β-carotene in 4-hour indomethacin-treated rats;
Stress ulcer in rats was caused by 4 hours of immobilization (Nagy et al., 1982; 1983);
The stress ulcer in rats was caused due to 5 hours of swimming. In some animals, the stress ulcer provocation (swimming) was combined with pyloric ligation during the beginning of stress (Nagy et al., 1982; 1983);
Reserpine was subcutaneously injected in animals (Mózsik et al., 1983a);
Gastric fundic mucosal damage was caused by topical application of 1 mL from 25 v/v 0.2 M NaOH, 0.6 M HCl and 96 v/v ethanol (Robert et al., 1979);
Epinephrine model was completed according to Sethbakdi et al., (1970 a, b, and Pfeiffer, 1971; Pfeiffer and Sethbakdi, 1971). The epinephrine (Tonogén, Budapest) was injected in different doses at different times after pyloric ligation;
All biochemical examinations were carried out in the control (non-ulcerated) in the ulcerated (mucosa up to 2 cm around the ulcer) antral, duodenal, jejunal mucosa or from the corpus (fundic), antral, duodenal and jejunal mucosa and from the tissues located below the mucosa (muscular layer). All patients with jejunal ulcers previously underwent a gastric partial resection because of duodenal ulcer. No direct provocative agents such as drugs or primary diseases (renal, endocrine, hematological, liver, pulmonary diseases) could be detected in the background of peptic ulceration (“genuine ulcer”). The tissue specimens were obtained during the surgery.
The following measurements were carried out in different observations:
Determination of gastric acid output. The gastric basal acid output (BAO) and maximal acid output (MAO) were determined in patients;
The extent of experimental gastric ulcer (except in Shay rats) was scored in the following way: score 0: no ulceration; score 1: the erosions were less than 1 mm; score 2: the erosions were between 2 and 4 mm; score 4: the erosions were greater than 4 mm; and score 5: represents the mucosal damage in all part of fundus. The values of scores were summarized for every stomach, and the average ± SEM was given (Mózsik et al., 1983 a, b);
The number of ulcers was calculated;
The tissue levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP) were measured enzymatically (Boehringer, Ingelheim; Germany);
The tissue level of cyclic 3’,5’-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) was measured by RIA (Beckton Dikinson, Orengeburg; USA) (Mózsik et al., 1970 a, b);
The tissue level of lactate was enzymatically measured (Ingelheim, Boehringer; Germany);
The separation and measurements of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) were completed according to the methods published earlier (Mózsik et al., 1967 b, c; 1969 c; 1976 a, b, c, d; 1978 a, b; 1979 a, b, c, d, e; Mózsik and Vizi, 1976 a, b);
The separation of membrane ATPase was carried out by the treatment with NaJ and differential centrifugation (Mózsik and Øye, 1969; Mózsik et al., 1974 a, b, c, d; 1979 a, b, c, d, g, e; Schmidt and Tannhauser, 1945);
The ATPase activity was measured in vitro system by liberation of inorganic phosphorus, followed by the ATP transformation into ADP in the presence of Mg2+ (Mg dependent) and Mg2+, Na+ and K+ (total) or Mg2+-, Na+-, K+-dependent ATPase. The Na+- and K+-dependent ATPase were calculated by the difference between the ATPase activities obtained in the presence of Mg2+, Na+ and K+ and Mg2+ (Mg2+-dependent part) (Mózsik and Øye, 1969; Mózsik, 1969 a, b; Mózsik et al., 1974 a, b, c, d);
The tissue levels of ATP, ADP, AMP, cAMP and lactate were calculated in accordance with 1.0 mg protein, as per the method of Lowry et al. (1951), or with 1.0 mg DNA (in human observations).
The enzyme activity was expressed as micromoles of Pi/mg membrane protein/hour. The results were given as means ± SEM (Mozsik and Øye, 1969; Mózsik, 1969 a, b).The Student “t” test was used for the statistical analysis of the parametric results and by Mann and Whitney’s method for the severity of erosions.
We used the rats as experimental animals in these observations to approach the changes in the cellular energy systems and their regulation in different experimental conditions.
The rat’s stomach is divided into two parts, namely glandular (fundic) and membranous (rumen). These parts can be separated well and clearly.
The following biochemical measurements were carried out from both parts of the rat’s stomach: acid-soluble inorganic phosphates, acid-soluble organic phosphates, lipids, ribonucleic acids (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (see the scheme of these measurements in Table 6).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 6.
Summarizing steps of the biochemical procedures for separation of phosphate fractions and nucleic acids of the rat’s stomach and of resecates of human gastrointestinal tracts of patients with chronic gastric, duodenal and jejunal ulcer, who underwent surgical intervention because of peptic ulcer diseases. [Mózsik, Szabó, Krausz, Jávor: Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2: 321–325, 1967 (with kind permission).]
The measurements of these biochemical parameters generally represented the main components of the cells: lipids (as cell membrane), acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates (mitochondrion), RNA (partly the cytoplasm as well as nucleus) and DNA (nucleus). In other words, we tried to observe different compartments of cells. The measurements of amounts of acid-soluble inorganic phosphates in the different tissues are widely used to approach the dephosphorylation [i.e., these compounds originated from the splitting of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) independently from its different pathways]. The components of the acid-soluble organic phosphates were not known at that time; meanwhile, the presence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), cyclic 3’,5’-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and adenine and adenosine were incorporated in this tissue extract. Naturally, these methodologies were updated later by direct measurements of these compounds using thin-layer chromatographic and enzymatic methods.
4.3. The pharmacological–biochemical studies of animals in acute and chronic experimental conditions
4.3.1. General biochemistry of glandular (fundic) part and of forestomach (rumen) in 24-hour pylorus-ligated rats
The necessity of the biochemical analysis of the stomach (gastroduodenal) mucosa was suggested for a better understanding. The underline mechanisms involved in development of mucosal damage and prevention (1962–1964) (Gheorghui, 1975; Mózsik et al., 1967 a, b; 1969 a, b, c, d; Mózsik et al., 1970 a, b).
Figure 13.
The pattern of gastric secretory responses in 24-hour pylorus-ligated rats. The volume of gastric secretory responses (mL/100 body weight), H+ concentration (mEq/L) and H+ output (μEq/100 b.w.) were measured and their results were expressed as means ± SEM, indicating the number of animals. The time period between 4 and 7 hours after pyloric ligation represents the optimal time period to study the actions of drugs and hormones and their biochemical changes in the different parts of the stomach. The peak of maximal acid output can be obtained in 7 hours; meanwhile, the gastric ulceration appears after 7 hours in pylorus-ligated rats (means ± SEM). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol 4:633–640; 1969 and Acta Physiol. Scand. Spec. Suppl. 1978a (with kind permission).]
In the first period, the acid-soluble organic and inorganic phosphates and phospholipids, ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) were extracted from the gastric mucosa, and their quantities were measured with (Mózsik et al., 1969 a, b, c, d) and without surgical vagotomy (Mózsik et al., 1967 a, b) (Figures 13–17). Later adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) were measured during atropine treatment (Mózsik et al., 1970 a, b). The biochemical parameters were chosen as a suitable methodology to give a “biochemical cross-section” of gastroduodenal mucosa under different experimental conditions.
These results stimulated us for doing further biochemical observations in the animal stomach on dependence of increased and decreased vagal activity.
Figure 14.
The changes in the chemical composition of glandular stomach (fundus) and forestomach (rumen) in pylorus-ligated rats. The following parameters were measured: gastric secretory volume (mL), H+ output, number of ulcers, wet tissue (g), acid-soluble inorganic (Pi) and organic (Pi) phosphates, lipid phosphates (μg), ribonucleic acid (RNA) (μg) and deoxyribonucleic (DNA) (μg) acids. The results were expressed as percentage values of sham-operated (=100%) animals. The statistical analysis was carried out between the sham-operated rats and 7- and 24-hour pylorus-ligated rats (means ± SEM). [Mózsik et al., Scand J Gastroenterol 4: 633–640; 1969 (with kind permission).]
Figure 15.
Correlation between the changes in the general biochemistry of ulcer development in forestomach (rumen) of the 24-hour pylorus-ligated rats depending on time after pyloric ligation. [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 633–640; 1969 (with kind permission).]
Figure 16.
Comparative changes in the biochemistry (acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates, lipid phosphates, RNA and DNA) of glandular stomach and forestomach of 24-hour pylorus-ligated rats. The means ± SEM values of sham-operated rats (=100%) are expressed in percentage. P values: P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001. [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 633–640; 1969 (with kind permission).]
Figure 17.
Schematic summary of the changes in gastric hypersecretion, ulcer development (forestomach) and biochemical compositions (acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates, lipid phosphates, RNA and DNA) observed in 24-hour pylorus-ligated rats. [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4:633–640; 1969 (with kind permission).]
There were many criticisms for this experimental ulcer model because the ulceration appeared in the forestomach (not in the glandular part of the animal stomach); however, different typical events of experimentally developed ulcer can be detected using this model:
The gastric hypersecretion can be obtained before the ulcer development in accordance with the time (after surgical intervention);
The peak of gastric acid hypersecretion can be obtained in this model in 7 hours after the surgical intervention (see Figure 2), and its value does not change from 7 to 24 hours after pyloric ligation;
The time period between 4 and 7 hours offers excellent good possibility to study the stimulatory or inhibitory actions of different compounds on the gastric acid secretion in rats;
We can very well study the possible correlations between gastric acid secretory responses and development of gastric ulcer.
Bearing these conclusions in mind, we started with the “general biochemical” approach – the main biochemical events during the development of gastric acid hypersecretion and ulcer (of course, respecting the actual level of international research). We have to emphasize that no general biochemical examinations were given in the gastrointestinal research for animals and patients earlier. So, these types of observations internationally opened a new avenue (“biochemistry”) in the gastrointestinal research.
We tried to select the different biochemically measured parameters for providing nearest approach to the cell functions (e.g., membrane, mitochondrion, ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid).
The functions of the organs are specific events (gastric secretion, ulcer development); meanwhile, the biochemical mechanisms obtained in the target organs are extremely complicated. The biochemical extractums (e.g., acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates, lipids, ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid) from the gastric tissues dominantly represent the cell membranes (lipids), mitochondrion (lipid-soluble organic and inorganic phosphates, partly ribonucleic acid) and nucleus (deoxyribonucleic acid).
At that time, the measurements of acid-soluble inorganic phosphate represent the cumulative effect of breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (by different pathways) from the effector organs; meanwhile, the compounds of the acid-soluble organic phosphates (when these observations were carried out) were unknown. Now, we know that the acid-soluble organic phosphates contain the adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), cyclic 3’,5’-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and adenosines and adenines.
We have to emphasize that we tried to approach only the main biochemical lines in the stomach during the development of gastric acid hypersecretion and ulcer after surgical intervention.
The obtained results of our present observations clearly indicated to us:
All biochemical changes (in acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates, lipids, RNA and DNA) – depending on time – are similar to each other;
The biochemical changes in both parts of stomach (glandular stomach and forestomach) appeared before the development of gastric acid hypersecretion and ulcer development;
Because gastric acid hypersecretion is the result of a consequence of very active metabolic processes in the glandular part of stomach and because the same biochemical changes were obtained from the forestomach, it can be concluded that the gastric ulceration appears after increased biochemism in the forestomach;
The decrease of acid-soluble inorganic phosphates (earlier) along with the increase of acid-soluble organic phosphates clearly indicates the increased biochemical metabolism in both parts of the stomach;
The mentioned changes in the acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates led to the significant changes of ATP breakdown and ATP resynthesis [in other words changes in the dephosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation pATP synthesis)].
The critical evaluation of these experimental results called our attention to reconsider our previously created knowledge on the development of gastric acid hypersecretion and ulcer development in pylorus-ligated rats.
4.3.2. General biochemistry of glandular (fundic) part and forestomach (rumen) after acute “chemical” and “surgical” vagotomy in rats (using different anticholinergic compounds)
The effects of acute administrations of parasympatholytics [(atropine, isopropamide 2,2-diphenyl-4-diisopropylamino-methyl iodide) and Gastrixon (methyl-tropinium-bromide-xanthene-9-carboxylate)] and bilateral surgical vagotomy on the biochemism of stomach [glandular part and membranaceous (forestomach, rumen)] in 7-hour pyloric-ligation rats were studied.
Atropine is a tertiary ammonium amine, while the isopropamide and Gastrixon are quaternary ammonium components. The chemical diameter of quaternary ammonium structure of Gastrixon is greater than isopropamide (Gyermek, 1951, 1953; Gyermek and Nádor, 1952, 1953 a, b; György et al., 1961; De Jongh et al.,J1955; Proosdij-Harzeme,et al., J955). The blocking effects of parasympatholytics increase with the increasing diameter of tertiary and quaternary ammonium molecules on the autonomic nerve systems (Fehér, 1960; Grenell and Mullins, 1956).
Our aims were (1) to study the effects of different parasympatholytics and surgical vagotomy on the biochemical parameters of stomach and (2) to compare the changes in the gastric mucosal biochemical parameters produced by “chemical” and “surgical” vagotomy.
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Table 7.
Changes of stomach weight in Shay rats after administration of parasympatholytics and bilateral surgical vagotomy. The results are expressed as means ± standard error of means (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 8.
Changes of gastric secretion, acidity and frequency of ulcer in Shay rats after administration of parasympatholytics and surgical vagotomy. The results are expressed as means ± standard error of means (mL, mEq/L), and total number of ulcers in one rat’s stomach. (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 9.
Changes of stomach weight in Shay rats after administration of parasympatholytics and bilateral surgical vagotomy. The results are expressed as means ± standard error of means (mL, mEq/L), and total number of ulcers in one rat’s stomach (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 10.
Changes of the acid-soluble phosphates in Shay rats’ glandular stomach wall after administration of parasympatholytics. The results are expressed as means ± standard error of means in µg phosphate per total wet glandular stomach wall (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 11.
Changes of the acid-soluble phosphates in Shay rats’ membranaceous stomach (rumen) wall after administration parasympatholytics. The results are expressed as means ± standard error of means in µg phosphate per total wet membranaceous stomach wall (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 12.
Changes of phospholipids (phosphates) in Shay rats’ glandular and membranaceous stomach wall after administration of parasympatholytics. The results are presented as means ± standard error of means in µg phosphate per total wet glandular and membranaceous stomach wall (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 13.
Changes of ribonucleic acids in Shay rats’ glandular and membranaceous stomach wall after administration of parasympatholytics. The results are presented as means ± standard error of means in µg nucleic acid per total wet glandular and membranaceous stomach wall (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 14.
Changes of deoxyribonucleic acids in Shay rats’ glandular and membranaceous stomach wall after administration of parasympatholytics. The results are presented as means ± standard error of means in µg deoxyribonucleic acid per total wet glandular and membranaceous stomach wall (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 15.
The changes in the percentage of examined parameters of Shay rats’ stomach wall induced by parasympatholytics in percentage of control (n = 100) values 7 hours after pyloric ligation. [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol., 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 16.
The changes in percentage of examined parameters of Shay rats’ stomach wall induced by surgical vagotomy of control (n = 100) values 24 hours after pyloric ligation. [Mózsik et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
Increasing inhibitory effects of parasympatholytics – depending on the extent of chemical diameters – did not run closely parallel with increasing diameter of tertiary and quaternary ammonium molecules, and we also perceived biochemical changes of gastric mucosal biochemistry. After bilateral surgical vagotomy, the quantities of acid-soluble inorganic phosphates decreased significantly in both glandular and membranaceous (forestomach and rumen) stomach wall. The alterations of acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates in the stomach wall showed contradictory trends of surgical vagotomy to those after administration of parasympatholytics (“chemical” vagotomy), the effects of surgical vagotomy on the nucleic acid metabolism being greater than the effects of different parasympatholytics.
A biochemical–cellular–morphological explanation of parasympatholytics and surgical vagotomy has been suggested (Figure 18). According to this explanation, the nucleic acids are in the center of Figure 18, and phospholipids, acid-soluble inorganic and organic phosphates are in periphery of a “hypothetic cell.” The products of cells (HCl secretion) are presented in an outer part of the figure. After a large alteration of periphery, the center will change to a small degree and vice versa.
Figure 18.
A schematic and possible biochemical–cellular–morphological explanation of parasympatholytics and surgical vagotomy. [Mózsik, Kiss, Krausz, Jávor: Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 641–651, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 17.
Main steps of regulatory levels of cells in the living organs. The most stable regulatory steps are located at the level of DNA and the most instable regulatory steps are at the level of functions of organs.
4.3.3. Pharmacological and biochemical studies in rats after chronic “chemical” and “surgical” vagotomy and cholinesterase inhibitor treatment
Biochemical observations were carried out to study the changes in these biochemical parameters of rat’s stomach after chronic “chemical vagotomy” (2 × 1.0 mg i.p. atropine for 25 days) and cholinesterase inhibitor treatment (2 × 0.25 mg of neostigmine i.p for three weeks).
The biochemical examinations in the drug-treated groups of animals were also divided into two different groups. The biochemical observations of the first group were carried out immediately after the end of the drug treatment, whereas the observations of the second group were carried out after cessation of drug treatments (10 days after the cessation of atropine treatment and three weeks after cessation of cholinesterase inhibitor treatment).
To compare the changes in the stomach after a chronic “chemical” vagotomy (atropine treatment), the surgical vagotomy was carried out in a group of animals (without any other treatment), and the biochemical measurements were done one month after surgical vagotomy.
The control animals were treated with saline solution for 25 days. It has been suggested that the results of these animal observations will give a biochemical explanation for the effects of increased cholinergic activity (produced by cholinesterase inhibitor), for “chemical” vagotomy and “surgical” vagotomy (“use” vs. “disuse” of vagal nerve on the metabolism of gastric tissues). The results of the biochemical examinations are presented in cases of chronic atropine treatment and chronic neostigmine (see the forthcoming tables). The biochemical results after one month of surgical vagotomy are presented only in comparison with the changes in the biochemical parameters obtained in rats treated chronically with atropine and neostigmine.
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Table 18.
Changes of body weight and weight of the stomach wall in animals treated with atropine. The results are expressed as mean values ± standard error (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol 7: 66–72, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 19.
Changes of phosphate and nucleic acid content in glandular (pyloric) part of the stomach wall in rats treated with atropine for 25 days. The results are expressed as means (µg per total body weight of the glandular part of the stomach wall) ± standard error (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol 7: 66–72, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 20.
Changes of phosphate and nucleic acid content in membranaceous (rumenal) part of the stomach wall in rats treated with atropine for 25 days. The results of mean values (µg per total body weight of the membranaceous part of the stomach wall) are calculated as means ± standard error (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol 7: 66–72, 1969c (with kind permission).]
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Table 21.
Changes in the weight of the stomach wall in animals treated with high doses of neostigmine. The results are presented as means ± SEM in grams (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, Tóth, Pharmacology 2: 45–59, 1969d (with kind permission).]
The treatment’s effects on the body weight and weight of the glandular and membranaceous (forestomach) parts are shown in Table 18: there was a significant decrease in body weight (0.01 > P > 0.001), but no significant change in the weight of the parts of the stomach.
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Table 22.
Changes in quantities of phosphate fractions and nucleic acids in the glandular stomach wall of animals treated with high doses of neostigmine. The results are presented as means ± SEM in µg phosphate or nucleic acid per total weight (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, Tóth, Pharmacology 2:45–59, 1969d (with kind permission).]
After prolonged atropine, there was a decrease in acid-soluble inorganic phosphate (P = 0.02), acid-soluble organic phosphates (P < 0.001), phospholipids phosphates (P < 0.001), ribonucleic acid (P = 0.03) and deoxyribonucleic acid (P < 0.05) in the glandular part. Ten days after cessation of atropine treatment, levels of acid-soluble organic phosphates (P = 0.02) and phospholipid phosphates (P< 0.001) improved but levels of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid did not.
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Table 23.
Changes in quantities of phosphate fractions and nucleic acids in the membranaceous stomach wall (forestomach) of animals treated with high doses of neostigmine. The results are presented as means ± SEM in µg phosphate or nucleic acid per total weight (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, Tóth, Pharmacology 2: 45–59, 1969d (with kind permission).]
Prolonged atropine treatment did not alter the acid-soluble inorganic and organic, phospholipids phosphate and ribonucleic acid, but there was a decrease in deoxyribonucleic acid (0.01 > P > 0.001). Ten days after cessation of atropine treatment, there was a further reduction of ribonucleic acid (P = 0.02) and increase of deoxyribonucleic acid (P > 0.05).
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Table 24.
Changes in quantities of phosphate fractions and nucleic acids in the glandular stomach wall of animals treated with high doses of neostigmine. The results are presented as means ± SEM in µg phosphate or nucleic acid per 1 gram of fresh gastric tissue (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, Tóth, Pharmacology 2: 45–59, 1969d (with kind permission).]
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Table 25.
Changes in quantities of phosphate fractions and nucleic acids in the membranaceous gastric wall (forestomach) of animals treated with high doses of neostigmine. The results are presented as means ± SEM in µg phosphate or nucleic acid per 1 gram of fresh gastric tissue (n indicates the number of animals). [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, Tóth, Pharmacology 2: 45–59, 1969d (with kind permission).]
The results obtained from chronic neostigmine treatment provided the following conclusions:
The cholinergic dominance involves the decrease of the weight and biochemical constituents of the membranaceous (forestomach). This is the effect of cholinergic dominance on the membranaceous stomach wall.
Examined biochemical constituents of the glandular stomach behave differently during the existence of the cholinergic dominance due to the decrease of acid-soluble inorganic phosphates, phospholipid phosphates and ribonucleic acid and the increase of acid-soluble organic phosphates during neostigmine treatment.
We had observed “short-term” and “long-term” biochemical changes in the glandular stomach wall after neostigmine treatment. The “short-term” biochemical change (acid-soluble organic phosphates) was a reversible process lasting up to one month after cessation of neostigmine treatment. At the same time, the “long-term” biochemical changes (acid-soluble inorganic phosphate, phospholipids phosphate and ribonucleic acid) were observed as irreversible processes. It is interesting to note that the stomach can “remember” to the neostigmine treatment one month after cessation of treatment.
In the 1970s, there was a famous topic on physiology to approach the possible backgrounds of “use” and “disuse” of the neural regulation (especially after denervation of muscles) (Graff et al., 1965 a, b, c; Gregory, 1962). The surgical ablation of nerves was used extensively in these types of observations. There was a general note that the denervated organ became to b seniitive to mediators than that inavated organ. Emmelin and Rosenblueth (1951), Emmelin and Muren (1951 a, b; 1952), and Elin (1952, 1961) observed that the efficenciees of drugs and mediators changes after a prolonged reatment (including the atropine). In these observations, no surgical manipulation was done with the nerves of different organs, however, they dichronic drunt was done to inhibit the neural functions at the levels of synapses or at the levels of tra to organs. This phenomenon was named as “pharmacological denervation” and was associated with the supersensitivity (Emmelin, 1952, 1961). We were the first authors, who demonstrated the existence of supersensitivity of “pharmacologic denervation” phenomenon, together along with opment of tolerance to drugs used in the treatment and cross-tolerance to the pharmacologicallypharmarugs, but that are not used in the trea, under classical medical treatment with parasympatholytics in patients with peptic ulcer (see chapters of Sections 2.2-.2.3-– 2.4)
There was an important note that the efficacy of atropine decreased during a chronic atropine treatment in patients with peptic ulcer, however, the decrease effect of atropine returned in time 0 days after cessation of atropine treatment.
These human observations called our attention to carry out different biochemical observations in the rat’s stomach after cessation of atropine and neostigmine treatment.
We tried to approach the biochemical backgrounds of the “use” and “disuse” of the gastric tissues in rats (under experimental conditions). The changes in gastric mucosal constituents were presented in percentage values of “sham treated” (with physiological saline solution) (=100%) after chronic “chemical” and “surgical” vagotomy and neostigmine treatments. The comparative results are presented in the glandular stomach wall (Figure 19) and membranaceous stomach wall (forestomach) (Figure 20).
Figure 19.
Biochemical backgrounds of “use” and “disuse” of cholinergic innervations on gastric tissue in the glandular stomach wall (in one month’s treatment or surgical vagotomy). The results are expressed as means ± SEM in percentage values of control (sham-treated) rats. [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, In: Gregor O., Riedl O. (eds) Modern Gastroenterology, Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgard, New York, 561–563, 1968 (with kind permission).]
The comparative biochemical results of “use” and “disuse” on cholinergic function of vagus nerve offered us the following conclusions:
The behavior of membranaceous and glandular stomach wall is not the same from the point of view of cholinergic innervation;
The “surgical,” “chemical” vagotomy (“disuse”) and neostigmine treatment (“use”) can induce alterations in the stomach at the levels of general functions, biochemical reactions, ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids;
The effects of “surgical” and “chemical” vagotomy are different at biochemical levels in the stomach wall. We assumed that the “surgical” vagotomy induces the alterations of DNA and RNA at first and that the alterations of other biochemical constituents follow these. On the contrary, DNA and RNA alternate only after the “chemical” vagotomy changes the metabolism of phosphorus components. The neostigmine can change the biochemism of the stomach wall similarly to the “surgical” vagotomy;
The “use” and “disuse” can involve the same biochemical alterations in the biochemism of the stomach in rats.
Figure 20.
Biochemical backgrounds of “use” and “disuse” of cholinergic innervations at the biochemical level on gastric tissue in the membranaceous stomach wall (forestomach) (in one month’s treatment or surgical vagotomy). The results are expressed as means ± SEM in percentage values of control (sham-treated) rats. [Mózsik, Kiss, Jávor, Krausz, In: Gregor O., Riedl O. (eds) Modern Gastroenterology, Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgard, New York, 561–563, 1968 (with kind permission).]
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First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
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1. Introduction
The economic, political, social, environmental and health impacts of the SARS-COV2 virus pandemic as well as the disease generated (COVID-19), worldwide are and will continue to increase, affecting the most vulnerable population. Before the contingency, there was already a deterioration in the health of the population with an increased prevalence for chronic degenerative diseases associated with obesity and unhealthy lifestyles (sedentary lifestyle and consumption of high-energy foods), as well as other problems of health (short stature, malnutrition, anemia, mainly). We are in a century with the greatest scientific advance, but with a population that suffers from hunger and at the same time with the highest figures in the loss and waste of food in the world [1].
In Mexico, according to the recent National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT-2018 for its acronym in Spanish) [2], there was an increase in the numbers of diabetes (10.3%), arterial hypertension (18.4%), dyslipidemias (19.5%) as well as one of the main risk factors: obesity and being overweight. Obesity and overweight have been exacerbated mainly in adolescents and young adults aged 20 years and over, where for the latter group, for every 10 adults 8 are overweight or obese. Another problem is food insecurity in households in Mexico, which was 70% for 2012 and for 2018 44.5%. Food insecurity had a decrease of 14.5%, but this increase in households with food security cannot be attributed to an improvement in access to nutritious food, since for this same year the consumption of industrialized foods with high energy intake, fat saturated and added sugars increased as well. This deterioration in the health of the population is one of the reasons why the worldwide morbidity and mortality figures for COVID-19 were high for the population living in extreme poverty and with the presence of the diseases [3, 4]. The health impacts have occurred as well as the deterioration of the environment, they have been increasing and there are several theories, including an obsolete economic model where vital resources such as water have been depleted. For Mexico, the lack of access to water in quantity and quality has been the result of mismanagement of the resource, mainly with overexploitation by the industrial sector and the lack of a reform to the National Water Law [5].
The models of production and of labor and economic organization have led to changes in the food culture and, therefore, to people’s health and the deterioration of the environment. A production model that has generated greater contamination with impacts on the soil, generating more deteriorated crops, loss of health, which prevents ensuring the sustainability of future generations [6]. Several have been the industrial sectors whose production processes have generated great impacts on health and the environment. The figures for obesity and diabetes in Mexico and in the world have increased in the last three decades due to the construction of obesogenic environments [7]. The role of food has been part of this process, with access to more processed foods and more agrochemicals.
The soft drink industry has been one of the industries with the most evidence of its impacts not only on health but on the environment, mainly in water. For example, for every liter of soft drink produced, 1.7 liters of water are required [8]. In the 70’s, Mexico was already the second place in the consumption of soft drinks and scientific evidence has shown that its consumption (sugary drinks) is a risk factor for developing obesity and diabetes by contributing 9.8% of the energy intake in the Mexican diet, while 16% are desserts, cookies, sweets [8, 9, 10]. Other data that have facilitated their access has been the price of the soft drink and the size of the portion that is sold in Mexico. The price is also different in rural and urban areas. For example, in 2017, for every 2.5 L of soft drink, the cost was 0.80 USD or 0.66 €, while in urban areas it was 1.30 USD or 1.06 € (Figure 1). The same happens with the 600 mL presentation, the cost was higher in urban populations, which may explain its accessibility in all regions of the country. In Table 1 a comparative summary of some data on soft drinks in Mexico (Latin American Country) is presented. and contrasting it with a European country like Germany.
Figure 1.
Soft drink cost in rural vs. urban areas in México. Source: Courtesy Monroy-Torres R (2017). http://bombochis.blogspot.com/2017/.
Obesity and overweight in adults 20 years and older [2]
75.2% 2018
82.4% 2016
Table 1.
Soft drink consumption and health statistics in Mexico and Germany.
Source: Websites: a) https://super.walmart.com.mx/refrescos/refresco-coca-cola-botella-de-600-ml/00000007500761 b) https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2009/09/why-is-cocacola-so-expensive-in-europe.html; c) https://www.expatistan.com/price/coke/berlin; d) Liters per capita according Euromonitor International 2013. Dollar and Euro Exchange, on december 28, 2020.
1.1 A historical perspective
Today the diet is different from what was used in other times. Not only have the inputs with which food is prepared have changed, but also the eating patterns, the way they are prepared and the value of these. All this has had an impact on the nutrition of the population. This change has been caused by different factors that have to do with cultural miscegenation and with the cultural influences that have been established in Mexico over time, even with the scourge of natural phenomena such as droughts, floods, and diseases.
Environmental devastations have been constant throughout history; one of them occurred precisely in the 16th century, when the Spanish arrived. This does not mean that the environment had not changed previously, but rather that, according to specialists in environmental history, they were of lesser magnitude than those that occurred after the arrival and settlement of the Spanish. They brought new ways of producing food by introducing both sowing and cattle grazing [12].
Regarding the diet consumed by the natives, Guillermo Santamaría, an Augustinian friar from the 16th century, affirmed that the Chichimeca Indians consumed wild fruits and roots, in addition to hunting products and sometimes fishing. What they most consumed was corn, beans, squash, chili, tunas, nopales, pitahayas, xoconoxtle, sweet potatoes and mesquite pods, from which they even made bread that they could keep for a long time. The diet was based on plants that were collected by women, but also on those that were planted in cornfields or family gardens. In addition to the above, they also fed on game animals such as snakes, lizards, rabbits, hares, and deer that men hunted in the field. Pulque or tuna or mesquite ferments were used as drinks. Livestock was an important source of food, but also of devastation of the environment, since they ate both the plants of the cornfields and those that grew wild, destroying tunnels, nopaleras, mesquitales and magueyales causing a shortage of food [13].
As can be seen, little by little the diet was modified over time, since, from being made up of legumes, fruits, vegetables, and cacti, it was transformed, and various products of animal origin were added. Among the incorporations of great importance were the sugars with which jams, crystallized sweets, eggnog, and desserts are prepared. Flours, with which a great variety of breads, cakes and cakes were prepared to which seasonal fruits were added. Another incorporated ingredient was lard, which accompanied food not only as an element for cooking, but as an ingredient that added flavor. This was included abundantly in almost most of the cooked foods. He even added to foods that already contained fat, increasing their fat content, mainly those of the saturated type. This had a reason, since fat was an ingredient valued as something that provided energy to individuals, so it is recommended that as much of it be eaten and even the sick was recommended to eat pots or lamb broths to soon to be reestablished [14]. Currently we know that these eating behaviors have a risk to people’s health and have probably been the cause of several diseases, but at that time they were not considered that way.
Wondering European travelers constantly related the quantity and variety of fruits and vegetables that were observed throughout New Spain. This shows the fertility of the soil and there was an intensive agriculture based on the rain cycle in each region. But all this was modified by climate change, since the rainy seasons have been significantly altered and that has led to the implementation of irrigation systems that have ended the water reserves in the subsoil. The climates affected food production, both the torrential rains that flooded the fields and the droughts that regularly hit some parts of New Spain. All these natural disasters caused food shortages and the few that did exist were priced at high prices. Because of the scarcity, the population modified their diet, and perhaps these circumstances probably caused the population to adopt a diet based on plants, vegetables and cacti [14].
During New Spain there was a great biodiversity of food and with them its greater accessibility but that depended on the regions and climates, the most common was that people ate prepared food per day. But if there were perishable or more decomposing foods, then a preservation process was applied to them to be able to consume them later.
Food depended for the most part on what was grown and harvested locally, as there were several factors that made it difficult to transport food for mass consumption, either because the food was not kept for so long or because the roads were not conducive to transport them agilely. Most of what was produced was concentrated in the cities, and not only the inhabitants of the city but also those of the rancherias and nearby towns came to it to trade food. In the Bajio area and in others of New Spain (today Mexico) such as Puebla, Michoacan, and Jalisco, they were mainly dedicated to the cultivation of cereals such as wheat and corn, and this determined the diet of the population, since they ate what they harvested, and what was left they sold to buy the rest that they needed. All these limitations made the diets very unbalanced, since most of the population did not have access to all kinds of food, and those who had a comfortable economic position ate the diet that they valued as adequate: fats, sugars and flours in excess causing some diseases [14].
Because the population had an inadequate diet, it was more vulnerable to being attacked by epidemics. For example, cholera was a feared disease for its symptoms (diarrhea and vomiting) that generated high mortality in the population, which is why some foods were prohibited. In epidemics it became common for diets to be changed to control the disease; for example, for the cholera epidemic that affected the state of Guanajuato in 1850, it was recommended that foods laden with spices and fats should not be eaten, that the meats were not salted, salted, or highly seasoned, and that pork meat should not be eaten, the lard bread, the vegetables, the fruits, the seeds that have skin or skins and the milk. Among the foods that were allowed were tender meats, such as chicken, hen, mutton, tender veal, roasted, cooked, and simply seasoned: well-boiled bread, rice, or noodle soups, atole, sago, champurrado and chocolate [15]. All the above tells us about the valuation about healthy or adequate to eating.
Later, with the French influence that the Porfirian regime promoted in Mexico, other culinary practices were introduced. French rolls or brioches, desserts and wines were incorporated. However, this French-style food practically had its impact on the upper social classes. In this national historical period, the commercialization of food and its derivatives was promoted; this increase was due to the construction of the railway in which large quantities of products can be transported in a shorter time [16].
Already in the twentieth century in Mexico, a boom began with the advent of industrialized products. At the beginning of the century, the influence of American food was more in the northern states, but little by little its commercialization spread throughout the country. These products included soft drink, which was gradually incorporated as part of the diet, as well as foods that contained high energy density foods [11, 17].
With technological development, refrigerators were manufactured in the second half of the 20th century, which generated a change in the way of preserving food, replacing the drying, salting, smoking and fermentation of food [18]. And although these techniques were not stopped, the truth is that the kitchen was revolutionized because food can be preserved in greater quantity and for longer. However, this brought both positive and negative changes in the way of cooking and eating, because with this they stopped consuming fresh foods such as fruits and vegetables and meats that were acquired daily. Large quantities of industrialized bread canned, and frozen products also began to be consumed. The milk is industrialized, and the consumption of natural milk almost completely disappears. Animal fats were changed to vegetable fats. But one of the most significant changes will be the use of corn flour for the rapid and industrialized preparation of tortillas, leaving nixtamal almost in disuse. The industrialization of income a homogenization of food throughout the country, reducing over the years the consumption and use of regional and local foods.
Subsequently, with the intense commercial exchange between Canada, the United States and Mexico through NAFTA or NAFTA (for its acronym in English) there have been accelerated changes in what is consumed, eaten and cooked. All this has resulted in culinary practices being transformed. Industrialized products are more at hand to be consumed. Figure 1 presents a chronology of health statistics 10 years before and after the entry into force of NAFTA (1994) [19].
It should be noted that the change in diet that has originated is not exclusive to Mexico but to a global scope, in which products, foods and culinary tastes have been standardized. As we previously pointed out, this type of industrialized diet based on sugars, flours and fats has resulted in high levels of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension, as we will see in a moment. In 1988, overweight and obesity was 34.5% and 5 years after signing the FTA (1999), overweight and obesity increased to 61% and whose trend has been to increase to 75.2% of overweight and obesity combined. The population in Mexico as represented in Figure 2 [19, 21].
Figure 2.
Increase of overweight and obesity in Mexico from 1980 to 2006. Source: National Agreement for food health. Strategy for overweight and obesity 2010 [20].
As of the Free Trade Agreement, there was an increase in the price of the basic food basket (fruit, vegetables, beans, corn, beef, chicken, and eggs) while there was a decrease in the price of industrialized food [17].
2. Indicators (economic, environmental, food and health)
The impacts generated on the environment and health attributed to human action have been widely documented. There is data that shows that a total of natural resources exceeding 60 billion tons per year have been extracted so far in the 21st century, at the same time the richest 10% of the world’s population monopolized 40% of the energy and 27% of the materials [22].
Climate change has been another factor that adds to the environmental challenges in the era of the so-called “anthropocene”. In recent decades, climate changes have shown their effects on ecosystems, productive sectors and society. In agriculture, these impacts are reflected in the yield of crops, affecting in a more profound way the sectors of the population living in poverty, since they have fewer possibilities of generating resilience strategies in the face of predatory rules imposed by the market. In the same way, the possibility of protecting the places they inhabit due to hydrometeorological phenomena is annulled.
Diseases related to the effects of climate change such as the case of vectors such as the mosquito that transmits dengue and malaria, likewise, increases in mortality associated with extreme heat events have been documented [23]. The increasing and accelerated pace of demand for natural resources and energy has generated negative impacts on ecosystems, as well as serious socio-environmental consequences. As biophysical limits continue to be transgressed, we will see more and more irreversible and damaging effects on health, nature and coexistence systems, with the danger of falling into a deterioration that generates new pathologies, ailments and impossible health problems to elucidate in the short and medium term. Hence the need to pay special attention to this process to carry out actions that allow us to have a more harmonious relationship with our environment and therefore a better quality of life.
The latest estimates indicate that in Mexico about 50% of natural ecosystems have been lost, the main effects have been in ecosystems that are more productive, accessible and with better soils. The forests have been the terrestrial ecosystems of the country that have suffered the greatest disturbances due to human activities, both in eliminated and degraded areas [23]. The factors associated with the loss of habitat are related to the change of land use to give way to agricultural, livestock, industrial, tourism, oil and mining activities, among others [24].
In addition to the above, the water quality indicators show that 12 million people lack access to drinking water, 102 of the 653 aquifers in Mexico are overexploited, 46% of the water is lost due to leaks in the supply networks, 80% of water bodies present some type of contamination by industrial discharges [25]. Water contamination is a public health problem, digestive system diseases derived from consuming contaminated water are the third most important cause of infant death in Mexico [26, 27].
2.1 Environmental and health situation in Mexico
Likewise, the generation of urban solid waste (MSW) in Mexico reached 53.1 million tons in 2015. The increase in the generation of urban solid waste can be explained as a result of multiple factors, recognizing urban growth among the most important, industrial development and the change in consumption patterns of the population. The environmental and health consequences of the increase in MSW are presented through factors such as: the generation of biogases, contamination of soils and bodies of water, as well as the proliferation of harmful fauna and transmission of diseases [26, 28].
The global burden of diseases attributed to environmental factors is estimated at around 25% of the total for the general population and around 38% for the child population. The increase in non-communicable diseases and obesity rates in Mexico are alarming, there are several factors that have triggered this phenomenon, one of them is the high consumption of sugary drinks and ultra-processed products with high amounts of fats or sugars, low in content. Fiber and refined flours [29].
In Mexico, in 2016, 72.5% of adults were overweight and obese. Obesity increases the risk of suffering from other diseases such as diabetes mellitus, ischemic heart disease, hypertension, cerebrovascular diseases, cancer, among others, which decrease the quality of life and increase the risk of death among those who suffer from them. Obesity also represents high medical costs, estimated at 151,894 million pesos in 2014 alone, which is equivalent to 34% of public spending on health and causes an estimated loss of productivity of 71,669 million pesos per year [2, 29].
Another problem related to health and the environment is exposure to air pollutants in cities and exposure to chemicals such as pesticides. It is estimated that 42% of chronic lung diseases are due to environmental risk factors related to occupational exposure to dust and chemicals, as well as air pollution in closed spaces due to the burning of solid fuels such as the use of firewood for cooking or as heating [23].
Regarding pesticides, the most frequent use of these occurs in agricultural activity. The prevailing agro-industrial system leads to the intensification of food production and this resulted in the excessive use of pesticides. In Mexico, pesticides are used that are prohibited in other countries, without rigorous controls being carried out for their use, supervision or information that account for the risks and level of danger that they bring with them, in such a way that we are directly or indirectly exposed to the harmful effects that they generate [30].
The soil is the natural resource from which food comes and, the conservation of the earth is thanks to the biogeochemical cycles that allow the movement of elements such as nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, sulfur, water among other elements in the form of cycles that it occurs through living beings and the environment. These cycles have been altered by atmospheric pollution, water exploitation, over-paving of the soil, the intensive use of agrochemicals derived from an economic system and lifestyle of people that has not allowed biogeochemical cycles to be generated [43]. For example, it is known that the long-term use of agrochemicals as fertilizers has impacts on the diversity and density of soil bacteria [40]. The justification for its use derives from achieving greater production to feed a growing world population, but this is only achieving a loss of crops due to a deterioration of the soil and its biogeochemical cycles [31, 32].
The problem shows us that the idea of unlimited economic growth, production dynamics, as well as consumption patterns are increasingly unsustainable; if the trend described above continues, it could put life at risk in all its aspects. Dimensions. We are faced with a scenario that urges us to think of an economy that has life support at its center. Mexico occupies the 7th place as a world producer of vehicles and with an important participation in the market, as can be seen in Table 2.
7th world producer of vehicles in general with 3.6 million vehicles 4,5.
Of the main assembly companies, 21 have a presence in 14 states of the country 9
7th world producer of light vehicles with 3.4 million vehicles 4,6
More than 300 first level suppliers (TIER 1) of the terminal industry 5
4th Exporter of light vehicles With 2.8 million vehicles 7
Creation of 81,927 jobs in the automotive terminal industry 10
5th world producer of heavy vehicles with 191,000 vehicles 4,5
Participation of the automotive and auto parts industry: National GDP10: 3% Manufacturing GDP10: 18% Foreign Direct Investment8 (FDI): 20% Total, exports9: 27%
4th Exporter of heavy vehicles with 156,900 vehicles 5
Table 2.
Data on vehicle production in Mexico.
Source: Adapted and extracted from ProMéxico with information from 1MarketLine, estimates 2OICA 3Fortune Global 500, 2015 4OICA 5ANPACT 6AMIA 7Global Trade Atlas y AMIA 8Ministry of Economy 9ProMexico 10 National Institute of Statistic and Geography (INEGI-by its acronym in Spanish).
Figure 3 shows the 2010 water map, where the problems of water availability in the country can be observed, and in regions where economic productivity is higher, so it is important to consider the impact of the automotive industry, of soft drinks, sugar, mining, paper, textiles, among the main ones. These industries affect the availability of water in addition to generating many pollutants to the water [11, 33]. On the other hand, overexploitation of water leads to the presence of pollutants such as arsenic and fluoride, where there are several regions in Mexico where high levels of arsenic and dental fluorosis have been found impacting the health of the population [26, 27].
3. Technology and its ecological, food and health impacts: analysis and proposals
We understand by technology, in a general way, the application of knowledge to generate new methods, processes, services and devices. Technological innovation, on the other hand, is the transformation of an idea into a product, equipment, or operational process, including new forms of social organization. When studying technological innovation, the analysis of the generation /adoption /implementation/monitoring and evaluation processes of technologies should be included [34].
3.1 Impact of technology on ecology
The extinction of species in the Anthropocene, global climate change and the damage to natural ecosystems caused by human activities, are part of an environmental and socio-ecological crisis that manifests itself at local, regional, and global scales. This crisis calls into question the social coexistence and the bases of the very existence of humanity. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are also indicative of a general framework of poverty, hunger, food insecurity, malnutrition, unsustainable agricultural practices, inequity (economic, social and gender), waste of natural resources, excessive energy consumption and violence and insecurity [34].
3.2 Impact of technology on food production
Crop production technology has changed significantly in recent decades. First, between 1980 and 1990 the direct sowing technique expanded rapidly to replace conventional tillage; later, production was intensified through a greater use of agrochemicals, mainly fertilizers; later transgenic crops were incorporated; and, more recently, differential management by environments, also called “precision agriculture” [26], began to spread.
Expected changes in income and demographics will lead to increased consumption of meat, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and edible oils, increasing demand for agricultural raw materials. More consumers will enjoy an economic and lifestyle situation that will allow them to buy more processed and packaged foods, as well as a growing variety of convenience and luxury food items, but which will not necessarily increase the demand for agricultural raw materials. The ability of the agricultural and food industries to continue to respond to the undoubted increase in demand over the coming decades will largely depend on the increased application of existing technologies, as well as the exploitation of new and innovative technologies [27].
Since its inception, industrial development has polluted the air, water, and land, irreversibly affecting, in some cases, ecosystems. The rapid and excessive use of natural resources and the disregard for preventive measures have favored environmental pollution. In Latin American and Caribbean countries, the overlap of old communicable diseases with new chronic degenerative diseases is notable, together with environmental risk factors or lifestyles that are the cause of increasing morbidity and mortality, and the increase in the costs of health care and decreased productivity and quality of life [28].
The gap is growing, in the generation and application of technology between countries of the center and the countries of the periphery substantially increased the magnitude of poverty in developing countries. Thus, despite spectacular increases in agricultural productivity in recent decades, undernutrition persists in many nations in Asia, Africa and to a lesser extent in Latin America. Undoubtedly, food insecurity, more than a production problem, is a problem of access to available food [29].
According to Lorenzana [29], world food production grew at an unprecedented rate because of the application of the modern system between 1950 and 1970. By then, energy was cheap and there was worldwide the possibility of expanding areas cultivated. This expansion in food production occurred primarily in industrialized countries, especially the U.S.A., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The high subsidies that producers enjoyed in countries like the U.S.A. and Canada made it possible to offer abundant and low-priced food, not only for domestic consumption but also for export. Developing countries, with levels of technological advance far below industrialized countries, took advantage of the low international prices of cereals and later of oilseeds. It was simply cheaper to import the staples than to grow them. The fertile lands in the Third World countries were dedicated to the sowing of non-basic products for export, generating foreign exchange that industrialization required. This is how, during those two decades, there was food in abundance and at low prices.
Several reports indicate that the modernization of food production has had negative consequences on food security. Long ago the human diet was varied, it was made up of various species of plants and animal species. The development of technology and agricultural production methods generated a tendency to focus on the most productive and profitable species, being those that were commercialized in urban areas more profitable, with the rural areas having greater purchasing power. Changes in lifestyles, mainly in large cities, coupled with economic fluctuation, contributed to a more monotonous diet. With technology transfer in developing countries, traditional consumption patterns increasingly resemble Western patterns [29].
For some years and perhaps due to the general recognition of the role of diet in the achievement and maintenance of health, an intense search began, in most cases with great scientific rigor, on food and its effect on health [18].
3.3 Technological and health trends
Some trends in which not only the search for healthy food is combined, but also the possibility of eating properly in today’s difficult world, show that the general public looks for less processed foods with a similar appearance and quality to freshly prepared ones. These include fresh or minimally processed foods, prepared or precooked dishes (refrigerated, frozen), semi-prepared or precooked products that only require heating for consumption and “fast food” in which it is valued that it is quick to consume, easy to carry and which are also healthy products [30].
Technologies have been developed focused on the maintenance or preservation of food, whose objective is the search for alternative heat treatments and the development of non-thermal preservation treatments, to achieve healthier products, with a longer shelf life, and to instead offer the consumer food with minimal processing. These treatments include electrical pulses that are based on the exposure of a food to an electric field, achieving that of microorganisms by destroying the cell membrane, high pressures in which the high hydrostatic pressure has partial sterilization effects, obtaining products of optimal microbiological quality. With few modifications in aroma, flavor, and nutritional value [30].
Other technologies used in food preservation are irradiation, ideal for solid or even frozen foods, the pulses of light which, as the name implies, are flashes of light of great intensity and short duration that eliminate microorganisms and bio conservation in which the Normal bacterial flora of food is controlled to increase its shelf life. It can also favor the growth of a natural microorganism, to limit the growth of others [30].
3.4 Loss and waste foods and its reduction
Recent estimates indicate that a third (30 to 40%) of the food produced globally is lost and wasted in the global food system. Food insecurity is an issue that motivates greater production and quality of food through sustainable ways, but at the same time allows reducing food loss and waste [31, 32].
Along with reducing food loss and waste (FLW) are new ways to preserve food for more. For example, the dehydration of fruits and vegetables with CO2 that excludes negative aspects of conventional dehydration, resulting in a product with better quality, low refrigeration cost, the nutritional quality is maintained and when the product is rehydrated it acquires the appearance of a fresh product [31].
The reduction of food loss must be sought from initial production (farm) to final consumption at home, through short marketing chains. One option is to obtain foods from local markets and thereby reactivate local economies [31].
On the other hand, public policies should be established that motivate both the government and the private sector to develop infrastructure for roads, transportation, storage, and refrigeration facilities, which allows reducing food losses. In addition, sensitize the population to avoid the compulsive purchase of food and provide information and knowledge that allows the actors of the agri-food chains to have standards of safety and hygiene, guaranteeing quality food. However, it is necessary to reactivate the exchange of food, at the local level, to reduce the loss of foods. Likewise, carry out research to develop innovations that allow the elaboration of food products from the remnants [31, 32].
The challenge is not only the production of food for a population in constant growth, but also how to ensure sufficient clean water, agricultural land, energy, and labor, in such a way that the adverse effects on the environment are reduced and satisfying the basic needs of present and future generations [31]. Despite the technological development generated in recent decades, there is still a deficiency in food production, as well as in its transformation; on the other hand, the immense amounts of FLW in the entire food chain causing problems of food insecurity, in addition to serious contamination problems, which opens a huge possibility for the development of strategies to improve the food security conditions of the population.
4. Health impacts: an analysis of the main determinants
The changes in health with an increase in the prevalence of chronic degenerative diseases are increasing according to the statistics at the world and national level. These results are a summary of the main problems that continue to be sustained in the country such as obesity, overweight, dyslipidemia, hypertension and an innovation in this survey is the data on blood lead levels and the frontal labeling questionnaire (Table 3). For physical activity, only 29% of the population performs physical activity for less than 150 minutes per week and the other extreme, 28.1% performs 1680 minutes per week. The survey separates figures for food security and breastfeeding by urban and rural area, but those presented in the table are for urban areas.
Indicators
ENSANUT* 2012Percentage (%)
ENSANUT*2018Percentage (%)
Food security
30
44.5
Diarrheal disease from 0 to 4 years old.
11
11.8
Diabetes in the population aged 20 years and over
9.2
10.3
Hypertension in the population aged 20 years and over.
16.6
18.4
Cholesterol and triglycerides in the population aged 20 years and over
13
19.5
Tobacco habit in the population 10 to 19 years old
1.5 a 9.5
5.1
Exclusive breastfeeding
14.4
28.6
Table 3.
Comparison between main results of the ENSANUT* 2012 vs. 2018.
For the consumption of fruit, vegetables, and legumes, they were below 50% of the different age groups except for the consumption of legumes that was 54.4 for the group of 20 and over. For non-recommended foods, non-dairy drinks sweetened or with added sugars were among the highest for the population of all age groups without difference, being in a range 83.3% for the group of 1 to 4 years to 85.5% for the group 20 and over [33].
On health issues and at the time this review is being carried out, we can observe that sufficient evidence has been generated on the impacts on the industrialization of food and accessibility to them by the population, a recent study found that the consumption of two glasses a day of soda was associated with higher mortality [OR, 1.17; 95% CI: 1.11–1.22; P < 0.001], mainly in participants who presented obesity, although not for those who were overweight [34].
4.1 The meaning of eating
What are the impacts of the industrial revolution up to the era of globalization? Where mobility and commercial exchange (products, services, and food) is more efficient while work and family life is more sedentary and inheritance or eating habits are acquired from social networks, television, different media [17]. The integration of sugar and with it a boom in sugar mills until its replacement in the era of biofuels (high fructose corn syrup). Although the factors associated with obesity and chronic diseases are multiple, the medical literature shows that the consumption of sugary drinks and diets with high energy density are two of the risk factors that contribute to the excess burden of these diseases.
The act of eating is complex, food has a vital component by providing nutrients for the functioning of the human body or organism; but food has cultural meanings, attributes, it is something more than the sum of food, something more than its nutrients or culinary preparation or knowing the origin of these [17]. This meaning will depend on internal and external factors, the latter such as social, political and economic factors that give meaning and that act becomes beyond thinking only about nutrients and health. This must be considered to integrate the meanings.
5. Conclusion
Talking about the meaning of food and food is talking about the main diseases that occur in this XXI century as well as before, during and after the contingency by COVID-19, such as the impacts that an obsolete economic system has had on reduce people’s health and generate an impact on the environment. The multidisciplinary approach allowed to have indicators with which the origin and trajectory of the health-disease processes must be understood from the meaning of food, such as: an economic system and production of goods and services different from that of 40 years ago. That has changed the lifestyle of people, with greater sedentary lifestyle, time to rest and eat, family life, greater stress, greater access to processed or industrialized food, with processes that entail great environmental impacts on water, soil, and air.
With the advent of science and biotechnology, such as the production of high fructose corn syrup, coupled with the contradictory social policies on food that took place in governments since the 70’s, where the increase in the consumption of soft drinks began. In the Mexican population, a disarticulation in achieving health indicators in the population laid the foundations since the boost to the sugar union that was justified with foreign companies with great conflicts of interest, and accelerated growth in the country, lead to a lack of control in terms of economy that will contribute to health promotion. It has always been said that Mexican food is extremely rich and diverse in ingredients, that is true, but it is also true that it contains many elements that are not suitable for a good diet. Knowing how we have developed our food culture allows us to understand the positive and negative effects it has had. The latter should lead us to reflect on the interactions that are generated with health, food, ecology, social, economic, and political aspects.
What effects does colonization have on a food system?
Consider agroecological models instead of traditional ones: Faced with the health and environmental impacts that the prevailing agri-food system has generated, it is proposed as an alternative to agroecology, since it allows us to rebuild sustainable production systems that take as a principle the biophysical limits of nature, allowing biodiversity. Agroecology in turn promotes the channels between producers and consumers through access to healthy food in short proximity circuits, recognizing the importance of peasant wisdom and a right to food.
Obesogenic environments have changed food culture and therefore the concept of health-disease.
The loss and waste of food as a devaluation of food.
Technology for social benefits and to increase the conservation of food without compromising the benefit of being consumed fresh to obtain the greatest benefit from its nutrients.
Finally, the exponential growth of the population leads to a demand for food that has justified the use of agrochemicals, but the production of more food also generates greater loss and waste of food, in addition to not achieving a nutritional enrichment of food in the face of soil. That has been deteriorating. Work life has led to both parents of a household having the need to both go out to work, without being able to invest in food education and therefore generate a food culture, leaving food and therefore destiny in the hands of the agribusiness of the health of minors or any member of the family. The lack of physical activity and time, coupled with greater access to energy-dense foods is what has contributed to the increase in the statistics of chronic degenerative diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemias. Despite living in an era with greater access to information than ever before, the evidence shows that the act of eating and deciding is somewhat more complex, as is the complexity of human development itself, but this complexity is the methodology that It must be considered to address the current obesogenic environments through the approach and understanding of the meaning of food and health from an ecological and historical context.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"sustainable diet, food culture, obesity, industrialized food",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75469.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75469.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75469",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75469",totalDownloads:7,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 7th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"March 5th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Currently the world is facing a viral contingency that has exposed the vulnerability in which the human being is in the face of the alarming statistics of obesity at all ages, increasing the numbers of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer mainly. But not only health has suffered a deterioration worldwide but also the environment with impacts on the availability and quality of water, air pollution and soil deterioration. In México, the food culture has undergone changes derived from greater accessibility to industrialized foods, less physical activity, stress, replacement of consumption and the use of local foods. Currently in Mexico actions are being implemented to rescue agroecology, gastronomy, and food culture. Therefore, this chapter will have the purpose of integrating a historical, ecological and health impacts analysis with what food means and its source or origin for people.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75469",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75469",signatures:"Rebeca Monroy-Torres, Graciela Velázquez-Delgado, Erika Carcaño-Valencia and Gilber Vela-Gutiérrez",book:{id:"8058",title:"Natural History and Ecology of Mexico and Central America",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural History and Ecology of Mexico and Central America",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8058.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",middleName:null,surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 A historical perspective",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Indicators (economic, environmental, food and health)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Environmental and health situation in Mexico",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Technology and its ecological, food and health impacts: analysis and proposals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Impact of technology on ecology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Impact of technology on food production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Technological and health trends",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 Loss and waste foods and its reduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Health impacts: an analysis of the main determinants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1 The meaning of eating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. 2020. 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Guía para la transición hacia sistemas alimentarios y agrícolas sostenibles. 2018. Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/es/c/1147773/'},{id:"B7",body:'Jabbonsky, Larry. The Mexican Resurrection. Beverage World. 1993; 112 (1547): 38-39.'},{id:"B8",body:'Delgado-Ramos GD. Apropiación de agua, medio ambiente y obesidad. Los impactos del negocio de bebidas embotelladas en México. 2015. Editorial CEIICH-UNAM. Disponible en: http://www.giandelgado.net/p/libros.html'},{id:"B9",body:'Ruz-Barrio M A. Las huellas del ganado en el valle de Matlatzinco en el siglo XVI a través de los mapas hispanoindígenas: Relaciones Estudios de Historia y Sociedad. 2019; 35-72.'},{id:"B10",body:'Velázquez-Delgado G, Ayala-Calderón J. Mestizaje alimenticio de Guanajuato durante el Virreinato: Destiempos. 2014; 39: 13-26.'},{id:"B11",body:'Quiroz Enriqueta. Comer en la Nueva España. Privilegios y pesares en la sociedad en el siglo XVIII. Historia y Memoria. 2014; 19-58.'},{id:"B12",body:'Verdaderos preservativos del Chólera morbus, mandados publicar por el E. Ayuntamiento de esta capital. Guanajuato: Tipografía de Juan E. Oñate; 1850. 16 p.'},{id:"B13",body:'Victoria-Uribe M S. La minuta del día. Los tiempos de comida de la élite capitalina a principios del siglo XX: Historia y Grafía. 2010; 15-46.'},{id:"B14",body:'Meléndez J, Aboites-Aguilar L. Para una historia del cambio alimentario en México durante el siglo XX. El arribo del gas y la electricidad a la cocina. Revista de Historia Iberoamericana. 2015; 2: 76-101.'},{id:"B15",body:'Loría E, Salas E. Sobrepeso e integración económica en México. Economía Informa, 2014; 389: 3-18. [Consultado 2020 Dic 15] Disponible en: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0185084914721711 .'},{id:"B16",body:'Acuerdo Nacional para la Salud Alimentaria. 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E., Ruiz-Mercado, I., Gilberto Villanueva, G. Ecología, tecnología e innovación para la sustentabilidad: retos y perspectivas en México. Rev. Mex. De la Biodiversidad. 2020. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmb.2017.09.001'},{id:"B26",body:'Oesterheld, M. Impacto de la agricultura sobre los ecosistemas. Fundamentos ecológicos y problemas más relevantes. Ecología Austral. 2018. 18:337-346.'},{id:"B27",body:'Dennis, C., Aguilera, J.M. Santin, M. Tecnologías que dan lugar al futuro: En: Agroindustria para el desarrollo. Eds: Da Silva, C.A., Baker, D., Shepherd, A.W., Jenane, C., Miranda Da Cruz, S. 2013.'},{id:"B28",body:'Suárez-Herrera, M.A, et al. Impacto de la ciencia y la tecnología en la salud y el cuidado del medio ambiente acuático. Biología. 2004. 18(1) OneFile: Informe Académico.'},{id:"B29",body:'Lorenzana, A. P. Seguridad alimentaria, tecnología y nutrición. Rev. Agroalimentaria. 2014. 8: 49-57.'},{id:"B30",body:'García-Casal, M.N. La alimentación del futuro: Nuevas tecnologías y su importancia en la nutrición de la población. Anales Venezolanos de Nutrición. 2007. 20(2): 108-114.'},{id:"B31",body:'Pérez V.A., Leyva T.D.A., Gómez M.F.C. Desafíos y propuestas para lograr la seguridad alimentaria hacia el año 2050. Rev. Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas. 2018.9(1): 175-189.'},{id:"B32",body:'RED-PDA 12.3. Estrategias para la Reducción y Pérdidas de Desperdicios de Alimentos. Día Mundial para la Concientización de las Pérdidas y Desperdicios de Alimentos. 2020.'},{id:"B33",body:'Monroy-Torres, R. Lo que la población debe conocer sobre los resultados de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (ENSANUT 2018). REDICINAySA. 2020. 4(1); 5-9. Available at: https://www.ugto.mx/redicinaysa/images/publicaciones/2020/REDICINAYSA-VOL-9-NO-1-ENERO-FEBRERO-2020.pdf'},{id:"B34",body:'Mullee A, Romaguera D, Pearson-Stuttard J, et al. Association Between Soft Drink Consumption and Mortality in 10 European Countries. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(11):1479-1490.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rebeca Monroy-Torres",address:"rmonroy79@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Laboratory of Environmental Nutrition and Food Security, Health Sciences Division, University of Guanajuato, Mexico
Laboratory of Research and Functional Products Development, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food, University of Science and Arts of Chiapas, Mexico
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Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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CSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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The University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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CSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
The Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\n
\n\t
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
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