Predicted water inflows into the shaft [7].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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At Mohawk College, he designed and developed the first-ever degree program in Process Automation, in addition, to jointly securing funding with two other colleagues to establish a Process Automation Applied Research Centre.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Gao has published over 100 journal and conference papers, 1 book,\r\nand 4 book chapters in areas of advanced robotics, automation, and artificial Intelligence. \r\nHe serves as the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Intelligent Machines and\r\nRobotics; he is also the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Robotic and Mechatronic Systems.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"333793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"ishwar-singh",fullName:"Ishwar Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031TBdSQAW/Profile_Picture_1616070554137",biography:null,institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"353808",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhen",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"zhen-gao",fullName:"Zhen Gao",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y0000364SnZQAU/Profile_Picture_1615808028038",biography:"Zhen Gao is an assistant professor in the School of Engineering Practice and Technology\r\n(SEPT) at McMaster University which he joined in July 2014. Since September 2020, he was\r\nappointed as Program Lead for a Master’s program in Systems & Technology which was focused\r\non Cyber Physical System. He has published over 100 journal and conference papers, 1 book,\r\nand 4 book chapters in areas of advanced robotics, automation and artificial Intelligence. Dr. Gao\r\nis the Associate Editor for the Conference Editorial Board of the IEEE Robotics and Automation\r\nSociety, 2021 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. He was the sessional\r\nchair For 9th International Conference on Interactive, Collaborative, and Blended Learning, and\r\nfor International Conference on Interactive Mobile Communication, Technologies and Learning.\r\nDr. Gao served as the Program Committee Member for World Congress on Intelligent Control\r\nand Automation, International Conference on Information and Automation, IEEE Conference on\r\nRobotics and Biomimetics, IEEE International Conference on Real-time Computing and\r\nRobotics, IEEE International Conference on Automation and Logistics, and International\r\nConference on Intelligent Robotics and Applications, and IEEE Canadian Conference on\r\nElectrical and Computer Engineering. His current research interests include industrial\r\ncontrollers, advanced robotics and automation, artificial intelligence, neural network and pattern\r\nrecognition. He serves as the Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of Intelligent Machines and\r\nRobotics; he is also the Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Robotic and Mechatronic Systems.",institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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In Poland, where usable minerals are usually covered by thick layers of heavily waterlogged overburden, the construction of new shafts poses extraordinary difficulties. New shafts continue to be designed and constructed in quite challenging hydrogeological conditions in Poland, as well as in other countries worldwide. Hence, it would be fruitful to look at some Polish experiences in coping with this extremely difficult hydrogeology while mining deposits of both hard-coal and nonferrous metal ores. A range of detailed examples of how to eliminate such water hazards has been provided elsewhere [1, 2, 3]. Over the last three decades, Poland has seen at least several cases involving shaft flooding. These occurred mainly during the sinking phase. There are many methods for eliminating water hazards and dewatering flooded shafts to put them back into operation. This paper presents two cases of highly problematic flooding in shaft sunk through highly waterlogged layers using the freezing method, both leading to considerable construction delays. The first case involved the removal of increased water inflow into the R-XI shaft at KGHM. In the other case, problems occurred due to a shaft passing through an Albian layer in the S. 1.3 shaft sunk for the Lubelski Węgiel Bogdanka S.A. mining corporation. Although completely different from each other, these cases provide useful guidance and a serious warning against hasty shaft design or a careless approach to constructing shafts [4, 5, 6]. Considered completely safe for shaft construction, the technological solutions presented here should be of interest to experts in water-related mining issues.
Waterlogged overburden formations as deep as 700 m below the ground have made it necessary for Polish mining corporations to use the freezing method to construct all copper mine shafts and most hard-coal mine shafts. Hundreds of shafts have been successfully sunk in Poland using this technology. However, when it seemed that the engineers had virtually eliminated freezing pipe leaks in the boreholes, a major problem that had caused brine leaks into frozen rock, water hazards emerged in completely unexpected and highly unlikely situations.
The R-XI shaft was not the first structure of this type constructed by PeBeKa S.A. in the Polish Copper Basin area [7]. Hydrogeological surveys preceding the shaft work at depths of 431.0–630.0 m indicated no significant water hazards along this section. The projected water inflows into the shaft face below the 431.0 m level are shown in Table 1. The R-XI shaft was designed to serve as a ventilation shaft and has the following parameters [5]:
Lining diameter—7.5 m
Total depth—1250 m
Aquifer thill depth—630 m
Freezing depth—635 m
Depth interval [m] | Water inflow [m3/min] | |
---|---|---|
Minimum to maximum | Average | |
431.0–460.0 | 0.042–0.070 | 0.056 |
460.0–470.0 | 0.042–0.070 | 0.056 |
470.0–500.0 | 0.061–0.330 | 0.160 |
500.0–565.0 | 0.205–0.490 | 0.334 |
565.0–630.0 | 0.334–0.550 | 0.425 |
Predicted water inflows into the shaft [7].
At the time, this shaft had the greatest rock freezing depth at 635 m. PeBeKa Lubin applied many innovative rock freezing solutions. One of them was selective freezing using two types of freezing holes: short holes with a depth of 395 m and long holes with a depth of 635 m. This method made it possible to achieve a frozen mantle that was thickest in its lower portion, where the water pressure was found to be the highest.
Because a gallery had already been excavated near the shaft at a depth of 1212.7 m, the design included a simplified drainage system for the shaft face below the freezing zone. This was achieved through a dewatering borehole drilled in the shaft axis vertically upwards from a level of 1212.7 m. This made it possible to dispense with the construction of an expensive cascade drainage system and significantly facilitated shaft sinking at depths of 635–1212.7 m. At the 503.6–632.4 m shaft section, the design included a combined panel and concrete lining, i.e., a top-down panel lining and a concrete, monolithic, bottom-up lining using panel forms. The concrete lining was laid on a 2.6-m-thick base ring beam set between depths of 632.4 and 635.0 m (Figure 1).
The last phases of shaft sinking in the frozen rock area. (a) Installation of foundation for the final shaft concrete lining. (b) Section of final shaft concrete lining with drainage. Explanations: 1, three-deck shaft working platform; 2, cast-iron shaft lining; 3, preliminary pre-cast segmental shaft lining; 4, shaft lining foundation; 5, boreholes in the drainage system; 6, sliding formwork H = 3.75 m; 7, dewatering borehole TS-1 (d = 3.5,” L = 576 m); 8, final concrete lining.
According to the records [6, 7], the in situ rock temperature at a depth of 632 m was about 32°C. So, it was reasonable to expect that the end portion of the frozen mantle would also be exposed to increased heat from below. When the shaft face reached a depth of 632 m without any difficulties, it seemed that the most challenging section had been sunk as designed and on schedule. Yet, nature retained its unpredictability.
After the two last reinforced concrete panel rings had been completed, with excess material excavated to make a curb gap 4 (Figure 1) at a depth of 632 m, a small water leak, estimated at about 3–5 L/min, was noticed at the shaft bottom at the thill sidewall interface. The water was clean, very cold, and slightly salty. For a shaft sunk using the freezing method, in which the freezing core usually has a temperature below −15°C, this was unusual and perplexing. Since the freezing pipes had reached a depth of 635 m, no liquid water should have occurred at a depth of 632 m. However, this phenomenon could be partly explained by the water’s salinity. Unfortunately, the electrical conductivity of this water has not been documented. In these circumstances, the TS-1 dewatering borehole work was intensified. Also, work commenced on the final concrete lining 8 (Figure 1)—constructed from the bottom up—equipped with a drainage system [7].
It was found that even though all the freezing safety requirements had been observed, the ice mantle along this section was not completely watertight and did not fully prevent water inflow into the shaft face. The movement of slightly saline water at a temperature above zero (tw > 0°C) caused the frozen mantle to be soaked from below and consistently thawed, with water inflows effectively increasing day by day. The situation was becoming dangerous, as no shaft pipe drainage had been planned down to this depth. This meant that the shaft had no pipelines through which the water could be pumped up to the surface. The further section of the shaft was designed to allow drainage via the TS-1 dewatering borehole drilled from a level of 1212.7 m (Figure 2).
The phases of dewatering the sunken shaft section. (a) Shaft flooding. (b) Dewatering of the shaft using a “RITZ” submersible pump, (c) replacing the concrete lining along the 574.3–632.9 m section with a cast-iron tubing lining. Explanations: 1–8, see
The increasing inflow of water was diverted to the surface using only buckets. After about 2 weeks of shaft work involving the construction of a concrete curb at a depth of 635 m and the construction of an 18 m final concrete lining, water inflow into the shaft had increased to about 700 L/min. In this situation, it was impossible to continue any work in the shaft other than intensive dewatering using of buckets. Ultimately, this measure did not save the shaft from partial flooding. The water table in the shaft stabilized at a depth of 533.0 m, which means that the water column was 102 m (see Figure 2).
Due to the prolonged length of the 564 m TS-1 dewatering borehole and the water level reaching 533 m (Figure 2a), the decision was made to use a high-performance RITZ submersible pump (HDM 6723/11DPF). Installed 4 weeks later, with a capacity of 15 m3/min, the submersible pump succeeded in quickly dewatering the flooded shaft section (Figure 2b). Also, after 2 months of further work, the water inflow into the shaft was found to have reached 2.5 m3/min. The dewatering borehole TS-1 (Figure 2) was successfully completed almost at the same time the shaft was dewatered using the submersible pump. After 6 weeks of intensive and highly precise drilling work, the borehole reached the shaft bottom, located only 0.5 m from the shaft axis. By this point, the water inflow had increased to 3.0 m3/min. Since the water inflow was expected to increase further, the decision was made to drill a second dewatering borehole—TS-2 (Figure 2c). Due to the considerable water hazard associated with a water inflow of 3.0 m3/min, it was also decided that the section with a waterproof tubing lining be extended to the 650 m level. In addition, the decision was made to comprehensively grout the entire area affected by the substantial water inflow.
The substantial water inflow forced the shaft construction company to both further redesign the shaft lining and adjust the sinking technology along the 635–650-m-deep section. Apart from the costly dewatering, one of the direct effects of the partial shaft flooding was the need to redesign the lining in the flooding area (Figure 2). The concrete panel lining was replaced by a tubing panel lining, with a concrete tube set between them (Figure 2c) [7]. Due to this replacement, it was additionally necessary to:
Demolish the completed 18 m section of the concrete lining above the curb, at a depth of 635 m, without damaging the preliminary panel lining.
Partially demolish the curb at a depth of 635 m and mount a steel ring beam on the curb’s foundations to lay the first tubing ring.
Construct the lining of 39 N-130a tubing rings from the bottom up, to a depth of 574.3 m, without damaging the preliminary panel lining, the initial step being to lay the first ring on the steel ring beam in the curb at a depth of 635 m.
Complete the grouting work above the curb, at a depth of 635 m, so that the shaft could be safely sunk along the 635–650 m interval.
Sink the shaft along the 635–650 m tubing-lined section, including constructing a curb at a depth of 650 m.
Construct the lining of N-120 cast-iron tubing rings from the 574.3 m level upwards to the point of connection between the picotage gap and the upper tubing column at a depth of 500.47 m.
In the first phase, the rock behind the lining was grouted using multiple techniques. In the first phase, 3-m-long holes were drilled in rings 309 and 310 through cement plugs in the tubing lining. A total of 26 t of cement grout were injected behind the lining through these holes to separate the upper water horizons from the problem area of the shaft.
In the second phase, the cement grout was injected behind the lining along the 617.9–635.0 m section, using 2-m-long horizontal holes drilled through the concrete plugs, 10-m-long horizontal holes drilled through the cement plugs, and 15-m-long inclined holes drilled at an angle of 40° through the concrete plugs. Due to the very substantial water inflow from this area, “Ekopur HW” quickset two-component polyurethane adhesive was used in addition to the cement grout. The grouting work is illustrated in Figure 3 [7]. Once the 635–650 m section of the shaft had been sunk, a curb was made in the tubing lining, comprising 130a tubings (9 rings) installed from the top down at a depth of 650 m, and a shaft face dewatering system was installed using boreholes TS-1 and TS-2 (Figure 2).
Grouting process and shaft sinking along the 635–650 m section. (a) Grouting along the 598.4–635.0 m section, phase 1 and 2; (b) shaft sinking along the 635–650 m section, (c) grouting along the 635–650 m section, phase 3. Explanations: 1, cementation of the rock behind the lining (insulating layer) in N-130a tubing rings 309 and 310; 2, grouting of the rock behind the tubing lining through concrete plug holes in the tubing; 3, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (2-m-long horizontal holes); 4, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (10-m-long horizontal holes); 5, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through concrete plug holes (15-m-long inclined holes); 6, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (2.0-m-long inclined holes), 7, grouting of the rock and tubing lining through “cementation” holes in tubings (10.0-m-long inclined holes).
In the third phase, cement grout was injected behind the lining along the 635–635.0 m section (Table 2). Then, as part of the fourth grouting phase, the entire 574–500 m section of the tubing lining was sealed. It took a total of more than 500 t of materials (Table 2) to complete the grouting process.
Phase | Grouting materials used [Mg] | ||
---|---|---|---|
Cement | EKOPUR HW polyurethane | Total | |
Phase 1 | 45.5 | 24.5 | 70.0 |
Phase 2 | 33.3 | 14.8 | 48.1 |
Phase 3 | 16.4 | 0.32 | 16.7 |
Phase 4 | 342.7 | 32.4 | 375.1 |
Grouting materials used to prevent water inflow [7].
The hydrogeology of the Lublin Coal Basin is highly complex, and mining in this area is challenging. At 710 m from the surface, the coal measures are covered by heavily waterlogged Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Quaternary formations. This has considerable implications for mine shaft sinking. A simplified geological profile is presented in Figure 4.
Diagram of the S-1.3 shaft sinking using both rock freezing and rock heating. 1, boreholes for rock heating along the 0–180 m section; 2, boreholes for deep freezing along the 0–570 m section; 3, concrete plug above the Albian layer; 4, drainage boreholes in the Albian layer; 5, working with a drilling chamber at a depth of 754 m; 6, frozen rock mantle; 7, final concrete panel lining; 8, cast-iron tubing lining along the Albian formation section.
All the shafts in this basin had to be sunk using the freezing method, at least along the 0–180 m section [4, 6, 8]. The first shafts for the Bogdanka Mine were given the numbers S-1.1, S-1.2, and S-1.3. After the S-1.1 shaft had been sunk to a depth of 960 m, a disastrous water leakage occurred from the connector pipes left in the lining, which caused extensive flooding. Consequently, it was necessary to fill in and abandon that shaft. Drawing on the S-1.1 experience, the S-1.2 shaft was sunk to the target depth of 995 m without any major difficulties. Although the flooding of the S-1.1 shaft had also caused partial flooding of the S-1.2 shaft through the galleries already sunk to a depth of 960 m, the dewatering proved to be fairly easy. The sinking of the S-1.3 shaft might be the most interesting and perhaps the only such case in the global history of shaft construction, as it ultimately required simultaneous rock freezing in the lower section and rock heating in the upper section. Below is a detailed discussion of how this was done.
The experience gained sinking the S-1.1 and S-1.2 shafts indicated that it was possible to use a different technology, more based on the traditional sinking method, which is much less costly. A decision was made to freeze the rocks along the 0–180 m section before constructing the first section, as it passed through the Quaternary strata and the highly waterlogged layers of Cretaceous formations, with a maximum depth of 162 m (see Figure 4). Below the 180 m level, the plan was to sink the shaft to a depth of 570 m using conventional method, i.e., without rock freezing. This would substantially reduce costs. The biggest puzzle, and, as the construction company would see, the greatest challenge involved in this shaft sinking project was the thin (≈2.9 m) Albian layer (Figure 4), which was composed of sandy-lime quicksand with a water pressure of about 5.5 MPa. An assumption was made that a shaft working could pass through such a thin layer of waterlogged formation once the layer had been provided with borehole drainage system (Figure 4) drilled in the working at a depth of 754 m. With the drainage system in place, the pressure could be reduced, making it possible to petrify both the Albian formations and the Jurassic formations deposited underneath, all the way to the Carboniferous roof. This way, the shaft could be sunk conventionally down to the target depth of 1035.45 m.
Here, we should warn those who are enthusiastic about using grouting, regardless of the conditions. In this specific case, the company constructing the shaft failed to provide the mentioned formations with a drainage system. In effect, it became impossible to chemically petrify the Jurassic formations any further, and the only viable sinking option left was the freezing method. At this point, the expected substantial savings stemming from the use of a different shaft sinking method were no longer viable. In addition, the construction company faced the problem of refreezing within the 0–570 m zone, where the final lining had already been laid. The Polish engineers involved in the project knew that the refreezing of rocks would produce a great pressure surge on the lining, effectively destroying it [6].
The engineers considered it necessary to drill 43 additional boreholes at a depth of 610 m. These had an unusual diameter of 308 mm and were drilled in an 18 m diameter circle [3, 8]. Also, an unprecedented decision was made to use sectional freezing—an approach which, although theoretically known and viable, had not been applied in shaft construction before. Thus, the boreholes were fitted with two freezing pipe columns and a column of downcomer tubes inside a 139.7 mm diameter column. They were properly sealed so that the brine could circulate only in the lower parts of the boreholes, below 570 m.
Regrettably, this plan failed, too. The shrinkage stress in the steel due to the low temperature of the brine caused the outer column to leak, allowing water to enter the borehole. This complicated the whole process of section freezing, making it necessary to reconsider freezing along the entire depth of the shaft. As feared, the freezing caused damage to the lining along the 0–570 m section soon after commenced. At this point, the decision was made to apply a globally unprecedented solution, in which the lower section of the shaft was frozen, while the upper part of the shaft, along the 0–180 m section, was heated with warm water. To provide the inflow of warm water, the engineers used the boreholes drilled to freeze the first section of the shaft along a circle with a diameter of 14 m. The work diagram is presented in Figure 4.
Ultimately, this unprecedented project proved a technological success. However, although the shaft was eventually sunk, the project can hardly be described as successful, given the completion period of almost 10 years and the substantial energy costs involved. The substantial costs of sinking the S-1.3 shaft are reflected in the amount of energy consumed in the process of rock freezing and heating. These parameters are shown in Table 3. It should be noted that the actual values were much lower (by about 38%) than the design values.
Parameter | Design | Actual |
---|---|---|
Freezing time, months | 9.2 | About 7 |
Amount of energy consumed to create the frozen mantle, MJ | 71,310,951 | 45,638,000 |
Heat supplied through the boreholes along the 14 m diameter circle (0–180 m), MJ | 15,323,000 | 12,509,800 |
Heat supplied through the air supply duct to the warm-air shaft, MJ | 23,197,000 | 16,130,000 |
109,830,951 | 74,277,800 |
Projected and actual energy consumption in the process of rock freezing when sinking the S-1.3 shaft [3].
This paper shows how changeable and unpredictable hydrogeology can lead to challenging and very costly problems in shaft sinking projects. In the case of the polish shafts, a water hazard that had not been accurately identified by hydrogeological surveys led to a number of adverse effects. These included the substantial amount of grouting materials used, the extended project completion period (it took almost an additional year to finish the project), and the need to replace the concrete panel lining with tubing lining along a 150-m-long section of the shaft.
This paper presents case histories that should serve as the ultimate warning against underestimating the projected inflow of water into a shaft during its sinking. A number of shaft construction projects recently implemented in Poland further illustrate this point. Since water inflow projections proved inaccurate, it is necessary to improve the accuracy of hydrogeological surveys in the areas where mining is planned. Poland has extensive and highly informative experience in successfully dealing with water hazards related to shaft construction.
Aluminium (Al) amongst several metals is attractive due to its ductility, malleability, good conductivity, light weight, good strength and availability in abundance (8% of earth crust is aluminium). It combines with hard materials like ceramic and offer promising metal matrix composites (MMCs) with improved properties and hence finding wide range of industrial and structural applications including aerospace, automotive, marine and military [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. For developing aluminium-based metal matrix composites various methods are applied by various researchers in liquid metallurgy routes for mass production. Reinforcement in aluminium metal matrix composites can be in particulate, whisker, continuous or discontinuous fibres. Their addition to the base metal may vary in percentage resulting in improved properties. Composites having aluminium as base metal gives the following advantages: higher strength, improved stiffness, reduced density, survival at high temperature, high wear and corrosion resistance, improved damping capabilities [2].
\nFor developing aluminium-based metal matrix composites various methods like powder metallurgy, spray decomposition, liquid metal infiltration, squeeze casting, mechanical alloying and compo casting are applied by various researchers in liquid metallurgy routes for mass production. Most common method use for processing of aluminium MMCs by powder metallurgy (PM). Via PM route aluminium MMCs can be prepared either by direct metal oxidation (DIMOX) or by reinforcements of particles in the matrix so as to achieve high density, high hardness and strength. In MMCs generally matrix component is more in quantity and reinforcement is a contrasting phase distributed in the matrix in order to reinforce it. The reinforcement rather than making a solid solution with the base matrix, it gets distributed all around it. When three constituents are present, it is called a hybrid composite. The aim of the reinforcement particles is to give high strength and stiffness to the composite and the aim of the matrix is to bind the reinforced particles together by virtue of its adhesive and cohesive nature and to transfer the load to and between reinforcements. In case of particle reinforced composites significant improvement is obtained in the mechanical properties in terms of strength, hardness and stiffness [6, 7, 8]. As a continuous phase, the matrix controls the interlaminar strength, elevated-temperature strength and transverse properties of the composite. The matrix holds reinforcing particles in the proper orientation and position so that they can carry the intended loads and distributes the loads evenly among the reinforcements so in a way matrix allows the strength of the reinforcements to be used to their full potential. The matrix also provides a vital inelastic response so that stress concentration are reduced and internal stresses are redistributed from broken reinforcements, reinforcements increase strength, decrease the coefficient of thermal expansion, and improve the wear resistance at a cost of a reduction in ductility and in fracture toughness [9]. Amongst the various methods employed to synthesize metal matrix composites, stir casting method is preferred and used for bulk production. The particular advantages of this process lie in its simplicity, cost effectiveness, flexibility and applicability to larger size components and mass production [10]. Selection of optimum parameters of stirring speed, stirring time, uniform feed rate of particles preheating temperature of the mould results in homogenous mixing and wetting of reinforced particles with base metal. It is seen that the cost of manufacturing of composite materials using a conventional casting method is about one third to half as that of competitive methods and, for high volume production, this cost is expected to reach the level of one-tenth [11]. In MMC’s processing there are limitations with the conventional methods as conventionally produced composites are thermodynamically unstable when used at high temperature for longer time [12].
\nAs it is known that today aluminium metal matrix composites are considered the most potential material for structural and functional applications and are finding versatile application in industries due to their price including defence, aerospace, automotive and thermal management areas, as well as in sports and recreation because of their unique isotropic properties of high strength, high stiffness, reduced density (weight), high wear, abrasion and corrosion resistance and improved high temperature properties. These properties are limited in conventional alloys [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Some of the applications of Al MMCs are shown in Figure 1 [13]. It is reported that in aluminium-based metal matrix composites fabrication aluminium is reinforced with different reinforcing material like MgO, SiC, MnO, Al2O3 which give high mechanical properties to these composites like hardness, fracture toughness and reduced density (weight). Al MMCs consist of hard particles like SiC, WC, Al2O3, etc. and these particles make the aluminium matrix plastically constrained which improves its high temperature properties and they give superior mechanical and wear resistant properties [14].
\n(a) Piston, (b) engine with cylinder barrel, (c) piston connecting rod, (d) brake system made of aluminium (Al) metal matrix composites (MMCs) [
Researchers have reinforced Al matrix with different metallic, non-metallic and ceramic elements to have desired physical and mechanical properties. Stir casting given by Ray [15] is the best liquid state fabrication technique through which metal matrix composites can be successfully processed. In this method reinforcements are dispersed in molten metal matrix by mechanical stirring as shown in Figure 2. Al-Al2O3 (MnO2) hybrid MMCs were processed
Stir casting set up schematic diagram.
Now a days, aluminium-based metal matrix composites (Al MMCs) are used in making of piston, connecting rod, contactors, where sliding is an important factor [26]. Excessive wear of the mating components sometimes leads to catastrophic failures [27]. So study of wear properties of Al MMCs has become the need of time. Wear tests are generally conducted on ball/pin wear tester, schematic diagram as represented in Figure 3. Wear properties of many MMCs having continuous and discontinuous reinforcements like Al2O3, MnO2, SiC, graphite, mica, glass, graphite and others have been reported [28, 29, 30].
\nSchematic diagram for sliding wear ball on disc tests.
There has been increasing interest in composites and many researchers contributing their work in the area of wear analysis of aluminium composites, cermets, ceramics [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. Umanath et al. [30], examined the effect of SiC and Al2O3 on dry sliding wear behaviour of Al6061 hybrid composites prepared by stir casting method, results showed that with increase in the volume content, wear decreases due to the presence of hard oxide particles. Suresh et al. [39] investigated the wear behaviour of Al6061 reinforced with Al2O3 and graphite by keeping 2 wt.% graphite constant and Al2O3 content is varied 2–8 wt.%. The reinforcement of Al2O3 and graphite improved the tribological behaviour and caused reduction in the wear of Al6061 composites. The wear decreased with the increase of speed and aluminium oxide percentage. Basavarajappa and Chandramohan [40], worked on the dry sliding wear behaviour of Al2219 reinforced with SiC (0–15 wt.%). Results shows that 15% SiC reinforced composites have better wear resistance then other composites. Raghavendra and Ramamurthy [41], examined the influence of particle size and volume fraction on wear behaviour of Al7075 alloy reinforced with Al2O3 particles, size is varied 100–200 microns and the volume fraction is varied 3–12 wt.%. Results showed that hardness increased with decrease in particle size and the wear rate was reduced with reduction in particle size. Increase in volume fraction reduced the wear and coefficient of friction. Vivekanandan et al. [42], investigated the wear resistance by varying load on the fly ash reinforced composites. Fly ash was added to the aluminium alloy and fabricated by stir casting method. At varying load it was noticed that wear rate of composites was less than the pure alloy at all loads. Kumar et al. [43], worked on the mechanical and wear behaviour of aluminium-fly ash composites formed by stir casting method. It was found that the hardness of composites increased with increase in addition of fly ash. Addition of fly ash shows improvement in the strength of composites. Strengthening of composites is due to dispersion and reinforcement. Both the wear rate and frictional force decreased with the adding of fly ash in Al6063 alloy. The aforementioned literatures show that various researchers have attempted to improve the properties of Al alloy by adding different alloying elements.
\nAl2O3 alloy when reinforced with 20 wt.% of alumina gives better wear resistance properties [44]. Al6061-alumina fibre composites abrasive wear rate is reported to be very less than the matrix alloy and is reported to have better wear resistance almost six times the matrix alloy [44]. The reason attributes to it is due to the addition of hard ceramic particles. Wear rate of Al7091 alloy and Al7091-SiC composites have almost same wear rate at 1.2 m/s sliding velocity whereas at increasing sliding velocity composites show less wear than un reinforced matrix [45, 46, 47]. TiO2 as reinforcement in Al alloys give high mechanical properties as hardness and superior corrosion resistance [11]. Al6061 is considered as candidate material to prepare MMCs owing to its better formability characteristics and option of modification of the strength of composites by adopting optimal heat treatment [26]. Dinaharan et al. [48] fabricated aluminium alloy Al6061 reinforced with ZrB2 particles (10 wt.%) and found ZrB2 particles into the aluminium matrix improved tensile strength and wear resistance but reduced ductility and corrosion resistance. The wear resistance was measured using a pin-on-disc wear apparatus at room temperature according to ASTM G99-04 standard under dry sliding conditions. The polished surface of the pin of 6 × 6 × 50 mm was slide on a hardened chromium steel disc. The test was carried out at a sliding velocity of 15 m/s, normal force of 25 N and sliding distance of 2500 m. Wear resistance for Al6061 and Al6061/10 ZrB2 is found to be 182.48 and 377.51 m/mm3. The pitting corrosion rate was measured using potentiodynamic anodic polarisation technique as per ASTM G5 (ACM Gill-5500) at room temperature and found that 0.0230 and 0.1746 mm/year corrosion rate for Al6061 and Al6061/10 ZrB2. Lus et al. [49] investigated the wear properties of
The effect of external ultrasonic treatment during solidification of a casted hypereutectic Al-Si (18% Si) alloy is studied by Unal et al. [50] and found that it has favourably affected the hardness and provided an increase of 15–20%. From the pin on disc wear tests performed under 67 N and with 1250 m sliding distance, it was revealed that the ultrasonic treated and non-treated samples exhibited similar amounts of weight loss [50]. Yamanoglu et al. [51] studied the effect of nickel (1–5 wt.%) on microstructure and pin on disc wear behaviour of pure aluminium against steel and alumina counter faces. The dry sliding wear response of the Al-
Severe wear damage was observed at low and high nickel contents. Maximum wear resistance was obtained with the addition of 3 wt.% nickel to the pure aluminium under both loads and against both counter faces. The wear resistance of the alloys increased with increasing nickel content up to 3 wt.% Ni and tended to decrease >3 wt.% Ni. The wear rate of the Al-
Summarising, literature survey shows that Al base MMCs are of huge need as they are used for various applications as for making different machine components as heavy duty pistons, aircraft generator housings, air cooled cylinder heads, engine crankcases, petrol and oil tanks, oil pans, water cooled cylinder heads, rear axle housings, flywheel housings, automotive transmission cases, oil pans, rear axle housings, brackets, water cooled cylinder blocks, various fittings and pump bodies, air brake castings, gear cases, air cooled cylinder heads, air brake castings, gear cases, air cooled cylinder heads, Internal combustion engine pistons and blocks, cylinder bodies for compressors, pumps and brakes which gets degraded with passage of time due to either wear (abrasive, adhesive) or corrosion so its becomes very essential to study their wear properties [56].
\nPresent industrial developments are associated with materials having advantageous physical, mechanical and wear characteristics that can achieve technological needs. Aluminium and its composites are best suited materials as have better properties than unreinforced materials. Beneficial properties with reduced prices have enlarged their applications. Al MMCs are used in defence, aerospace, automotive, aviation, thermal management areas in engine pistons, cylinders barrel, connection rods, elements of vehicles braking systems because of their unique properties of high hardness, high strength, high stiffness, high wear, abrasion and corrosion resistance.
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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