\r\n\tb) how a concentrated attention focus on screens (i.e., tablets and smartphones) could result in a total activity absorption and a flow experience; \r\n\tc) teens' preference for media social interaction appears to be closely associated with impaired modes of mood regulation; \r\n\td) the web activities as factors of externalized and/or internalized risks; \r\n\te) the implementation of health promotion interventions by Internet Apps; finally, \r\n\tf) the cross-cultural differences and similarities about teen approaches to the web around the world.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with an overview of studies with a research topic that is crucial today: the need to integrate teens' use of the web into the processes contributing to determine adolescents' developmental trajectories and Quality of Life.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-594-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-593-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-595-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f005179bb7f6cd7c531a00cd8da18eaa",bookSignature:"Prof. Massimo Ingrassia and Prof. Loredana Benedetto",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg",keywords:"Media Multitasking, Brain Development, Optimal-Experience Conditions, Digital Media Use, Mood Self-Regulation, Social Networking, Health Risk Behaviors, Internalizing/Externalizing Risk, Health Behaviors, Prevention, Cross-Cultural Research, Teen",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"21 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Massimo Ingrassia is Director of the Post-graduate Advanced Studies in Palliative care and pain management for psychologists and a scientific advisor in research projects assessing psychological adjustment and therapeutic adherence in chronic illness. He was the author or co-author of several articles, and editor of the books on Parenting.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Loredana Benedetto, Ph.D., is a psychologist and professor of Developmental and Educational Psychology at the Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina. She was a scientific consultant for projects supporting families of the disabled and interventions in pediatric palliative care.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"193901",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Ingrassia",slug:"massimo-ingrassia",fullName:"Massimo Ingrassia",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193901/images/system/193901.png",biography:"Massimo Ingrassia, PsyD, is an Associate Professor of Developmental and Educational Psychology at Messina University, Italy, where he teaches graduate and postgraduate courses in Health Psychology. He is the Director of the postgraduate advanced studies in Palliative Care and Pain Management for Psychologists. His research interests include risk behaviors in adolescence and emerging adulthood, childhood development and digital technologies, pediatric palliative care and family resilience, and quality of life and chronic diseases. Dr. Ingrassia is also a scientific advisor for research projects assessing psychological adjustment and therapeutic adherence in chronic illness. He is the author or coauthor of several articles and books, including Growing Connected: Web’s Resources and Pitfalls",institutionString:"University of Messina",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193200/images/system/193200.png",biography:"Loredana Benedetto, Ph.D., is a psychologist and Professor of Developmental and Educational Psychology at the Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Italy. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in the areas of typical and atypical development, parent-child relationships, educational psychology, and family-based interventions. She has been a scientific consultant for projects supporting families of disabled children and interventions in pediatric palliative care. Her research interests focus on parenting assessment, self-efficacy and parental cognition, digital parenting and problematic use of the Internet in children, metacognition and childhood disorders, early intervention in autism and developmental disabilities, and behavioral parent training. She is the author or editor of several books, including Parenting: Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources (coedited with Massimo Ingrassia).",institutionString:"University of Messina",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. Ryan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96493",title:"Prof.",name:"Huei Tse",surname:"Hou",slug:"huei-tse-hou",fullName:"Huei Tse Hou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17593",title:"Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/22319",slug:"alternative-fuels-in-cement-manufacturing",body:'
1. Introduction
Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas provide most of the energy needs of the world today. Coal and natural gas are used in their natural forms, but petroleum and other fossil fuels such as shale and bituminous sands require distillation and refinement to give usable fuels. These fuels exist in any of the following forms: solid, liquid and gas. The finite nature of global fossil fuel resources, high prices and most importantly, their damaging effect on the environment underscore the need to develop alternative fuels[1] - for many industrial systems that rely on fossil fuels. Increased use of renewable and alternative fuels can extend fossil fuel supplies and help resolve air pollution problems associated with the use of conventional fuels.
This chapter reviews in detail some of the main alternative fuels used in cement production. It focuses on types of alternative fuels used, the environmental and socio-economic benefits of using alternative fuels, challenges associated with switching from conventional to alternative fuels, combustion characteristics of the alternative fuels concerned, and their effect on cement production and quality. The aim of this chapter is to provide empirical evaluation of alternative fuels. It offers an invaluable source of information for cement manufacturers that are interested in using alternative fuels. Researchers and students would also find this information valuable for their professional and academic development.
Cement is considered one of the most important building materials around the world. Cement production is an energy-intensive process consuming thermal energy of the order of 3.3 GJ/tonne of clinker produced. Electrical energy consumption is about 90 – 120 kWh/tonne of cement (Giddings, et al, 2000; European Commission [EC] 2001). Historically, the primary fuel used in cement industry is coal. A wide range of other fuels such as gas, oil, liquid waste materials, solid waste materials and petroleum coke have all been successfully used as sources of energy for firing cement-making kilns, either on their own or in various combinations.
The cement manufacturing industry is also under increasing pressure to reduce emissions. Cement manufacturing releases a lot of emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx). It is estimated that 5 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions originate from cement production (Hendriks, et al, 1998). The use of alternative fuels in cement manufacturing, therefore do not only afford considerable energy cost reduction, but they also have significant ecological benefits of conserving non-renewable resources, the reduction of waste disposal requirements and reduction of emissions. Use of low-grade alternative fuels in some kiln systems reduces NOx emissions due to reburn reactions. There is an increased net global reduction in CO2 emissions when waste is combusted in the cement kiln systems as opposed to dedicated incinerators.
1.1. Overview of alternative fuels
Alternative fuels and alternative sources of energy usually fall under eight broad headings: biofuels; natural gas; waste-derived fuels; wind energy; hydroelectric power; solar energy; hydrogen; and nuclear energy. Alternative fuels discussed in this chapter are predominantly agricultural biomass, non-agricultural biomass (e.g. animal waste and by-products), chemical and hazardous waste, and petroleum-based fuels.
Biofuels are from organic origin (plants or animals based) including organic waste, residues from agriculture and energy crops, meat and bone-meal, methane from animal excrement or as a result of bacterial action, ethanol and biodiesel from plant materials, as well as the organic part of waste.
Solid biofuels (generally called biomass) include plant tissues such as wood, charcoal and yarns; farm wastes such as coffee husks, straw, sugarcane leaves, sugarcane bagasse, rapeseed stems, palm nut shells, rice husks, etc.; and non-agricultural biomass such as animal fat, dung, meats and bones; and household or industrial biological degradable wastes. These materials are primarily composed of carbon-based organic matter, which releases energy when it reacts or combusts with oxygen (Seboka et al., 2009).
Solid biofuels should be distinguished from solid fossil fuels which are of biological origin but which are non-renewable. Similarly, liquid biofuels should be distinguished from fossil liquid fuels which are also of biological origin but which are non-renewable. Liquid biofuels are transport fuels, primarily biodiesel and ethanol. Another form of biofuel is biogas. Biogas is the product of organic material decomposition, composed mainly of methane and carbon dioxide.
Candidate materials for the hazardous waste fuel/waste derived fuels are too many to list. They include almost every residue from industrial or commercial painting operations from spent solvents to paint solids including all of the wash solvents and pot cleaners, metal cleaning fluids, machining lubricants, coolants, cutting fluids, electronic industry solvents (chlorinated/fluorocarbon solvents), oils, resins and many more. The list of candidate materials for use as alternative waste fuels continues to expand. Regulatory pressures, economic considerations, shrinking traditional solid waste disposal capabilities, and a host of similar factors are reflected in the constant change of the candidate waste fuel universe (Gabbard, 1990).
2. Alternative fuel options for the cement industry
Coal is the primary fuel burned in cement kilns, however, the use alternative fuels in cement kilns is now common and increasing. The range of alternative fuels is extremely wide. They are usually available as gas, liquid and solid as shown in Table 1.
Before proceeding to a consideration of some of these fuels and their properties it is necessary to consider briefly the cement production process.
2.1. Cement production process
Cement is considered one of the most important building materials around the world. In 1995 the world production of cement was about 1420 million tonnes (Cembureau, 1997). Cement production is an energy-intensive process consuming thermal energy of the order of 3.3 GJ/tonne of clinker produced, which accounts for 30 – 40 percent of production costs (Giddings et al., 2000; EC, 2001). Worldwide, coal is the predominant fuel burned in cement kilns. Cement production consumes approximately 120 kg of coal per tonne of cement. In the European Union about 25 million tonnes of coal is required annually by the Cembureau[1] - members to service the demand of cement in Europe. In 2005, the global cement industry consumed about 9 exajoules (EJ) of fuels and electricity for cement production (IEA 2007, as cited in Murray & Price, 2008).
Category
Fuels
Gaseous fuels
Refinery waste gas, landfill gas, pyrolysis gas, natural gas
Liquid fuels
Tar, chemical wastes, distillation residues, waste solvents, used oils, wax suspensions, petrochemical waste, asphalt slurry, paint waste, oil sludge
Cement production involves the heating, calcining and sintering of blended and ground raw materials, typically limestone (CaCO3) and other materials containing calcium, silicon oxides, aluminium and iron oxides to form clinker. Clinker production takes place at material temperatures of about 1450 °C in either rotary or shaft kilns. Carbon dioxide is released during the production of clinker. Specifically, CO2 is released as a by-product during calcination, which occurs in the upper, cooler end of the kiln, or a precalciner, at temperatures of 600-900oC, and results in the conversion of carbonates to oxides. Most modern cement kiln systems[1] - have a special combustion chamber called a ‘precalciner’ as part of the preheating tower, as shown in Fig. 1. The limestone (calcium carbonate) decomposition process known as ‘calcination’ (CaCO3 → CaO + CO2) is virtually completed (approximately 95 percent) in the precalciner if 50 – 60 percent of the total fuel required for clinker production is added to this chamber (Taylor, 1990).
The clinker is then removed from the kiln to cool, ground to a fine powder, and mixed with a small fraction (about five percent) of gypsum to create the most common form of cement known as Portland cement.
2.2. Benefits of using alternative fuels in cement production
Cement producers worldwide are striving to lower their production costs. One effective method of achieving this end is the use of alternative fuels. Use of low-grade alternative fuels such as waste coal, tyres, sewage sludge, and biomass fuels (such as wood products, agricultural wastes, etc.) in precalciners is a viable option because combustion in a precalciner vessel takes place at a lower temperature. In precalciners where kiln exhaust gases pass through, the NOx emissions are much reduced due to reburn reactions. There is an increased net global reduction in CO2 emissions when waste is combusted in the cement kiln systems as opposed to dedicated incinerators, resulting in reduction in the CO2 penalties. Since alternative fuels are often deemed cheaper than conventional fossil fuels, the possibility of a competitive edge is generated.
Figure 1.
The kiln system
The use of alternative fuels in cement manufacture is also ecologically beneficial, for two reasons: the conservation of non-renewable resources, and the reduction of waste disposal requirements. The use of alternative fuels in European cement kilns saves fossil fuels equivalent to 2.5 million tonnes of coal per year (Cembureau, 1999). The proportion of alternative fuels used in cement kiln systems between 1990 and 1998 in some European countries are as follows in order of importance: France 52.4 percent; Switzerland 25 percent; Great Britain 20 percent; Belgium 18 percent; Germany 15 percent; Czech Republic 9.7 percent, Italy 4.1 percent; Sweden 2 percent; Poland 1.4 percent; Portugal 1.3 percent and Spain 1 percent (Mokrzycki et al., 2003).
The process of clinker production in kiln systems creates favourable conditions for use of alternative fuels. These include: high temperatures, long residence times, an oxidising atmosphere, alkaline environment, ash retention in clinker, and high thermal inertia. These conditions ensure that the fuel’s organic part is destroyed and the inorganic part, including heavy metals is trapped and combined in the product.
The wastes used as alternative fuels in cement kilns would alternatively either have been landfilled or destroyed in dedicated incinerators with additional emissions as a consequence. Their use in cement kilns replaces fossil fuels and maximises the recovery of energy. Employing alternative fuels in cement plants is an important element of a sound waste management policy. This practice promotes a vigorous and thriving materials recovery and recycling industry (Cembureau, 1999).
2.3. Key considerations for co-processing alternative fuels
The potential benefits of burning alternative fuels at cement plants are numerous. However, the contrary is possible, where poor planning results in projects where cement kilns have higher emissions, or where alternative fuels are not put to their highest value use. Five guiding principles outlined by the German development agency, GTZ, and Holcim Group Support Ltd., reproduced in Table 2, provide a comprehensive yet concise summary of the key considerations for co-incineration project planners and stakeholders (GTZ and Holcim, 2006 as cited in Murray & Price, 2008).
Principle
Description
Co-processing respects the waste hierarchy
- Waste should be used in cement kilns if and only if there are not more ecologically and economically better ways of recovery. - Co-processing should be considered an integrated part of waste management. - Co-processing is in line with international environmental agreements, Basel and Stockholm Conventions.
Additional emissions and negative impacts on human health must be avoided
- Negative effects of pollution on the environment and human health must be prevented or kept at a minimum. - Air emissions from cement kilns burning alternative fuels cannot be statistically higher than those of cement kilns burning traditional fuels.
The quality of the cement must remain unchanged
- The product (clinker, cement, concrete) must not be used as a sink for heavy metals. - The product must not have any negative impacts on the environment (e.g., leaching). - The quality of the product must allow for end-of-life recovery.
Companies that co-process must be qualified
- Have good environmental and safety compliance records. - Have personnel, processes, and systems in place committed to protecting the environment, health, and safety. - Assure compliance with all laws and regulations. - Be capable of controlling inputs to the production process. - Maintain good relations with public and other actors in local, national and international waste management schemes.
Implementation of co-processing must consider national circumstances
- Country specific requirements must be reflected in regulations. - Stepwise implementation allows for build-up of necessary management and handling capacity. - Co-processing should be accompanied with other changes in waste management processes in the country.
Table 2.
Guiding principles for co-processing alternative fuels in cement kilns
2.4. Challenges of using alternative fuels in cement production
Alternative fuels used in cement manufacturing have different characteristics compared to the conventional fuels. Switching from conventional fuels to alternatives fuels presents several challenges that must be addressed in order to achieve successful application. Poor heat distribution, unstable precalciner operation, blockages in the preheater cyclones, build-ups in the kiln riser ducts, higher SO2, NOx, and CO emissions, and dusty kilns are some of the major challenges (Roy, 2002; F.L. Smidth & Co., 2000).
The cement industry, like other industrial sectors, is strictly regulated by the national and international legislation as well as internal regulatory procedures regarding environmental protection, health and safety, and quality of products. Strict regulations are applied and plants are operated on the basis of permits from national authorities. Emissions are regularly checked by the authorities. Special approval from relevant authorities is therefore required to burn alternative fuels in many countries on account of potential environmental hazards (Hewlett, 2004).
The operation of cement kiln system is not only affected by the chemical composition of the main components of the raw meal but also the combustion and consequently the fuel used. The type of fuel used can introduce some material components which can interfere with the chemistry of the cement materials as well as affect the operation of the system. The use of a type of fuel is therefore subject to the constraints imposed by any deleterious effect on cement quality, refractory life, gas and material flow or potential emissions to the atmosphere (Bye, 1999).
In most kiln systems the fuel ash is incorporated into the clinker thereby changing the compound composition of the product. The main constituents of fuel ash are silica and alumina compounds which combine with the raw materials to become part of the clinker. The composition of fuel ash tend to limit the level of replacement of more conventional fuels, for instance rice husks have been used to replace 5 – 7 percent of traditional fuels since the ash contains 78 – 90 percent silica. Fuel ash with high content silica can on the other hand provide a very satisfactory means of increasing the silica modulus of the clinker, thus making it possible to reduce the amount of ground sand incorporated into the feedstock (Hewlett, 2004).
Approximately 95 percent of clinker consists of oxides of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 and the remainder consists of the so-called minor constituents. In cement manufacturing care is taken to avoid constituents which, even when present in small amounts (< 1percent), may have adverse effect upon the performance of the product and/or the production process. The most important of these are probably the oxides of potassium and sodium (K2O and Na2O) commonly known as alkalis. High levels of alkalis in cement can, in the presence of moisture, give rise to reactions with certain types of aggregates to produce a gel which expands and gives rise to cracking in concretes and mortars.
The alkali metals Na2O and K2O have a very strong affinity for SO3 and where there is sufficient sulphate present in the clinker, the alkalis are normally present as compounds of sulphates such as K2SO4, Na2SO4, aphthilalite Na2SO4∙K2SO4 and langbeinite 2CaSO4∙K2SO4 (Hewlett, 2004; Newman, et al., 2003). Higher levels of alkali sulphates in cements affect the reactivity of the cement, thus leading to possible setting problems (Hewlett, 2004). From kiln operational point of view, it is desirable that as much as possible the alkalis (and sulphates) get discharged from the system with the clinker. If this does not take place, the presence of these alkalis (and sulphates) can have an extremely disruptive effect upon production especially in kiln systems with high efficient heat exchangers such as the cyclones.
It is reported that in kiln systems equipped with high efficient pre-heaters, volatilized recirculation loads of 150 - 200 percent (of the total input) for K2O, 100 – 150 percent for Na2O and 350 - 400 percent for alkali sulphate exist because volatilized alkalis, chlorine and some heavy metal condense on the raw meal grains in the suspension preheater. With the raw meal they return to the kiln where they are volatilized again thereby increasing the recirculation load (Hewlett, 2004; Ghosh, 1991; Taylor, 1990). Some of the alkalis volatilized in the high temperature part of the system (kiln) condense in the cooler parts, causing build-up and blockages in the heat-exchange systems. The sticky deposits attract dust and bind it together to form build-up, which in an extreme case can completely throttle the flow of gas and/or cement solid materials. There are mainly two ways of maintaining the alkalis at a required level, firstly through the careful selection of materials and secondly by bleeding high-alkali dusts from the kiln system (Hewlett, 2004; Taylor, 1990).
If chloride is introduced into the system either through the raw meal or the fuel, the melting point of the sulphates is reduced and sulphate–spurrite (C2S∙CaSO4), which is stable within the temperature range 900–1200oC can also be formed. Sulphate–spurrite is considered to be associated with the formation of rings in cement kilns. It is recommended that chloride content must be kept low to avoid formation of kiln rings and preheater deposits (Taylor, 1990). Contents below 0.02 percent are preferred, though higher ones can be acceptable if a sufficient proportion of the kiln gases is bypassed or in less energy-efficient (e.g. wet process) plants. Ring formation is known to increase with an increase in the amount of excess sulphur over that which combines with alkalis (Hewlett, 2004).
Since sulphur is introduced into the system through the fuel and also with the raw materials, the sulphur content of the fuel can become an important factor in kiln system operation. It is however, important to distinguish between the sulphur in the raw meal that enters the kiln system in the form of sulphates (such as calcium sulphates) and that which enters as sulphides (such as pyrite, marcasite and organic sulphides). The latter can oxidize through an exothermic reaction at 400 – 600oC in sections of the system (for example cyclones) where there is less calcium oxide available. Consequently, the SO2 released is emitted and treated. On the other hand, the calcium sulphates present do not decompose until 900 – 1000oC. This gives the oxides of sulphur an opportunity to react with the alkalis which have been volatilized and also with CaO that has already formed thereby increasing the chance of alkalis and sulphate being removed from the kiln system in the clinker. This is why it is generally possible to use fuels with high sulphur content in the cement industry without significant harmful consequences to the environment (Ghosh, 1991). As already mentioned, if significant amounts of the low melting point mixtures of calcium and alkali sulphates form in and around the preheater sections can lead to blockages.
Some of the waste materials used as alternative fuels in cement kiln systems such as polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated hydrocarbons, sewage sludge, and meat and bone meal can increase the amount of chlorine (Cl) introduced into the system (Saint-Jean et al, 2005). Fuels containing high (> 0.7 percent Cl) can adversely affect the performance of some types of electrostatic precipitators on wet process kilns. It is also reported that in kilns with cyclone pre-heaters, only about 20 percent of the chlorine input is retained in the clinker, with the result that a recirculation chloride load of some 400 – 500 percent develops in the kiln/preheater system (Hewlett, 2004). Clogging may occur in the cyclone pre-warmer if chlorine content of fuel is more than 0.2 – 0.5 percent (Werther et al., 1997). Chlorine content is also known to affect the quality of the product. High Cl content increases the corrosion of reinforcement in concrete. From quality point of view most standards for Portland cements restrict the amount of chloride present to 0.10 percent of the raw meal feedstock. However, in preheater kiln systems operational problems normally manifest themselves long before this quality point is reached (Hewlett, 2004).
The effect of other trace elements such as fluorine, barium, chromium, lead, manganese, thallium, titanium, vanadium and zinc on quality of cement range from very small to negligible. However, it is important to note the exceptions of fluorine and zinc from this list. There are indications that the use of fluorine as a mineraliser[1] - may give rise to the build-up of excessive coating in the kiln and that this may be due to the formation of additional spurrite. CaF2 acts both as a mineraliser and as a flux in promoting the formation of alite[1] - (Taylor, 1990; Newman et al., 2003). Small amounts of zinc (0.01 – 0.2 percent) have been reported to increase the reactivity of C3A[1] - and in consequence lead to possible setting time problems. However, the presence of up to 0.5 percent of ZnO does not appear to have a profound effect upon other hydraulic properties (Hewlett, 2004). The zinc content in tyres is, from cement quality point of view, the main constraint in the use of scrap tyre as a fuel. Type ash contains about 20 percent Zn (Al-Akhras et al., 2002).
The incomplete combustion, poor heat distribution and unstable precalciner operation are problems associated with switching from conventional fuel to alternative fuels (Roy, 2002). The arrangement of combustion in such a manner as to create a reducing condition in some zones of the precalciner is useful for the diminution of NOx emissions. On the other hand, it is important to note that low combustion efficiency at the precalciner stage can create reducing zones in deposited material at the kiln inlet, significantly increasing the volatilization rate of sulphur (Ghosh, 1991). Desmidt, 1987, observed a 78 percent volatilization of SO3 at 93 percent combustion and 0.2 percent CO at kiln inlet, and a 42 percent volatilization of SO3 at 98percent combustion and 0.06 percent CO at kiln inlet. Incomplete combustion also gives rise in the carbon content in the product. This is undesirable for the following reasons. First, high carbon content accelerates corrosion of steel in concretes. Secondly, the carbon absorbs water reducing the quantity available for hydration reaction. Thirdly, the alkalinity of the cement is affected. Finally, high carbon content ash darkens the concrete reducing its aesthetic appeal and leading to inaccurate prejudgements of the concrete quality (Ha et al., 2005; Freeman et al., 1997; CIF, 2000).
2.5. Main alternative fuels used in the cement industry
Well-established technology, on the one hand, allows the rotary kiln of any cement plant to be fired with low-volatile fuels such as petcoke, low-volatile bituminous coal, and anthracite, without problem (Nielsen et al., 1986). On the other hand, high volatile-low calorific value alternative fuels have limited use in the kiln primary firing system due to their relatively low combustion temperatures. They are utilised more in the precalciner firing than in the kiln unless their calorific value exceeds about 16.8 MJ/kg (Hochdahl, 1986). Experience has shown that it is difficult to obtain complete combustion of low-volatile fuels in precalciners. The use of low-volatile fuels in precalciners, often requires design and operational modifications of the precalciner, or specially designed precalciners (Roy, 2002; Nielsen & Hundebol, 1986).
Switching from conventional fuels to alternatives fuels therefore presents several challenges that must be addressed. Poor heat distribution, unstable precalciner operation, blockages in the preheater cyclones, build-ups in the riser ducts, higher SO2, NOx, and CO emissions, and formation of rings in kilns are some of the major challenges (Roy, 1986; Pipilikaki et al., 2005; F.L Smidth, 2000).
The quality, type and quantity of fuel exert a profound effect on the quality of clinker produced. Consequently, selection of the proper type of fuel is vital for optimum efficiency. Waste derived fuels have different characteristics compared to conventional fuels such as coal and to be able to use them in cement manufacturing, knowledge of their composition is important. The energy and ash content as well as the moisture and volatile contents are all important limiting factors. A comparison of coal with some of the most common alternative fuels used in cement kiln systems is presented in Table 3. Ultimately, cost and availability of the alternative fuels remain the main influencing factors for their choice.
2.5.1. Petroleum coke
Petroleum coke (petcoke) is the solid residue that remains after extraction of all valuable liquid and gaseous components from crude oil. The world production of petcoke grew by 50 percent from 1997 to 1998. It reached 50 million tonnes in 1999 and was expected to reach 100 million tonnes by 2010 (International Energy Agency [IEA], 2001). Petcoke is a low-volatile fuel whose volatile content range is typically 5 – 15 percent, depending on the coking process (Roy, 2002). There are three processes of coking: delayed, fluid and flexi-coking with delayed coking producing over 90 percent of total production (IEA, 2001). Petcoke is composed mainly of carbon and it also contains high levels of sulphur and heavy metals such as vanadium and nickel (IEA, 2001; Bryers, 1995). The fixed carbon varies from 80 - 92 percent (Bryers, 1995). Irrespective of the coking process, petcoke has higher calorific value than coal, typically LHV of about 32.5-35 MJ/kg (Commandre & Salvador, 2005). The use of petcoke as fuel presents several challenges due to its high sulphur content, poor ignition and burnout characteristics because of its low volatile content. Low-volatile fuels are generally fired in an arch-type furnace to induce ignition and ensure flame stability (Bryers, 1995).
Petcoke is widely used in cement kilns worldwide. However, owing to the challenges associated with its burning, it is not possible to fire 100 percent petcoke in the kiln and precalciner in many existing cement kiln systems without co-firing with a high-volatile fuel or special design considerations (IEA, 2001; Roy, 2002; Nielsen et al., 1986; Tiggesbäumker & Beckum 1986). New plants specifically designed to enable 100 percent petcoke firing are coming on the market while the many classical precalciners are retrofitted to enable petcoke firing. One traditional solution to using petcoke is to grind the coke to a much finer residue than standard coal, up to 0.5 – 1 percent retained on 90 µm (Roy, 2002; Bryers, 1995). The burning rate of an individual char particle depends primarily on its particle size, the amount of oxygen present in the local atmosphere and the local temperature.
In precalciner application where temperature is lower than in kilns, besides the particle size, considerable retention time is required to complete the combustion. In precalciners designed for coal firing where the gas retention time is less than 3 s, often petcoke is introduced directly into the tertiary air where oxygen is highest before mixing with kiln exhaust gases. In some of new precalciner designs the gas retention time is increased significantly to about 7 s by injecting petcoke in a long loop duct before joining the main calciner (Roy, 2002). The combustion of petcoke in a relatively raw meal free hot-zone in the precalciner away from the walls is an important aspect in new precalciner designs and retrofits to achieve high burning rate and avoid build-ups.
The sulphur content of petcoke is several times higher than that of coal. It is therefore expected that combustion of petcoke will lead to higher emissions of SO2. SO2 emissions in pulverized fuel firings as mentioned earlier, normally correlate strongly with the sulphur content of the fuel and generally almost all the sulphur in the fuel is released as SO2 (Commandre, 2005; Werther & Ogada, 1997; Spliethoff & Hein, 1998).
Petcoke has low ash content which easily fuses in the cement clinker. Table 4 shows typical ash analyses of various types of petcokes. Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is by far the highest except in a type of coke where iron oxide was highest. Molten V2O5 (melting temperature 675-690oC) is known to dissolve most refractory and metal oxides which could expose virgin metal surfaces to oxidising environment (Bryers, 1995; Hewlett, 2004). Vanadium, if present in clinker, tends to be found in the alite, the crystal size of which increases with additions of up to 0.4 percent (Hewlett, 2004). A 0.2 percent addition is reported to lead to a 10 percent reduction in 28-day strength of cement. However, due to low ash content of petcoke such high contents of vanadium in cement are unlikely.
Coal
Petcoke, (Kääntee et al., 2004)
Predried Sewage sludge (Winter et al., 1997)
Meat and bone-meal (Kääntee et al., 2004)
Tyre
Proximate analysis (wt. percent)
Moisture (wt. percent) Ash (db) Volatiles (daf) C - fixed
Ultimate analysis (wt. percent daf) C H N S O Ash LHV (MJ/kg) Density (kg/m3)
9.20 8.85 36.22 45.63
68.6 3.05 1.3 0.49 8.51 7.0 27.89 1300
1.50 0.90 11.80 85.80
89.50 3.08 1.71 4.00 1.11 0.90 33.7 2023
As received (wt. percent)
7.00 26.70 60.60 5.70
As received (wt. percent) 37.20 4.29 4.18 0.53 20.10 26.70 14.8 1140
8.09 28.30 56.41 7.20
42.10 5.83 7.52 0.38 15.30 28.30 16.2 720
0.6 19.1 56.6 23.7
71.85 6.07 0.20 1.06 1.12 19.1 31 1179
Table 3.
Analyses of some common fuels used in cement manufacturing
Typical ash analysis of various types of cokes (Bryers, 1995)
2.5.2. Sewage sludge
A large amount of sewage sludge is produced worldwide. Sludge is formed during wastewater treatment. Wastewater is a combination of the liquid- or water-carried wastes removed from residential, institutional, commercial and industrial establishments (Werther & Ogada, 1997). Landfill, dumping in the sea and use in agriculture as organic fertiliser and soil conditioner are the main conventional methods of disposal. There are however, economical and ecological constraints to these methods. The increasing costs of land for landfill coupled with increasing stringent environmental standards are making landfill a less attractive option. The use of sewage sludge in agriculture poses human health and environmental risks. Uncontrolled addition of sludge to the agricultural land may increase the concentration of heavy metals in farmland. These factors are making the thermal utilisation of sewage sludge an attractive means of its management.
The thermal utilisation of sewage sludge is deemed feasible when its secondary environmental impacts are minimised. The most common sewage sludge disposal alternative is to incinerate it and deposit the ash in controlled landfill. Incineration accounts for 24 percent of the sludge produced in Denmark, 20 percent in France, 15 percent in Belgium and 14 percent in Germany (Hall & Dalimier, 1994). In the USA and Japan, 25 and 55 percent of the sludge produced, respectively, is incinerated (Werther & Ogada, 1997). Incineration ash of municipal solid waste accounts for a great portion of the matter in landfills. A total annual incineration of municipal waste of 26 million tonnes was estimated in the EU in 1997 (Kikuchi, 2001).
The formation of poisonous solid and gaseous by-products during sludge incineration is, however, noted to be a source of public concern. These include the release of heavy metals and the emission of substances such as NOx, N2O, SO2, HCl, HF and CxHy (Ogada &Werther, 1996). SO2 emissions in pulverized fuel fired systems normally correlate strongly with the sulphur content of the fuel and generally almost all the sulphur in the fuel is released as SO2 (Spliethoff & Hein, 1998; Werther & Ogada, 1997). The sulphur content of the sludge is comparable with that of coal.
Other various processes have been proposed for the thermal utilisation of sewage sludge, including the co-briquetting with coal, the co-combustion with coal (Åmand et al., 2004; Folgueras et al., 2003; Lopes et al., 2003); the use of sewage sludge pyrolysis volatiles as a reburn fuel in the air-staged combustion of coal (Boocock et al., 1992a, 1992b; Konar et al., 1994); incineration/combustion of sewage sludge alone (Sänger et al., 2001; Arai et al., 1989) as well as co-combustion with other fuels (Ǻmand & Leckner, 2004).
In countries like Japan, USA, Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland and Belgium sewage sludge is used in cement production. In cement production, sludge is usually co-fired with coal in predried form. Predried sludge is easier to store, transport and feed (Werther & Ogada, 1997). The sewage sludge for co-combustion is dried, pulverised and pneumatically fed to the burners. Either the sludge is preblended with coal and fed together, or the two fuels can be fed separately if multi-fuel burners are used. The environmental concerns associated with sewage incineration are significantly reduced when sewage sludge is used as fuel in cement kilns. The organic part is destroyed and the inorganic part, including heavy metals, is trapped and combined in the product (CEMBUREAU, 1997).
Combustion of sewage sludge is expected to lead to higher emissions of SO2. In cement production this might not affect the SO2 emissions significantly, since about 60 to 80 percent of the sulphur is captured by the calcium oxide in the kiln system (Manning et al., 2003; Cement Industry Federation [CIF], 2000). However, as discussed earlier on, in cement kilns sulphur is known to cause hard build-ups due to formation of sulphate compounds. The higher nitrogen content of the sewage sludge does not translate into a proportionate increase in NOx emissions in precalciners. This is due to lower combustion temperatures, well below 1200oC, that suppresses thermal NOx formation. The in-line precalciner in particular combines the merits of both the air staging and fuel staging technologies. In this arrangement, the fuel fired in the precalciner is used in reburn reactions.
Sewage sludge ash, however, has a high content of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 which could affect the quality of cement if excess amounts of sewage sludge are used. Table 5 shows the comparison of the composition of sewage sludge ashes with those of cements. A chlorine content of the sludge of more than 0.2 - 0.5 percent may cause clogging in the cyclone preheaters. To keep the levels of the oxides within limit (Werther et al., 1997) suggested the maximum sewage sludge feed rate to be no more than 5 percent of the clinker production capacity of the cement plant unless the sludge is conditioned and stabilised by lime, normally 0.3 – 0.5 kg CaO/kg dry sludge.
Comparison of the compositions of sludge ash with those of cements
Sewage sludge has significantly higher contents of nitrogen, volatile matter and ash, and very low fixed carbon than typical coals. Up to 80 percent of the sludge carbon is volatile carbon and sludge combustion is characterised by the gas-phase combustion of volatiles (Werther & Ogada, 1997). Published calorific values (HHV) of sludge typically range between 8 – 17 J/kg. The cause of this variation in HHVs is attributed to the treatment of producing the sludge and the heterogeneous nature of sludge (Vesilind & Ramsey, 1996).
The main products of sludge pyrolysis are gas (volatiles); char and oil; the quantities of which depend on factors such as pyrolysis temperature. Sewage sludge releases volatiles over a wide range temperature 250 – 850oC (Stolarek & Ledakowicz, 2001; Inguanzo et al., 2002). The percentage of the gaseous component increases whereas the amounts of oil and char decrease with increasing temperature (Rumphorst & Ringel, 1994; Inguanzo et al., 2002). The composition of pyrolysis gas from predried sludges depends upon on the type of sludge. However, in general the main gaseous components are CO, CO2, H2, O2, N2 and CxHy. CO and H2 are reported to increase whereas CO2 and CxHy decrease with increasing temperature (Inguanzo et al, 2002; Ogada & Werther, 1996).
2.5.3. Used tyres
Scrap motor tyres have been utilised as a supplementary energy source in Japan, Europe and USA since the 1970s (Gray, 1996) and represent a rapidly growing application in most developed countries where scrap tyres are an environmental nuisance. About 290 million tyres were discarded in the USA in 2003, and nearly 45 percent of these scrap tyres were used as tyre derived fuel (TDF). Approximately 58 percent of the TDF was used in the cement industry (Rubber Manufacturers Association [RMA], 2003). In the EU over 2.5 million tonnes of tyres are produced per year and almost 40 percent of these tyres are thrown away untreated (Diez et al., 2004).
Although the environmental acceptability of the use of tyres as fuel in kiln systems is dependent on individual plant performance, extensive environmental data has been generated for a variety of kiln configurations and fuel displacement. In general, the different test results have shown that TDF has no adverse effect upon the emissions; that is to say, the use of TDF has not caused a facility to exceed its operating limits (Gray, 1996; Environmental Agency, 1998; Blumethal, 1992a, 1992b). In comparison with coal, particulates, SOx, NOx and HCl emissions generally decline or remain constant with TDF use. Organic emissions, dioxins and furans are also observed to decline while changes in heavy metal concentrations are nominal (Gray, 1996; Scrap Tyre Management Council [STMC], 1992).
Table 6 shows an elemental ash analysis of tyres in comparison with coal. The use of TDF in cement kiln systems is technically sound as the rubber is destroyed and the inorganic part, including heavy metals, is trapped and combined in the product (CEMBUREAU, 1997).
An additional advantage of TDF use is its steel portion. The steel can substitute, in part, for the iron requirement in the raw meal recipe. The content of iron oxide in Portland cement is 1.5 - 4.5 percent on weight basis. On the other hand, although zinc oxide acts as a flux as well as mineraliser, it is known to have detrimental effect on the quality of cement if it is in excess. It strongly retards the setting time and strength of the cement if the total zinc content of all fuels exceeds 4000 parts per million (PPM) (STMC, 1992; Olmo et al., 2001; Murat & Sorrentino, 1996). Therefore, other than the problems of incomplete combustion, the zinc oxide content in tyres tend to limit its displacement of conventional fuels in cement production (STMC, 1992).
Combustion of whole tyres requires long residence times to obtain complete conversion. In some cement installations, tyres are fired whole, mostly in the rotary kiln. More commonly, they are shredded in a slashing process, producing tyre chunks or chips, and co-fired with coal in the precalciner. They cannot, however, be finely comminuted economically. At best they can be shredded to pieces (chips) of about 25 mm, typically, their size ranges from 25 – 100 mm.
Element (oxide)
Coal
TDF with wire
TDF without wire
Aluminium Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorous Potassium Titanium Silicone Sodium Sulphur Zinc Metal
Elemental ash analysis of tyres in comparison with coal (Gray, 1996)
The majority of precalciners are basically entrained flow combustion vessels. Due to the relatively short residence time in the precalciners, circa 2 to 4s, firing tyre chips often results in incomplete combustion. Some of the tyre chips drop directly into the kiln back end or into the tertiary air duct, in an in-line precalciner arrangement before they are fully devolatilised. At the kiln back end there is very little oxygen in the kiln gas for the combustion of the tyre chips. Smaller chips and fragments of devolatilised chips levitate much more easily and are carried over before their combustion is complete in the precalciner. This means that a considerable fraction of tyre chips may also pass to the rotary kiln as carbon particles mixed with the calcined meal. Besides the under utilisation of the fuel energy, an increase in carbon content in ordinary Portland cement accelerates corrosion of the steel reinforcing in concretes, the alkalinity of the cements is affected and the cement loses its characteristic colour (Kääntee et al., 2004; Winter et al., 1997).
The problems of using scrap tyre as alternative fuel emanate from the lack of understanding of their devolatilisation and combustion behaviour. Tyres, like most of the alternative fuels suffer from insufficient characterisation. Tyres are a hydrocarbon-based material derived from oil, natural rubber and gas. Some inorganic materials, as shown in Table 7, are added to enhance reactions or performance properties. As such tyres are very non-homogeneous and exhibit major property variations. The non-homogeneity arises because of the cord re-enforcing materials and steel beading used in their construction. The property variations arise due to applications dependence, extreme size and geometric differences as shown in the differences between passenger car and truck tyres in Table 8. The property variations could also arise due to variable degree of used tyre wear and country dependent construction. Table 8 presents comparisons of analyses of different tyres, and petcoke and bituminous coal. In addition to these variations there are also as received shredded chip size and shape distributions variations.
The thermal degradation of tyres is known to produce a wide variety of products in the liquid (oil) and gas phases in addition to the residual char. The main gases produced during the pyrolysis of tyres are: CO2, CO, H2, CH4, C2H6, C3H6, C3H8, and C4H6, with lower concentrations of other hydrocarbon gases (Williams et al., 2001; Conesa et al., 1997).
Heating Value: High Heat Value, (HHV, MJ/kg); and Low Heat Value (LHV, MJ/kg)
HHV: Wire free With Wire
40.0
34.8 31.9
28.4
LHV
32.8
31.6
34.5
27.4
Table 8.
Comparative analysis between tyres and conventional fuels
The devolatilisation and combustion burnout times of tyre chips remain sources of controversy. Devolatilisation of an average tyre chip held in a precalciner at temperatures of between 1050 – 1150oC, at a gas speed of 22 m/s, was reported nearly complete in 30 seconds (Giuliamo et al., 1999). Complete devolatilisation and total burnout times of tyre chips held at about 900oC in a refractory-lined furnace as long as 2 minutes and 20 minutes respectively have been recorded (Giddings et al., 2002).
When tyre chips are inserted into the furnace, they burn with a vigorous flame after ignition. The ignition time is clearly temperature dependent. At 900oC an average time to ignition of 3 s was observed (Chinyama et al., 2007). The vigorous flame is evidence of intense devolatilisation of the tyre chip (Giddings et al., 2002, Atal & Levendis, 1995). Upon burnout of the volatiles, a low-intensity flame follows and burns to extinction - characterising the burning of char. Tyre char originates from the reinforcing carbon black used as fillers in tyre production. Tyre char also contains almost all the inorganic compounds present in tyres (Helleur et al., 2001).
2.5.4. Meat and bone meal
Meat and bone meal (MBM) is produced in rendering plants where animal offal and bones are mixed, crushed and cooked. Tallow is extracted during the cooking process, and the remaining material is then dried and crushed. Feeding MBM to cattle, sheep or other animals was banned within the EU in 1994 and disposal to landfill is not an option since this does not destroy any potential bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) pathogens (Gulyurtlu et al., 2005). This change in legislation increased the interest in using MBM as fuel to ensure that any living organism is thermally destroyed totally and its energy potential is utilised.
Co-incineration in cement kiln systems is the most common way for MBM destruction (Deydier et al., 2005; Conesa et al., 2005). Compared with coal, MBM has lower fixed carbon and high ash content and chlorine. Most of the chloride in MBM is present as common salt (NaCl) (Conesa et al., 2005). Proximate and ultimate analyses of typical MBM samples and coal are presented in Table 3. The sulphur content of MBM is slightly lower than coal. However, on the basis of calorific value, the sulphur content of MBM could be about same as coal. MBM has calorific value (HHV) of approximately 14 -17 (MJ/kg), this is about half that of coal (Deydier et al., 2005; Gulyurtlu et al., 2005). The high content of calcium in MBM could be an advantage as it could act to retain most of SO2 formed during MBM combustion. Using MBM in cement production further reduces the possibility of increase in SO2 emissions.
In France where about 850,000 tonnes of MBM are produced per year, about 45 percent is burnt in cement plants. The remaining 55 percent is usually stored waiting for further destruction or valorisation (Deydier et al., 2005). Apart from use in cement plants, in other countries, for example England, dedicated MBM incinerators are used. The feeding rates of MBM in cement kilns vary from country to country, in Spain the limit is 15 percent of the energy needed in the kilns (Conesa et al., 2005). However, the limit in the feed rate of MBM is due to the effects of chlorides. Chlorides readily volatilise in the burning zone of the kiln and condense in the heat exchangers to combine with alkalis and sulphates to form low melting point mixtures. This leads to build-up and blockages in preheater units. Their effect upon the operation of kilns with cyclone preheaters and gate preheaters is so serious that for the former it is normal practice to limit the total amount of chloride introduced into the process to a maximum of 0.015 percent of the raw meal feed (Hewlett, 2004).
As the nitrogen content in the MBM is about 7-8 times higher than that in coal, it could be expected that NOx emissions would increase with an increase of MBM in co-combustion. However, the fuel-N conversion to both NOx and N2O was observed to decrease with increasing MBM content in coal-MBM blend (Gulyurtlu et al, 2005). A 20 percent (wt.) MBM addition to the fuel gave rise to a reduction in the NOx concentration of about 25 percent compared to the combustion of coal alone, although the N input was almost double. This was attributed to a significant part of the fuel-N being released as NH3 during devolatilisation which reduces NOx to N2 through the known DeNOx mechanism (Wenli et al., 1990). The minimisation of the emission of nitrogen compounds in MBM co-combustion was also observed by Goeran et al., (2002).
As MBM ash mainly arises from bone combustion, it contains a high amount of phosphate (56.3 percent) and calcium (30.7 percent), the two major constituents of bone. It also has significant levels of sodium (2.7 percent), potassium (2.5 percent) and magnesium (0.8 percent) (Deydier et al., 2005; Gulyurtlu et al., 2005). Whereas the high content of calcium in MBM is an advantage in cement, high levels of phosphate, sodium, potassium and magnesium can have harmful effects on the production process and/ or cement quality. Phosphate is a compound of phosphorus. The normal range of P2O5 contents in Portland cement clinker are from 0.03 to 0.22 percent. When higher amounts of P2O5 are present, the dicalcium silicate (C2S)[1] - is stabilised to an extent that the conversion to tricalcium silicate (C3S) is inhibited. When the amount of P2O5 present exceeds 1 percent, it has been reported that 10 percent of C3S is lost for each additional 1 percent of P2O5 (Hewlett, 2004; Taylor, 1990). Potassium and sodium are alkalis and in cement, high alkali levels can, in the presence of moisture give rise to reactions with certain types of aggregates to produce a gel which expands resulting in cracking in concretes and mortars. Where there is sufficient sulphate present in the clinker, the alkalis are normally present as sulphates. Higher alkali levels in cements (over ≈ 0.8 percent (Na2O)e)[1] - when present as alkali sulphates have the effect of increasing the early strength ( ≈ 10 percent) of cements at the expense of their 28 day strength (Hewlett, 2004; Taylor, 1990). The presence of alkalis (and sulphates) also causes blockages in preheater units. Excessive amounts of magnesia (MgO) (usually considered to be over 5 percent of the clinker as a whole), can crystallise out from the flux as a periclase[1] -, the presence of which has been associated with long term unsoundness[1] - (Boynton, 1980; Hewlett, 2004).
Use of MBM in cement production can therefore be limited by the constituents of the ash produced.
2.5.5. Agricultural biomass
Biomass and biomass residues, if sourced in an environmentally and socially sustainable fashion, represent a vast – and largely untapped – renewable energy source. Crop and agro-industrial residues have low bulk and energy density, and for these reasons cannot be transported far from production sites without some form of processing. Residues from large commercial farms and agro-industries can be converted to relatively high-quality and high-energy density fuels for use in the domestic, commercial and industrial sectors through a number of physical, biological and thermo-chemical conversion processes (Seboka et al., 2009). The use of agricultural biomass residues in cement manufacturing is less common in industrialized countries and appears to be concentrated in more rural developing regions such as India, Thailand, and Malaysia. The type of biomass utilized by cement plants is highly variable, and is based on the crops that are locally grown. For example rice husk, corn stover, hazelnut shells, coconut husks, coffee pods, and palm nut shells are among the many varieties of biomass currently being burned in cement kilns (Murray & Price, 2008).
Biomass fuels are considered carbon neutral because the carbon released during combustion is taken out of the atmosphere by the species during the growth phase (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2006). Because the growth of biomass and its usage as fuel occurs on a very short time-scale, the entire cycle is said to have zero net impact on atmospheric carbon emissions. An important caveat to this assumption is that growing biomass and transporting it to the point of use requires inputs like fuel and fertilizer that contribute to the carbon footprint of biomass. When biomass is grown specifically for fuel, the upstream GHGs that are typically attributed to the biomass are those associated with fertilizer, collection, and transportation to the facility. When biomass residues are used, fertilizer is only considered part of the carbon footprint if residues that would normally stay in the fields to enrich the soil are collected (Murray & Price, 2008).
In addition to serving as an offset for non-renewable fuel demand, the use of biomass residues has the added benefit of reducing a cement kiln’s nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Empirical evidence suggests that the reductions in NOx are due to the fact that most of the nitrogen (N) in biomass is released as ammonia (NH3) which acts as a reducing agent with NOx to form nitrogen (N2) (McIlveen-Wright 2007 as cited by Murray & Price, 2008). Interestingly, there does not seem to be a strong relationship between the N content in the biomass and the subsequent NOx emissions reductions (McIlveen-Wright 2007 as cited by Murray & Price, 2008).
There is a wide range in the calorific values reported in the literature for agricultural biomass categorically, as well as for individual types. The range in lower heating values[1] -heating value (HHV), alternatively referred to as net and gross calorific value, respectively. The LHVassumes that the latent heat of vaporization of water in the material is not recovered, whereas the HHVincludes the heat of condensation of water. (LHV) of agricultural biomass is from 9.2 – 19.4 GJ/dry ton. The quantity of agricultural biomass residues that are necessary to replace one tonne of coal depends on the fuel’s energy value and water content. As a rule of thumb, a 20 percent substitution rate of agricultural biomass residues for fossil fuel (on a thermal energy basis[1] -) is quite feasible in cement kilns without the need for major capital investment (Seboka et al., 2009; Demirbas 2003 as cited by Murray & Price, 2008).
Major challenges of using agricultural biomass residues include the relatively low calorific value which can cause flame instability, and availability since most of the agricultural residues are seasonal (not available all year round). The flame instability problems could be overcome with lower substitution rates and ability to adjust air flow and flame shape. Collection and storage of residues during the months of availability or alternatively, sourcing different residues at different times of the year could overcome the availability problem. Another challenge is that biomass is prone to change with time, thus care must be taken to use the material before it begins to breakdown. Importantly, new biomass should be rotated into the bottom of storage facilities such that the oldest material is injected into the kiln first. Related to biomass conveyance, the flow behaviour of different materials is quite variable, therefore, cement kiln operators must choose the method for injecting fuel into the kiln that will facilitate a constant and appropriate heat value.
As discussed in section 2.3, the presence of halogens (e.g., chlorine) found in biomass such as wheat straw and rice husks may be a concern for slagging and corrosion in the kiln; however studies have shown that co-firing biomass with sulphur containing fuels (such as coal) prevents the formation of alkaline and chlorine compounds on the furnaces (Demirbas 2003; McIlveen-Wright 2007 as cited in Murray & Price, 2008). However, ash deposits may decrease heat transfer in the kiln.
Biomass can be used in cement plants through two major modes, namely direct combustion and transformation into producer gas. Direct combustion of biomass in pre-heaters / pre-calciners and in the kiln by part-replacing the fossil fuel used in raising the temperature of the raw meal. This can happen in two ways: first, by mixing crushed and pulverized biomass with coal or petcoke for use in the kiln, and secondly, by direct feeding of biomass in solid lump form (such as pellets and briquettes) into the rotary kiln and / or pre-heater/pre-calciner combustion chamber. The biomass can also be transformed into producer gas (also known as ‘synthesis gas’ or ‘syngas’) and co-firing it in the kilns using a gas burner (Seboka et al., 2009).
3. Conclusions
This chapter presents the current fuel alternatives to fuel of fossil origin for cement manufacturing. The chapter introduces different potential alternative fuels that can be used in the cement manufacturing industry and how these fuels are to be considered in order to avoid negative effects on the final product. The type of fuel used in cement production is subject to the constraints imposed by any deleterious effect on cement quality, refractory life and emissions released to the atmosphere. The benefits of using alternative fuels are highlighted, showing that good planning is needed before the alternative fuel to be used is chosen. The chapter has included detailed study of the main alternative fuels used in the cement industry including petcoke, sewage sludge, used tyres, meat and bone meal, and agricultural biomass.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/17593.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/17593.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17593",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17593",totalDownloads:20627,totalViews:4378,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"November 18th 2010",dateReviewed:"May 24th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 9th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/17593",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/17593",book:{slug:"alternative-fuel"},signatures:"Moses P.M. Chinyama",authors:[{id:"47232",title:"Dr.",name:"Moses",middleName:null,surname:"Chinyama",fullName:"Moses Chinyama",slug:"moses-chinyama",email:"mchinyama@poly.ac.mw",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Overview of alternative fuels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Alternative fuel options for the cement industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1. Cement production process ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Benefits of using alternative fuels in cement production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Key considerations for co-processing alternative fuels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4. Challenges of using alternative fuels in cement production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.5. Main alternative fuels used in the cement industry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.5.4. Meat and bone meal ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.5.5. Agricultural biomass",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Al-AkhrasN. M.SmadiM. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Properties of tyre rubber ash mortar. Cement & Concrete Composites, 26\n\t\t\t\t\t821826 .'},{id:"B2",body:'ǺmandL. E.LecknerB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Metal emissions from co-combustion of sewage sludge and coal/wood in fluidized bed. Fuel\n\t\t\t\t\t83\n\t\t\t\t\t18031821 .'},{id:"B3",body:'Arai, N, Hasatani, M, & Nakai, Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t1989. In-furnace reduction of NOx during the parallel-flow moving-bed combustion of surplus activated sludge char by an active use of self-evolved ammonia.\n\t\t\t\t\tFuel. 68: 591 – 595.'},{id:"B4",body:'AtalA.LevendisY. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Comparison of the Combustion Behaviour of Pulverized Waste Tyres and Coal. Fuel; 74\n\t\t\t\t\t11 1570- 1581.'},{id:"B5",body:'BhowmickA. K.HallM. M.BenareyH. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tRubber Products Manufacturing Technology. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.'},{id:"B6",body:'BlumenthalM. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992a\n\t\t\t\t\tA report on An Emission Study on the Use of Scrap Tyres in Cement Kilns. Scrap Tyre Management Council, Washington, DC.'},{id:"B7",body:'BlumenthalM. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992b The Use of Scrap Tyres in the US Cement Industry. World Cement.'},{id:"B8",body:'BoocockD. G. B.KonarS. K.LeungA.LyL. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992a Fuels and chemicals from sewage sludge: 1. The solvent extraction and composition of a lipid from a raw sewage sludge. Fuel. 71\n\t\t\t\t\t12831289 .'},{id:"B9",body:'BoocockD. G. B.KonarS. K.MackayA.CheungP. T. C.LiuJ. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992b Fuels and chemicals from sewage sludge: 2. The production alkenes by the pyrolysis of triglycerides over activated alumina. Fuel. 71\n\t\t\t\t\t12911297 .'},{id:"B10",body:'BoyntonR. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t1980\n\t\t\t\t\tChemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone. (2nd edition). John Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York.'},{id:"B11",body:'BryersR. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Utilisation of petroleum coke and petroleum coke/coal blends as a means of steam raising. Fuel Processing Technology. 44\n\t\t\t\t\t121141 .'},{id:"B12",body:'ByeG. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tPortland Cement. (2nd edition). Thomas Telford Publishing, London E14 4JD.'},{id:"B13",body:'CEMBUREAU.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tAlternative Fuels in Cement Manufacturing: Technical and Environmental Review. Brussels, The European Cement Association: 24.'},{id:"B14",body:'CEMBUREAU.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Benefits of Using Alternative Fuels in Cement Production. Brussels, The European Cement Association: 25.'},{id:"B15",body:'Cement Industry Federation (CIF).\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Applied Energy, 74\n\t\t\t\t\t101111 .'},{id:"B16",body:'ChenJ. H.ChenK. S.TongL. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 On the Pyrolysis of Scrap Automotive Tires. Journal of Hazardous Materials; B84\n\t\t\t\t\t4355 .'},{id:"B17",body:'ChinyamaM. P. M.LockwoodF. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Devolatilisation behaviour of shredded tyre chips in combusting environment. Journal of the Energy Institute, 80\n\t\t\t\t\t3 162- 167.'},{id:"B18",body:'Cement Industry Federation (CIF).\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Australian Cement Industry.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'CommandreJ. M.SalvadorS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Lack of correlation between the properties of petroleum coke and its behaviour during combustion. Fuel Processing Technology, 86, 795808 .'},{id:"B20",body:'ConesaJ. A.FontR.FullanaA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Kinetic Model for the combustion of tyre wastes. Chemosphere. 59\n\t\t\t\t\t8590 .'},{id:"B21",body:'ConesaJ. A.FontR.MarcillaA.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Mass Spectrometry Validation of Kinetic Model for the Thermal Decomposition of Tyre Wastes. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis; 43, 8396 .'},{id:"B22",body:'Desmidt,\n\t\t\t\t\t1987 1987. World Cement, 18: 404.'},{id:"B23",body:'DeydierE.GuiletR.SardaS.SharrockP.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Physical and chemical characteristics of crude meat and bone meal combustion residue: “waste or raw material?” Journal of Hazardous Materials B121\n\t\t\t\t\t141148 .'},{id:"B24",body:'DiezC.MartinezO.CalvoL. F.CaraJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Pyrolysis of tyres. Influence of the final temperature of the process on emissions and the calorific value of the products recovered. Waste Management.\n\t\t\t\t\t24\n\t\t\t\t\t463469 .'},{id:"B25",body:'Environmental Agency (Bristol)\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Tyres in the Environment.'},{id:"B26",body:'European Commission (EC)\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Integarted Pollution Prevention and Control. Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries.'},{id:"B27",body:'F.L Smidth & Co.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Dry process kiln systems, technical brochure.'},{id:"B28",body:'FreemanE.GaoY.HurtR.SuubergE.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Interactions of Carbon-Containing Fly Ash with Commericial Air- Entraining Admixtures for Concrete. Fuel; 76\n\t\t\t\t\t8 761- 765.'},{id:"B29",body:'GabbardW. D.GossmanD.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 Hazardous waste fuels and the cement kilns- The Incineration Alternative. ASTM Standardization News, September 1990, 10th March 2011, http://gcisolutions.com/HWF&CKS.htm'},{id:"B30",body:'GhoshS. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tCement and Concrete Science & Technology. (1 Part 1), ABI Books Private Limited.'},{id:"B31",body:'GiuglianoM.CernuschiS.GhezziU.GrossoM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Experimental Evaluation of Waste Tires Utilization in Cement Kilns. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc.\n\t\t\t\t\t49\n\t\t\t\t\t14051414 .'},{id:"B32",body:'GiddingsD.EastwickC. N.PickeringS. J.SimmonsK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Computational fluid dynamics applied to a cement precalciner. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 214 Part A.'},{id:"B33",body:'GiddingsD.EastwickC. N.PickeringS. J.SimmonsK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Combustion and aerodynamic behaviour of car tyre chips in a cement works precalciner. Journal of the Institute of Energy. 75\n\t\t\t\t\t9199 .'},{id:"B34",body:'GoeranO.WangW.YeZ.BjerleI.AndersonA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Repressing NOx and N2O emissions in fluidized bed biomass combustor. Energy Fuels. 16 (4: 915- 919.'},{id:"B35",body:'GrayT. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tTyre derived fuel: an environmentally friendly resource. Texas Natural Resource Seminar.'},{id:"B36",body:'GulyurtluI.BoavidaD.AbelhaP.LopesM. H.CabritaI.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Co-combustion of coal and meat and bonemeal. Fuel. 84\n\t\t\t\t\t21372148 .'},{id:"B37",body:'HaT.MuralidharanS.BaeJ.HaY.LeeH.ParkK. W.KimD.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 2005). Effect of Un-burnt Carbon on the Corrosion Performance of Fly Ash Cement Mortar. Construction and Building Materials; 19\n\t\t\t\t\t509515 .'},{id:"B38",body:'HallJ. E.DalimierF.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Waste management- sewage sludge: survey of sludge production, treatment, quality and disposal in the EC. EC Reference B4-3040\n\t\t\t\t\t43040 /014156/92, Report N: 3646.'},{id:"B39",body:'HelleurR.PopovicN.IkuraM.Stanciulescu\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Characterisation and potential applications of pyrolytic char from ablative pyrolysis of used tyres. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 58-59: 813-824.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'HendriksC. A.WorrellE.de JagerD.BlockK.RiemerP.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Reduction of Greenhouse Gases from the Cement Industry. IEA GHG Paper presented at GHGT-4 Interlaken, Switzerland.'},{id:"B41",body:'HewlettP. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tLEA’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. (Fouth Edition). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.'},{id:"B42",body:'HochdahlO.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 Fuels and heat economy. Zement-Kall-Gips, 4\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t9096 .'},{id:"B43",body:'InguanzoM.DominguezA.MenendezJ. A.BlancoC. G.PisJ. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 On the pyrolysis of sewage sludge: the influence of pyrolysis conditions on solid, liquid and gas fractions. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolyisis. 63\n\t\t\t\t\t209222 .'},{id:"B44",body:'International Energy Agency (IEA)\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Coal Research. The use of petroleum coke in coal-fired plant.'},{id:"B45",body:'Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 5 Waste.'},{id:"B46",body:'KäänteeU.ZevenhovenR.BackmanR.HupaM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Cement Manufacturing Using Alternative Fuels and the Advantages of Process Modelling. Fuel Processing Technology; 85\n\t\t\t\t\t293301 .'},{id:"B47",body:'KikuchiR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Recycling of municipal solid waste for cement production: pilot scale test for transforming incineration ash of solid waste into cement clinker. Resources, Conservation & Recycling. 31\n\t\t\t\t\t137147 .'},{id:"B48",body:'KonarS. K.BoocockD. G. B.MaoV.LiuJ. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Fuels and chemicals from sewage sludge: 3. Hydrocarbon liquids from the catalytic pyrolysis of sewage sludge lipids over activated alumina. Fuel. 73\n\t\t\t\t\t642646 .'},{id:"B49",body:'ManningR.CooperS.MacfadyenJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 Petcoke firing in lime recovery kilns becomes option as energy cost rise. Pulp & Paper, 77\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B50",body:'MokrzyckiE.Uliasz-BochenczykA.SarnaM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 Use of Alternative Fuels in the Polish Cement Industry. Applied Energy, 74\n\t\t\t\t\t101111 .'},{id:"B51",body:'MurrayA.PriceL.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Use of Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacture: Analysis of Fuel Characteristics and Feasibility for Use in the Chinese Cement Sector, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 10 March 2011, http://ies.lbl.gov/iespubs/LBNL-525E.pdf'},{id:"B52",body:'MuratM.SorrentinoF.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Effects of large additions of Cd, Pb, Cr, Zn to cement raw meal on composition and properties of clinker and the cement. Cement and Conrete Research. 26\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t377385 .'},{id:"B53",body:'NewmanJ.ChooB. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 Advanced Concrete technology; Constituent Materials. Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.'},{id:"B54",body:'NielsenP. B.HundebolS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 Precalcing with low-volatile solid fuels. Zement-Kall-Gips, 4\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t99100 .'},{id:"B55",body:'OgadaT.WertherJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Combustion characteristics of wet sludge in a fluidized bed: Release and combustion of the volatiles. Fuel, 75\n\t\t\t\t\t5 617- 626.'},{id:"B56",body:'OlmoI. F.ChaconE.IrabienA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Influence of lead, zinc, iron (III) and chromium (III) oxides on the setting time and strength of Portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 31\n\t\t\t\t\t12131219 .'},{id:"B57",body:'PipilikakiP.KatsiotiM.PapageorgiouD.FragoulisD.ChaniotakisE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Use of tyre derived fuel in clinker burning. Cement & Concrete Composites. 27\n\t\t\t\t\t843847 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B58",body:'Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA).\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 U.S Scrap tyre Markets 2002.'},{id:"B59",body:'RoyG. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Petcoke combustion characteristics. World Cement.'},{id:"B60",body:'RumphorstM. P.RingelH. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Pyrolysis of sewage sludge and use of pyrolysis coke. Journal of Analytical Applied Pyrolysis. 28\n\t\t\t\t\t137155 .'},{id:"B61",body:'Saint-JeanS. M.JonsE.LundgaadN.HansenS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Chlorellestadite in the preheater system of cement kilns as an indicator of HCl formation. Cement and Concrete Research, 35\n\t\t\t\t\t431437 .'},{id:"B62",body:'SängerM.WertherJ.OgadaT.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 NOx and N2O emission characteristics from fluidized bed combustion of semi-dried municipal sewage sludge. Fuel. 80\n\t\t\t\t\t167177 .'},{id:"B63",body:'SebokaY.GetahunM. A.Haile-MeskelY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Biomass Energy for Cement Production: Opportunities In Ethiopia. CDM Capacity Development in Eastern and Southern Africa. United Nations Development Programme.'},{id:"B64",body:'SpliethoffH.HeinK. R. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Effects of combustion of biomass on emissions in pulverized fuel furnaces. Fuel Processing Technology, 54\n\t\t\t\t\t189205 .'},{id:"B65",body:'Scrap Tyre Management Council (STMC)\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 The Use of Scrap Tyres in Cement Rotary Kilns.'},{id:"B66",body:'StolarekP.LedakowiczS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Thermal processing of sewage sludge by drying, pyrolysis, gasification and combustion. Water Science and Technology, 44\n\t\t\t\t\t5 333-339.'},{id:"B67",body:'TaylorH. F. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tCement Chemistry. Academic Press, London.'},{id:"B68",body:'TiggesbäumkerP.BeckumK. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 Investigations on combustion of solid fuels in calciners. Zemet-Kall-Gips, 4\n\t\t\t\t\t104106 .'},{id:"B69",body:'VesilindP. A.RamseyT. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Effect of drying temperature on the fuel value of wastewater sludge. Waste Management & Research. 14, 189196 .'},{id:"B70",body:'WenliD.Dam-JohansenK.OstergaardK.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 Widening the temperature range of thermal DeNOx process. An experimental investigation. Proceedings of the 23rd International Symposium on Combustion. Pittsburg, PA: The Combustion Institute, 297303 .'},{id:"B71",body:'WertherJ.OgadaT.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Sewage sludge combustion. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 25\n\t\t\t\t\t55116 .'},{id:"B72",body:'WilliamsP. T.CunliffeA. M.BrindleA. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Enhanced Pyrolysis Processing of Scrap Tyres. Journal of the Institute of Energy; 74\n\t\t\t\t\t100112 .'},{id:"B73",body:'WinterF.PrahM. E.HofbauerH.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Temperature in a fuel particle burning in a fluidized bed: The effects of drying, devolatilisation and char combustion. Combustion and Flame, 108\n\t\t\t\t\t302314 .'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Alternative fuels here refer to fuels that can be used instead of conventional fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"CEMBUREAU – The European Cement Association."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"The kiln system comprises a tower of pre-heater cyclones, precalciner and the rotary kiln."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"A mineraliser is an agent that promotes the formation of a particular solid phase by affecting the equilibria through incorporation in one or more of the solid phases (Taylor1990)."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Alite is a cement phase 2CaO.SiO2 or C2S."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"C3A is another cement phase 3CaO.Al2O3."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"C2S and C3S are cement clinker phases."},{id:"fn8",explanation:"(Na2O)e is sodium oxide equivalent given as 0.658 (K2O) + percent Na2O"},{id:"fn9",explanation:"Periclase – MgO becomes sintered into a dense, stable form."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"A cement is said to be unsound if the hydration of a hardened paste of it is eventually accompanied by excessive expansion, causing cracking and reduction in strength."},{id:"fn11",explanation:"The energy content of fuels can be reported in terms of the lower heating value (LHV) or the higher"},{id:"fn12",explanation:"Biomass can replace up to 20 percent of the total energy demand. Substitution rates on a mass basis are relative to the heat content of the alternative fuel in comparison to coal."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Moses P.M. Chinyama",address:"",affiliation:'
University of Malawi – The Polytechnic, Malawi
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"325",title:"Alternative Fuel",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Alternative Fuel",slug:"alternative-fuel",publishedDate:"August 9th 2011",bookSignature:"Maximino Manzanera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/325.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27371",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximino",middleName:null,surname:"Manzanera",slug:"maximino-manzanera",fullName:"Maximino Manzanera"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"17583",title:"Biodiesel Production by Using Heterogeneous Catalysts",slug:"biodiesel-production-by-using-heterogeneous-catalysts",totalDownloads:15985,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Rubi Romero, Sandra Luz Martínez and Reyna Natividad",authors:[{id:"54382",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubi",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",fullName:"Rubi Romero",slug:"rubi-romero"},{id:"57495",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez",fullName:"Sandra Luz Martínez",slug:"sandra-luz-martinez"},{id:"57496",title:"Dr.",name:"Reyna",middleName:null,surname:"Natividad",fullName:"Reyna Natividad",slug:"reyna-natividad"}]},{id:"17584",title:"An Overview of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions and Alternative Feedstock for Biodiesel Production",slug:"an-overview-of-enzyme-catalyzed-reactions-and-alternative-feedstock-for-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:5036,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Maria Manuela Camino Feltes, Débora de Oliveira, Jorge Luiz Ninow and José Vladimir de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"55230",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Camino Feltes",fullName:"Maria Manuela Camino Feltes",slug:"maria-manuela-camino-feltes"},{id:"57306",title:"Prof.",name:"Débora",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",fullName:"Débora De Oliveira",slug:"debora-de-oliveira"},{id:"57307",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge Luiz",middleName:null,surname:"Ninow",fullName:"Jorge Luiz Ninow",slug:"jorge-luiz-ninow"},{id:"57308",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",fullName:"Jose Vladimir De Oliveira",slug:"jose-vladimir-de-oliveira"}]},{id:"17585",title:"Biodiesel Fuel Production by Enzymatic Transesterification of Oils: Recent Trends, Challenges and Future Perspectives",slug:"biodiesel-fuel-production-by-enzymatic-transesterification-of-oils-recent-trends-challenges-and-futu",totalDownloads:10534,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Nevena Luković, Zorica Knežević-Jugović and Dejan Bezbradica",authors:[{id:"45320",title:"MSc",name:"Nevena",middleName:null,surname:"Lukovic",fullName:"Nevena Lukovic",slug:"nevena-lukovic"},{id:"57079",title:"Prof.",name:"Dejan",middleName:null,surname:"Bezbradica",fullName:"Dejan Bezbradica",slug:"dejan-bezbradica"},{id:"57080",title:"Dr.",name:"Zorica",middleName:null,surname:"Knežević-Jugović",fullName:"Zorica Knežević-Jugović",slug:"zorica-knezevic-jugovic"}]},{id:"17586",title:"Engine Test of Bio-Diesel Manufactured from Waste Cooking Oil and Reward Preferential Benefit Analyses for Its Promotion",slug:"engine-test-of-bio-diesel-manufactured-from-waste-cooking-oil-and-reward-preferential-benefit-analys",totalDownloads:2423,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jai-Houng Leu",authors:[{id:"44408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jai-Houng",middleName:null,surname:"Leu",fullName:"Jai-Houng Leu",slug:"jai-houng-leu"}]},{id:"17587",title:"Waste Animal Fats with High FFA as a Renewable Energy Source for Biodiesel Production - Concept, Experimental Production and Impact Evaluation on Air Quality",slug:"waste-animal-fats-with-high-ffa-as-a-renewable-energy-source-for-biodiesel-production-concept-experi",totalDownloads:3684,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel",authors:[{id:"11036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",fullName:"Ioana Ionel",slug:"ioana-ionel"},{id:"11047",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisc",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",fullName:"Francisc Popescu",slug:"francisc-popescu"}]},{id:"17588",title:"Delignification Process of Agro-Industrial Wastes an Alternative to Obtain Fermentable Carbohydrates for Producing Fuel",slug:"delignification-process-of-agro-industrial-wastes-an-alternative-to-obtain-fermentable-carbohydrates",totalDownloads:6690,totalCrossrefCites:10,signatures:"Oscar Sánchez, Roció Sierra and Carlos J. Alméciga-Díaz",authors:[{id:"47504",title:"MSc",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",fullName:"Oscar Sanchez",slug:"oscar-sanchez"},{id:"56842",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Sierra",fullName:"Rocio Sierra",slug:"rocio-sierra"},{id:"56843",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Javier",surname:"Almeciga-Diaz",fullName:"Carlos Almeciga-Diaz",slug:"carlos-almeciga-diaz"}]},{id:"17589",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engine Fuelled with Ethanol and Methanol Gasoline Blended Fuels",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-spark-ignition-engine-fuelled-with-ethanol-and-methanol-",totalDownloads:11512,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Ioannis Gravalos, Dimitrios Moshou, Theodoros Gialamas, Panagiotis Xyradakis, Dimitrios Kateris and Zisis Tsiropoulos",authors:[{id:"50923",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Gravalos",fullName:"Ioannis Gravalos",slug:"ioannis-gravalos"},{id:"57241",title:"Prof.",name:"Theodoros",middleName:null,surname:"Gialamas",fullName:"Theodoros Gialamas",slug:"theodoros-gialamas"},{id:"57242",title:"MSc.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:null,surname:"Xyradakis",fullName:"Panagiotis Xyradakis",slug:"panagiotis-xyradakis"},{id:"57244",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kateris",fullName:"Dimitrios Kateris",slug:"dimitrios-kateris"},{id:"57245",title:"MSc",name:"Zisis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsiropoulos",fullName:"Zisis Tsiropoulos",slug:"zisis-tsiropoulos"},{id:"101768",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Moshou",fullName:"Dimitrios Moshou",slug:"dimitrios-moshou"}]},{id:"17590",title:"Use of Charcoal and Partially Pirolysed Biomaterial in Fly Ash to Produce Briquettes: Sugarcane Bagasse",slug:"use-of-charcoal-and-partially-pirolysed-biomaterial-in-fly-ash-to-produce-briquettes-sugarcane-bagas",totalDownloads:6262,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Silvio Rainho Teixeira, Agda Eunice de Souza, Angel Fidel Vilche Peña, Regiane Godoy de Lima and Álvaro Gil Miguel",authors:[{id:"39266",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvio Rainho",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Silvio Rainho Teixeira",slug:"silvio-rainho-teixeira"},{id:"57428",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel Fidel",middleName:null,surname:"Vilche Peña",fullName:"Angel Fidel Vilche Peña",slug:"angel-fidel-vilche-pena"},{id:"57429",title:"MSc.",name:"Agda Eunice",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Agda Eunice Souza",slug:"agda-eunice-souza"},{id:"57430",title:"BSc.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Gil Miguel",fullName:"Alvaro Gil Miguel",slug:"alvaro-gil-miguel"},{id:"57431",title:"BSc.",name:"Regiane",middleName:null,surname:"Godoy De Lima",fullName:"Regiane Godoy De Lima",slug:"regiane-godoy-de-lima"}]},{id:"17591",title:"Biomass Waste as a Renewable Source of Biogas Production - Experiments",slug:"biomass-waste-as-a-renewable-source-of-biogas-production-experiments",totalDownloads:5600,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Adrian Eugen Cioablă and Ioana Ionel",authors:[{id:"11036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",fullName:"Ioana Ionel",slug:"ioana-ionel"},{id:"61179",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Cioabla",fullName:"Adrian Eugen Cioabla",slug:"adrian-eugen-cioabla"}]},{id:"17592",title:"Influential Parameters on Biomethane Generation in Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Plants",slug:"influential-parameters-on-biomethane-generation-in-anaerobic-wastewater-treatment-plants",totalDownloads:5469,totalCrossrefCites:11,signatures:"Meisam Tabatabaei, Alawi Sulaiman, Ali M. Nikbakht, Norjan Yusof and Ghasem Najafpour",authors:[{id:"54639",title:"Prof.",name:"Alawi",middleName:null,surname:"Sulaiman",fullName:"Alawi Sulaiman",slug:"alawi-sulaiman"},{id:"58880",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",middleName:null,surname:"Tabatabaei",fullName:"Meisam Tabatabaei",slug:"meisam-tabatabaei"},{id:"58882",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"M. Nikbakht",fullName:"Ali M. Nikbakht",slug:"ali-m.-nikbakht"},{id:"58883",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghasem",middleName:null,surname:"Najafpour",fullName:"Ghasem Najafpour",slug:"ghasem-najafpour"},{id:"58884",title:"Prof.",name:"Norjan",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",fullName:"Norjan Yusof",slug:"norjan-yusof"}]},{id:"17593",title:"Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacturing",slug:"alternative-fuels-in-cement-manufacturing",totalDownloads:20627,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Moses P.M. Chinyama",authors:[{id:"47232",title:"Dr.",name:"Moses",middleName:null,surname:"Chinyama",fullName:"Moses Chinyama",slug:"moses-chinyama"}]},{id:"17594",title:"Waste Biomass as Alternative Bio-Fuel - Co-Firing versus Direct Combustion",slug:"waste-biomass-as-alternative-bio-fuel-co-firing-versus-direct-combustion",totalDownloads:2541,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Gavrilă Trif-Tordai and Ioana Ionel",authors:[{id:"11036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionel",fullName:"Ioana Ionel",slug:"ioana-ionel"},{id:"61182",title:"Dr.",name:"Gavrila",middleName:null,surname:"Trif Tordai",fullName:"Gavrila Trif Tordai",slug:"gavrila-trif-tordai"}]},{id:"17595",title:"Nano-Porous Silicon-Based Mini Hydrogen Fuel Cells",slug:"nano-porous-silicon-based-mini-hydrogen-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:3190,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Tayyar Dzhafarov and Sureyya Aydin Yuksel",authors:[{id:"36681",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyar",middleName:null,surname:"Dzhafarov",fullName:"Tayyar Dzhafarov",slug:"tayyar-dzhafarov"},{id:"80862",title:"Dr.",name:"Sureyya Aydin",middleName:null,surname:"Yuksel",fullName:"Sureyya Aydin Yuksel",slug:"sureyya-aydin-yuksel"}]},{id:"17596",title:"Hydrogen - The Ecologically Ideal Energy Vector",slug:"hydrogen-the-ecologically-ideal-energy-vector",totalDownloads:2610,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mircea Cârdu and Malvina Baica",authors:[{id:"56810",title:"Prof.",name:"Malvina",middleName:null,surname:"Baica",fullName:"Malvina Baica",slug:"malvina-baica"},{id:"56861",title:"Prof.",name:"Mircea",middleName:null,surname:"Cardu",fullName:"Mircea Cardu",slug:"mircea-cardu"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"36273",title:"Introduction to Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"introduction-to-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Theophile Theophanides",authors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",middleName:null,surname:"Theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile"}]},{id:"36166",title:"Using Infrared Spectroscopy to Identify New Amorphous Phases - A Case Study of Carbonato Complex Formed by Mechanochemical Processing",slug:"using-infrared-spectroscopy-to-identify-new-amorphous-phases-a-case-study-of-carbonato-complexes-fo",signatures:"Tadej Rojac, Primož Šegedin and Marija Kosec",authors:[{id:"25116",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",middleName:null,surname:"Kosec",fullName:"Marija Kosec",slug:"marija-kosec"},{id:"105876",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadej",middleName:null,surname:"Rojac",fullName:"Tadej Rojac",slug:"tadej-rojac"},{id:"111754",title:"Prof.",name:"Primoz",middleName:null,surname:"Segedin",fullName:"Primoz Segedin",slug:"primoz-segedin"}]},{id:"36167",title:"Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Analysis of Chitosan/Clay Nanocomposites",slug:"application-of-infrared-spectroscopy-to-analysis-of-chitosan-clay-nanocomposites",signatures:"Suédina M.L. Silva, Carla R.C. Braga, Marcus V.L. Fook, Claudia M.O. Raposo, Laura H. Carvalho and Eduardo L. Canedo",authors:[{id:"104808",title:"Prof.",name:"Suedina Maria",middleName:"De Lima",surname:"Silva",fullName:"Suedina Maria Silva",slug:"suedina-maria-silva"},{id:"111910",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:"Lima",surname:"R. C. Braga",fullName:"Carla R. C. Braga",slug:"carla-r.-c.-braga"},{id:"142933",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcus Vinícius",middleName:null,surname:"Lia Fook",fullName:"Marcus Vinícius Lia Fook",slug:"marcus-vinicius-lia-fook"},{id:"142934",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira Raposo",fullName:"Claudia Maria De Oliveira Raposo",slug:"claudia-maria-de-oliveira-raposo"},{id:"142936",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Hecker De Carvalho",fullName:"Laura Hecker De Carvalho",slug:"laura-hecker-de-carvalho"},{id:"142939",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Canedo",fullName:"Eduardo Luis Canedo",slug:"eduardo-luis-canedo"}]},{id:"36168",title:"Structural and Optical Behavior of Vanadate-Tellurate Glasses Containing PbO or Sm2O3",slug:"structural-and-optical-behavior-of-vanadate-tellurate-glasses",signatures:"E. Culea, S. Rada, M. Culea and M. Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. Belskaya, Irina G. Danilova, Maxim O. Kazakov, Roman M. Mironenko, Alexander V. Lavrenov and Vladimir A. Likholobov",authors:[{id:"107715",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Belskaya",fullName:"Olga Belskaya",slug:"olga-belskaya"},{id:"140198",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Danilova",fullName:"Irina Danilova",slug:"irina-danilova"},{id:"140200",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",middleName:null,surname:"Kazakov",fullName:"Maxim Kazakov",slug:"maxim-kazakov"},{id:"140202",title:"Mr.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mikhailovich",surname:"Mironenko",fullName:"Roman Mironenko",slug:"roman-mironenko"},{id:"140203",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lavrenov",fullName:"Alexander Lavrenov",slug:"alexander-lavrenov"},{id:"140204",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Likholobov",fullName:"Vladimir Likholobov",slug:"vladimir-likholobov"}]},{id:"36173",title:"Hydrothermal Treatment of Hokkaido Peat - An Application of FTIR and 13C NMR Spectroscopy on Examining of Artificial Coalification Process and Development",slug:"hydrothermal-treatment-of-hokkaido-peat-an-application-of-ftir-and-13c-nmr-spectroscopy-on-examinin",signatures:"Anggoro Tri Mursito and Tsuyoshi Hirajima",authors:[{id:"104786",title:"Dr.",name:"Anggoro Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Mursito",fullName:"Anggoro Tri Mursito",slug:"anggoro-tri-mursito"},{id:"110978",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hirajima",fullName:"Tsuyoshi Hirajima",slug:"tsuyoshi-hirajima"}]},{id:"36174",title:"FTIR - An Essential Characterization Technique for Polymeric Materials",slug:"ftir-an-essential-characterization-technique-for-polymeric-materials",signatures:"Vladimir A. Escobar Barrios, José R. Rangel Méndez, Nancy V. Pérez Aguilar, Guillermo Andrade Espinosa and José L. Dávila Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"12709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Rangel-Mendez",fullName:"Jose Rene Rangel-Mendez",slug:"jose-rene-rangel-mendez"},{id:"12711",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Escobar Barrios",fullName:"Vladimir Alonso Escobar Barrios",slug:"vladimir-alonso-escobar-barrios"},{id:"112164",title:"Dr",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Espinosa",fullName:"Guillermo Andrade-Espinosa",slug:"guillermo-andrade-espinosa"},{id:"112165",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Dávila-Rodríguez",fullName:"José Luis Dávila-Rodríguez",slug:"jose-luis-davila-rodriguez"},{id:"112167",title:"Dr.",name:"Nancy Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Aguilar",fullName:"Nancy Verónica Pérez-Aguilar",slug:"nancy-veronica-perez-aguilar"}]},{id:"36175",title:"Preparation and Characterization of PVDF/PMMA/Graphene Polymer Blend Nanocomposites by Using ATR-FTIR Technique",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-pvdf-pmma-graphene-polymer-blend-nanocomposites-by-using-ft-ir-t",signatures:"Somayeh Mohamadi",authors:[{id:"108556",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamadi",fullName:"Somayeh Mohamadi",slug:"somayeh-mohamadi"}]},{id:"36176",title:"Reflectance IR Spectroscopy",slug:"fundamental-of-reflectance-ir-spectroscopy",signatures:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",authors:[{id:"111629",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Monsef Khoshhesab",fullName:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",slug:"zahra-monsef-khoshhesab"}]},{id:"36177",title:"Evaluation of Graft Copolymerization of Acrylic Monomers Onto Natural Polymers by Means Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"evaluation-of-graft-copolymerization-of-acrylic-monomers-onto-natural-polymers-by-means-infrared-spe",signatures:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta, Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández, Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel-Aldana, Ana María Mendoza-Martínez, Carlos Velasco-Santos and Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández",authors:[{id:"37761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Hernandez",fullName:"Ana Laura Martinez-Hernandez",slug:"ana-laura-martinez-hernandez"},{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta"},{id:"108894",title:"MSc.",name:"Cynthia Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Hernández",fullName:"Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández",slug:"cynthia-graciela-flores-hernandez"},{id:"108896",title:"MSc.",name:"Ruth Zurisadai",middleName:null,surname:"Del Angel Aldana",fullName:"Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel Aldana",slug:"ruth-zurisadai-del-angel-aldana"},{id:"108898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velasco-Santos",fullName:"Carlos Velasco-Santos",slug:"carlos-velasco-santos"},{id:"108905",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",fullName:"Ana Maria Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez"}]},{id:"36178",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"María González",slug:"maria-gonzalez"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67359",title:"Paraneoplastic Pemphigus Is a Life-Threatening Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84956",slug:"paraneoplastic-pemphigus-is-a-life-threatening-disease",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Paraneoplastic pemphigus (PNP) was first described in 1990 by Anhalt et al. as a rare autoimmune disease that causes ulcerated lesions and vesicular eruptions in the mucocutaneous regions [1]. In 2001, the researcher Nguyen et al. introduced the term multiorganic autoimmune paraneoplastic syndrome, since it is a systemic disease that can affect the kidneys, bladder, and smooth and striated muscles [2]. PNP is a disease triggered mainly by B-cell lymphomas and malignant hematological diseases [3]. Other neoplasms also demonstrate the onset of this disease, as well as carcinoma of the stomach, lung, and colon [3]. The patients with PNP present high mortality rates, being around 90% of the cases, besides presenting an extremely complex and difficult diagnosis, since it resembles several other diseases [4, 5]. The treatment and management of this disease are often ineffective, as it is an extremely aggressive and lethal disease.
\n
In this chapter, we will address the epidemiological aspects, the main triggers, pathophysiology, main manifestations, diagnosis, differential diagnoses, treatments used, prognosis, and the quality of life of patients affected by PNP.
\n
\n
\n
2. Epidemiology
\n
Because PNP is an extremely rare disease, there is still no data on the incidence of this disease in the world population [3]. To date, about 500 cases have been reported in the literature, with PNP representing 3–5% of all cases of pemphigus in the population [6, 7, 8]. The vast majority of affected patients demonstrate lymphoproliferative disorders (LPD) [9]. Although this disease can affect children and adolescents, the most common age group is between 45 and 70 years of age and is not correlated with place of origin, race, and sex [7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
\n
\n
\n
3. Association with malignancy and genetic background
\n
PNP can be triggered by several types of neoplasias; however, about 84% of all patients present neoplasias or hematological disorders [3, 7, 15]. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is the most common disorder with 38.6% of cases, followed by chronic lymphocytic leukemia and Castleman disease with 18.4% each (Table 1). Among the non-hematological neoplasms, sarcomas present approximately 8.6% of the cases, such as leiomyosarcoma, malignant nerve sheath tumor, poorly differentiated sarcoma, reticular cell sarcoma, dendritic cell sarcoma, liposarcoma, and inflammatory myofibroblastoma [15, 16, 17]. Other less common diseases described in the literature that provide PNP are malignant thymoma, squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus, colon carcinoma, CD8+ T-cell lymphoma, retroperitoneal Kaposi’s sarcoma, and lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Although the PNP is triggered by several neoplasias, the manifestations of this disease may precede the hematological disorders and other malignancies, thus requiring the frequent and continuous follow-up of these patients [15]. In addition, there are reports of the occurrence of PNP without a detecting the cause [24, 25].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Neoplasms
\n
Frequencies (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
\n
38.6
\n
\n
\n
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
\n
18.4
\n
\n
\n
Castleman disease
\n
18.4
\n
\n
\n
Sarcoma
\n
8.6
\n
\n
\n
Others
\n
16
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with neoplasms.
\n
It is known that the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) has important relationships in increasing the susceptibility of autoimmune diseases. Although there are few papers that analyze the relationship between PNP and genetics, some studies in the Caucasian and Chinese population showed the relationships of the HLA class II alleles DRB1*03 and HLA-Cw*14 in the PNP’s trigger [26, 27]. HLA-Cw* 14 proved to be a more specific allele type of PNP. Its importance has been associated with PNP, regardless of whether it is a Castleman disease or other tumors, in addition to Castleman disease. [26]. However, to date, these studies are preliminary studies that suggest the association between genetic factors and PNP. To better understand this relationship, it is important to conduct studies with larger numbers of patients and that are affected by different tumors, as well as the realization of this association in different populations.
\n
\n
\n
4. Pathogenesis
\n
PNP even being a disease not yet known at the present time, it is known that both autoantibodies, as cell-mediated immunity, are involved [28]. Certainly, it deduces that the immune system is paramount in the pathophysiology of this disease.
\n
\n
4.1 Autoantibodies
\n
PNP triggers immune changes with the production of autoantibodies capable of acting on various proteins in the body. The major target proteins of the autoantibodies are desmoglein 1 (DSG-1) and desmoglein 3 (DSG-3); desmocollins 1, 2, and 3; desmoplakins 1 and 2; BP230; BP130; and envoplakin, in addition to several other epitopes affected by autoantigens found in the individual [29]. These characteristics demonstrate the immunological complexity of the disease.
\n
Proteins of the plakin family, such as desmoplakins 1 and 2, envoplakin, periplakin, plectin and BP230, demonstrate the major targets of autoantibodies [30]. In contrast, the proteins of the cadherin family are the second most affected, with proteins such as DSG-1 and DSG-3 and desmocollin [31]. It is known that the presence of autoantibodies to some proteins are not related to the clinical practice of the patients, although there is a study that has mentioned DSG-3 relation with genital involvement [32].
\n
Other autoantibodies such as alpha-2 macroglobulin-like 1 (A2ML1), a broad-range protease inhibitor, have been shown to be important in some patients. This protein has been shown to increase in the oral mucosa, intestine, esophagus, and muscles. However, its true function in the epithelium is unknown [33, 34].
\n
PNP studies with tumor resection demonstrate that tumors have the capacity to secrete autoantibodies capable of affecting the proteins of the epidermal region [35]. While knowing that most PNPs are involved in neoplastic and LPD diseases, triggering by solid tumors is still poorly understood and demonstrates other mechanisms involved in the production of autoantibodies to plakin proteins.
\n
The involvement of the humoral immunity of PNP presents the desmoplakins 1 and 2, envoplakin, periplakin, BP230, A2ML1, and DSG-1 and DSG-3 as the main proteins of concern [1]. However, 16% of all affected do not demonstrate the presence of these autoantibodies, and this makes, in some cases, the accomplishment of the early diagnosis difficult. A study conducted in patients with PNP and who developed muscle weakness demonstrated autoantibodies against neuromuscular junction proteins and muscle tissue. These muscle-associated proteins were autoantibodies to anti-acetylcholinesterase receptors and anti-titin and anti-ryanodine receptor [36].
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Cellular immunity
\n
Cellular immunity has evidenced important roles in the immunophenotyping of PNP. Pathological analyses have demonstrated inflammatory infiltrates with the presence of CD8+ T cells, CD68+ monocytes, and non-major histocompatibility complex-restricted CD56+ in the subepidermal region [2, 37]. Besides that, in the places of affection, the increase in tumor necrosis factor, as well as interferon gamma, was evidenced [38]. These findings show the importance of cellular immunity in the pathogenesis of the disease, since they present abundantly in the sites of PNP involvement.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Clinical features
\n
PNP presents several symptoms and clinical evolutions. The first symptoms as well as the progression of the disease are very varied from one patient to another. However, there are more frequent clinical features of these individuals.
\n
\n
5.1 Oral lesions
\n
The oral mucosa is often affected in patients with PNP [3, 39, 40]. Oral symptoms may be the first symptoms in these patients, even before skin lesions [41]. The most common symptoms are oral and labial erosions with bleeding that may be associated with blisters, macules, papules, vesicles, and erythema (Figure 1). In addition, these patients may present a positive Nikolsky sign [41].
\n
Figure 1.
Severe erosive mucositis with hematic crusting on the lips and oral mucosa.
\n
PNP lesions may be similar to oral manifestations of other diseases. Pemphigus vulgaris is a disease that initially triggers blisters and ulcers in the oral mucosa (especially on the cheeks) and may even reach the body. Erythema multiforme also affects the region of the oral mucosa with the appearance of erythema, edema, and some superficial erosions with formation of pseudomembrane. Lichen planus causes erythematous lesions where Wickham striae are present and may in rare cases develop erosions. In most cases of oral lichen planus, these are asymptomatic manifestations with few complications. Even though these diseases show some similarity to PNP, they are less aggressive, lethal, painful, and incapacitating, with less ability to spread to all mucosal and other body sites when compared to PNP [28, 42, 43].
\n
\n
\n
5.2 Secondary mucosal lesions
\n
Lesions can also affect regions such as the oropharynx, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, large intestine, conjunctiva, and anogenital region [2, 3, 7, 39, 41, 44, 45]. The involvement of the oropharynx and esophagus commonly triggers painful sensations and dysphagia [4]. The anogenital lesions demonstrate red-violet erythema in the glans or its surroundings (Figure 2). In some cases, lichen planus presents a possible differential diagnosis. However, unlike red-violet lesions, lichen planus forms linear white streaks that may arise in the glans, scrotum, and vulva, in addition to the presence of dyspareunia and pruritus [43]. In these patients, both necrosis and loss of epidermis are absent, unlike patients with PNP who present this clinical [43].
\n
Figure 2.
Red-violet lesion in the genital organ.
\n
About 70% of the patients present conjunctival lesions such as bilateral bulbar conjunctival hyperemia, diffuse papillary tarsal conjunctival reactions, conjunctival epithelium desquamation, forniceal shortening, painful ocular irritation, poor vision, conjunctival and corneal erosions, and pseudomembranous conjunctivitis [2, 46, 47].
\n
\n
\n
5.3 Skin lesions
\n
Skin lesions usually appear soon after the onset of mucosal involvement [48]. The most affected sites are the dorsal region (Figure 3), head, and neck (Figure 4), in addition to the nearby extremities [4, 39, 49]. Patients with PNP started the study in very different ways, with the first signs being erythema, bullous and vesicular lesions, papules, skin scaling with Nikolsky sign, exfoliative erythema, and ulcers with hematic crust. Often, the first clinical sign on the skin is erythema that may progress with bullous and ulcerated lesions [24, 50]. Unlike adults, PNP in the skin of children appears in the form of lichenoid lesions, rather than bullous lesions.
\n
Figure 3.
Extensive erosions and blisters in the dorsal region.
\n
Figure 4.
Confluent erosions with hematic crusts in the head and neck region.
\n
Similar to PNP, bullous pemphigoid (BP) provides blistering with erythematous base or normal skin. However, BP lesions occur more frequently in the lower abdomen and lower limbs, and in most individuals, mucosal lesions are not affected [51]. In addition, pruritus is present in the vast majority of these patients, unlike PNP, which show painful and disseminated lesions mainly in the upper body and mucosal regions [28, 51].
\n
Already erythema multiforme shows prodromal symptoms such as fever and myalgia before the appearance of lesions on the mucosal and skin. Their skin lesions change in feature according to the course of the disease and resemble insect bites or hives that result in the well-known targetoid lesions that are common in this disease. Although cases of necrosis and blisters occur in the center of the lesions, this disease shows less aggression and fewer blisters and ulcers with hematic crusts than the patients affected by PNP [42].
\n
Lichen planus affects flexor surfaces of the wrists, forearm, and legs. These lesions have round reticular white lines such as Wickham striae. They may arise in places that suffer trauma (Koebner’s phenomenon), in addition to making the site pigmented after inflation, thus demonstrating clinical differences in cutaneous erosions seen in the course of PNP progression [43].
\n
The graft versus host disease causes rash and maculopapular rash that present itching and can spread to the entire body, less in the scalp. In very severe cases, there may be some sites with necrosis at the base of epidermal rete pegs [52]. Generally, these severe cases are differentiated from the PNP both by the patient’s clinical history and by skin biopsy that demonstrate distinct histopathological characteristics.
\n
\n
\n
5.4 Pulmonary manifestations
\n
Approximately 92.8% of the cases described in the literature show pulmonary involvement [3]. The pulmonary clinical signs of PNP are dyspnea, obstructive pulmonary disease, and bronchiolitis obliterans. The resolution of pulmonary problems is of extreme importance, since it is the main cause of death in individuals with PNP [53]. The patients with the greatest pulmonary involvement are Chinese children and patients with Castleman disease [53]. Studies show that 71% of the patients had bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia, and they give worse prognosis even if treatment of the neoplasia occurs [12, 54].
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Histopathological examination
\n
The pathological analyses demonstrate many varied aspects, since they show them peculiar characteristics according to the evaluated lesions [55]. When analyzing the biopsy of blisters, we found acantholysis with inflammatory infiltrates (Figure 5) [55]. However, when it presents inflammatory maculopapular lesions, the most common findings are lichenoid interface dermatitis [55]. In the presence of lesions with the presence of blisters and maculopapular lesions, mixed characteristics of each type of lesion may occur in the pathology. The findings with dyskeratosis and suprabasal acantholysis are one of the most important characteristics that lead to the definitive diagnosis of PNP [6]. Dyskeratosis is an abnormal formation of epidermal keratinization, whereas acantholysis is the loss of adhesion between skin cells [28]. These findings may help in the diagnosis even when there is no possibility of performing direct immunofluorescence (DIF) or when they are negative [39, 55]. DIF is a laboratory technique capable of detecting the deposition of autoantibodies and immune cells in the sites affected by the disease. The use of DIF demonstrates an extremely important technique for the diagnosis of PNP, since it can analyze both specific autoantibodies and cytotoxic cells of the human immune system, such as CD8+ T cells that act by attacking several layers with keratin and demonstrating intracellular staining of cementum and/or marking of epidermal dermal junctions in band [28, 55].
\n
Figure 5.
Histopathological examination of the biopsy specimen showing keratinocyte apoptosis and acantholysis (hematoxylin and eosin, original magnification × 100).
\n
\n
\n
7. Immunological studies
\n
The use of DIF demonstrates great importance in the diagnosis of PNP even though approximately 50% of the cases show negative [3]. This technique shows a staining in IgG deposition intracellular chicken wire pattern (linear formation of autoantibodies deposition) along the dermoepidermal junction in both the linear form, as granulate [15]. The presence of IgG deposition in the dermoepidermal region is very characteristic of the PNP; however, only 25% presents this pattern [56].
\n
The use of indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) shows involvement of the epidermis by the deposition of IgG in the intercellular regions. Other techniques used as cytoplasmic fluorescence (intracellular staining) demonstrate a prominent basal staining. IIF marking is extremely strong in the layers of the epithelium, and this, alerting to PNP investigation, since it shows high specificity [56].
\n
Other serological methods may also be used, such as immunoprecipitation, immunoblot and anti-EP enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [57, 58, 59]. Studies evidenced 95 and 100% sensitivity in radioactive and nonradioactive immunoprecipitation techniques, respectively, and this demonstrates that immunoprecipitation is the most serologically sensitive test for PNP diagnosis [57, 60, 61]. Currently the immunoprecipitation is considered gold standard in the diagnosis of PNP, that is, the main criterion to diagnose [62, 63].
\n
\n
\n
8. Diagnosis
\n
The criteria for diagnosis according to Anhalt et al. in 1990 are based on five criteria, such as clinical characteristics, histopathological analysis, direct and indirect immunofluorescence, and immunoprecipitation [1]. These criteria have been modified and adapted. In 1993, researchers included to perform the diagnosis the presence of three main criteria or two major and two minor [63]. Already in 2002, Mimouni et al. reviewed the Anhalt criteria and considered four minimum criteria of high confidence in diagnosis (Table 2) [12]. DIF is a nonessential criterion because of its low sensitivity. As for IIF on rat bladder epithelia and monkey esophagus, they were considered useful for tracking and detecting PNP [57, 64]. Negative IIF cannot exclude PNP, and other techniques such as immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation should be used to confirm or rule out a diagnosis.
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
1. Clinical features of severe and protracted mucosal involvement and polymorphic cutaneous eruptions
\n
\n
\n
2. Histologic features of acantholysis or lichenoid or interface dermatitis
\n
\n
\n
3. Demonstration of antiplakin autoantibodies
\n
\n
\n
4. The presence of an underlying neoplasm, especially lymphoproliferative tumors
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Minimum criteria for diagnosis.
\n
\n
\n
9. Differential diagnosis
\n
The diagnosis of PNP can be complex and difficult to perform because there are several similar diseases (Table 3). PNP and pemphigus vulgaris (PV) are very similar clinically, but some details differentiate them. PNP develops with inflammatory papules or macules that progress to blisters, while PV presents bullous lesions with a reddish background. Molecularly, the PNP presents some antibodies specific for this disease, such as the presence of anti-A2ML1, anti-envoplakin, and anti-periplakin, and demonstrates patterns of IgG deposition on cell surfaces with accumulation in the basement membrane zone [57, 64, 65, 66]. Even though bullous autoimmune diseases resemble each other, PNP differentiates it by the presence of antibody that stains the mouse bladder. In bullous pemphigoid (PB), BP230 and BP180 can be found, as well as in PNP. However, the use of DIF differentiates them by the IgG deposition patterns found in the PNP. The involvement by morbilliform-like erythema, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and Stevens-Johnson syndrome can also be confused with PNP. However, the detection of antibodies, pathological analysis of the lesions, and the patient’s clinic can differentiate these diseases [1, 10, 39, 57, 64, 65, 66].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Disease
\n
Causers
\n
Pathophysiology
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Pemphigus vulgaris
\n
Autoimmune reaction
\n
Autoantigens anti-desmoglein 1,3
\n
\n
\n
Bullous pemphigoid
\n
Autoimmune reaction
\n
Autoantigens anti-BP180 and anti-BP230
\n
\n
\n
Lichen planus
\n
Autoimmune reaction
\n
Autoantigens anti-keratinocyte and antinuclear
\n
\n
\n
Erythema multiforme
\n
hypersensitivity by infection, viruses and drugs
\n
Infiltration of cytotoxic T cell and increased tumor necrosis factor-α
\n
\n
\n
Toxic epidermal necrolysis
\n
Drug reaction that affects more than 30% of the body
\n
Infiltration of cytotoxic T cell, natural killer, and increased granulysin
\n
\n
\n
Stevens-Johnson syndrome
\n
Drug reaction that affects less than 10% of the body
\n
Infiltration of cytotoxic T cell, natural killer, and increased granulysin
\n
\n
\n
Drug eruption
\n
Drug reaction
\n
Perivascular infiltration by lymphocytes, eosinophils, and increased histamine and leukotrienes
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Differential diagnosis.
\n
Despite some cases that both clinically and histologically resemble each other, it is important to perform other techniques to rule out differential diagnoses. The use of otorhinolaryngological examination is very important to differentiate the diseases that affect the mucous membranes. Well-done physical examination of the oral cavity, histopathological analysis characteristics, cutaneous involvement, and the presence of IIF strongly suggest for the diagnosis of PNP [40, 44, 67].
\n
\n
\n
10. Treatment
\n
Effective treatment for PNP is still a major puzzle because of its rarity. Although several drugs are used in the literature, PNP has shown great resistance when compared to other forms of pemphigus [50, 68]. When there is suspicion or evidence of PNP, the performance of the six steps described on 2011 by Frew et al. may provide better management of individuals (Table 4) [69]. Stabilization of patients, according to the first step, is the most important step, since it is the major cause of death in patients [69].
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
1. Stabilization of vital parameters
\n
\n
\n
2. Assessment of any underlying malignancy
\n
\n
\n
3. Diagnosis of PNP
\n
\n
\n
4. Removal and therapy for the triggering tumor
\n
\n
\n
5. Treatment of PNP
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Management of the patient with suspected PNP.
\n
Currently, the first-line treatment for PNP is still high doses of corticosteroids [70]. This treatment improves the cutaneous lesions, but the mucosal involvement is little altered. The use of other drugs also shows little efficacy in the lesions of the mucosa, this resistance being the characteristic of the disease [69, 71].
\n
Several studies have shown that the combination of drugs has been effective and safe. These associations were prednisolone used with other therapies, such as mycophenolate mofetil, cyclosporine A, azathioprine, plasmapheresis, and intravenous immunoglobulin [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77]. Even though treatment is more effective, mucosal involvement is still resistant to such combined therapies [71].
\n
The use of monoclonal antibody has been effective in the treatment of PNP in some case reports described in the literature. Administration of rituximab, an anti-CD20, has shown good PNP therapy due to B-cell lymphoma [78, 79]. This therapy is based on an infusion of 375 mg/m2 weekly for 4 weeks followed by eight weekly infusions for 4 weeks of corticosteroid and administration of other immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporine A [69].
\n
The use of alemtuzumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to CD52, has been reported. Reported in the treatment of PNP remission in patients whose presence of chronic lymphoid leukemia [80]. Alemtuzumab has been used in a patient with resistance to other drugs such as corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, and cyclosporine A. In this patient, intravenous 30 mg was infused three times a week for 3 months. Even though there was improvement in both skin and mucosal lesions, the patient continued maintenance treatment with 500 mg of mycophenolate mofetil and 5 mg of prednisone [80]. Although there are several treatment alternatives, new therapies that reduce the resistance of PNP to drugs are still fundamental. Daclizumab, a monoclonal antibody against T-cell interleukin-2, has been shown to be a promising therapy [81].
\n
It is known that in order to avoid large amounts of autoantibodies released into the bloodstream during tumor excision surgery, it is necessary to block blood flow and prevent compression of neoplastic tissue. In addition, the use of intravenous immunoglobulin before and during operations has demonstrated a significant reduction in mortality caused by bronchiolitis obliterans. Even after complete tumor resolution, immunoglobulin administration is required until 2 years to provide remission of autoimmunity triggered by PNP [82, 83].
\n
In addition to the treatment of neoplasia and PNP, other ducts must be performed. When there is loss of skin integrity or immunosuppression, antimicrobial therapy is recommended early to prevent sepsis. Medications for pain control are also useful, since patients have pain in regions with ulceration and erosions [50].
\n
Although there are several treatments stipulated in the literature, there are still no known drugs that reduce the mortality of patients, since the PNP proves highly resistant to more aggressive therapies. However, it is known that management, diagnosis, and early treatment are indispensable methods for a better response of the patients in the prescribed procedures.
\n
\n
\n
11. Prognosis
\n
The prognosis of PNP is extremely poor. Mortality can reach 90% of the cases in the first year, 41% of mortality in the second year, and 38% of death in the third year with the disease [84]. Commonly, death is triggered by systemic complications such as bronchiolitis obliterans, sepsis, and bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract [6, 50]. It is known that regardless of the cure or control of the neoplasia, the PNP progresses, demonstrating itself autonomous to the triggering factor [6, 10, 11, 13, 50]. Patients who exhibit morbilliform erythema and necrosis of skin biopsy keratinocytes demonstrate a worse overall survival [84]. In some cases, the removal of Castleman disease and benign thymoma has shown better results than other underlying diseases [84, 85].
\n
Even with a high mortality rate, the prognosis depends very much on the proper management of the patient, such as monitoring of vital signs, control of oral and skin lesions, treatment of the triggering disease, and prevention of sepsis and bronchitis obliterans. For this, it is essential to follow the patient closely and treat the disease aggressively [50].
\n
\n
\n
12. Quality of life
\n
Studies have mentioned severe losses in the quality of life of patients with pemphigus. The main criteria that impair the quality of life were the greater severity of the disease, anxiety, and depression. However, there was no clear measurement of gender, age, type of pemphigus, duration of disease, skin involvement, disease activity, itching, burning sensation in the skin, or treatment in use [86]. There is still a great need in the standardization and validation of PNP-specific questionnaires, as this proves to be extremely important in order to know and enable actions at key points by multidisciplinary teams.
\n
\n
\n
13. Conclusions
\n
PNP demonstrates a great challenge for physicians, since it presents several clinical aspects and varied degrees of bodily involvement. Early diagnosis, management of the patient, treatment of the underlying neoplasia, and aggressive treatment for PNP are of paramount importance for the best prognosis of the patient, since it is an extremely lethal disease. For this, more studies are needed to better understand the disease and cooperation between multidisciplinary teams involving dermatologists, oncologists, hematologists, otorhinolaryngologists, surgeons, ophthalmologists, immunologists, psychologists, nurses, and social workers.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author would like to acknowledge the help of Dr. Paulo Prata and the School of Health Sciences Barretos, São Paulo, Brazil.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
\n
The author has declared no conflicts of interest.
\n
\n
Appendices and nomenclature
\n
\n\n\nA2ML1\n\n
alpha-2 macroglobulin-like 1
\n\n\n\nBP\n\n
bullous pemphigoid
\n\n\n\nDIF\n\n
direct immunofluorescence
\n\n\n\nDSG\n\n
desmoglein
\n\n\n\nIIF\n\n
indirect immunofluorescence
\n\n\n\nLPD\n\n
lymphoproliferative disorders
\n\n\n\nPNP\n\n
paraneoplastic pemphigus
\n\n\n
\n
\n',keywords:"paraneoplastic pemphigus, neoplasms disease, autoimmune disease",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67359.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67359.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67359",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67359",totalDownloads:307,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 26th 2019",datePublished:"September 25th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Paraneoplastic pemphigus is a multiorganic autoimmune disease, usually triggered by neoplasias, mainly of lymphoproliferative origin such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Castleman disease, and thymoma. This disorder is characterized by the presence of autoantibodies that react against proteins, such as desmoplakins, desmocollins, and others existing in cell junctions. The prognosis is reserved, and the mortality rate of the disease is very high, thus proving to be an additional challenge in the therapeutic management of onco-hematological diseases. The objective of this chapter is to solve the main clinical aspects of paraneoplastic pemphigus in lymphoproliferative hematological diseases, anatomopathological and immunofluorescence characteristics, as well as associations with the main differential diagnoses and therapeutic management. We will also describe the main differential diagnoses of paraneoplastic pemphigus, such as various types of pemphigus including induced drug, bullous pemphigoid, drug eruption, lichen planus, graft versus host disease, erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. In addition, the prognosis and quality of life will be mentioned.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67359",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67359",signatures:"Richard Lucas Konichi-Dias",book:{id:"7054",title:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",slug:"current-trends-in-cancer-management",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",bookSignature:"Liliana Streba, Dan Ionut Gheonea and Michael Schenker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7054.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92199",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Streba",slug:"liliana-streba",fullName:"Liliana Streba"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"278101",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Konichi-Dias",fullName:"Richard Konichi-Dias",slug:"richard-konichi-dias",email:"richardkonichi95@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Association with malignancy and genetic background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Pathogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Autoantibodies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Cellular immunity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Clinical features",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1 Oral lesions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2 Secondary mucosal lesions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.3 Skin lesions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.4 Pulmonary manifestations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Histopathological examination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Immunological studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"8. Diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"9. Differential diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"10. Treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"11. Prognosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"12. Quality of life",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"13. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Appendices and nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Anhalt GJ, Kim SC, Stanley JR, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. An autoimmune mucocutaneous disease associated with neoplasia. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1990;323:1729-1735'},{id:"B2",body:'Nguyen VT, Ndoye A, Bassler KD, et al. Classification, clinical manifestations, and immunopathological mechanisms of the epithelial variant of paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome: A reappraisal of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Archives of Dermatology. 2001;137:193-206'},{id:"B3",body:'Paolino G, Didona D, Magliulo G, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: Insight into the autoimmune pathogenesis, clinical features and therapy. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017;18:2532. DOI: 10.3390/ijms18122532'},{id:"B4",body:'Anhalt GJ. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. Symposium Proceedings. 2004;9:29-33'},{id:"B5",body:'Sinha AA. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: Autoimmune-cancer nexus in the skin. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. 2015;15:1215-1223'},{id:"B6",body:'Vassileva S, Drenovska K, Manuelyan K. Autoimmune blistering dermatoses as systemic diseases. Clinics in Dermatology. 2014;32:364-375'},{id:"B7",body:'Czernik A, Camilleri M, Pittelkow MR, et al. Paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome: 20 years after. International Journal of Dermatology. 2011;50:905-914'},{id:"B8",body:'Sticherling M, Erfurt-Berge C. Autoimmune blistering diseases of the skin. Autoimmunity Reviews. 2012;11:226-230'},{id:"B9",body:'Pollmann R, Schmidt T, Eming R, et al. Pemphigus: A comprehensive review on pathogenesis, clinical presentation and novel therapeutic approaches. Clinical Reviews in Allergy and Immunology. 2018;54:1-25'},{id:"B10",body:'Sehgal VN, Srivastava G. Paraneoplastic pemphigus/paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome. International Journal of Dermatology. 2009;48:162-169'},{id:"B11",body:'Cervini AB, Tosi V, Kim SH, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus or paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome. Report of 2 cases in children and a review of the literature. Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas. 2010;101:879-886'},{id:"B12",body:'Mimouni D, Anhalt GJ, Lazarova Z, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus in children and adolescents. British Journal of Dermatology. 2002;147:725-732'},{id:"B13",body:'Lane JE, Woody C, Davis LS, et al. Paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome (paraneoplastic pemphigus) in a child: Case report and review of the literature. Pediatrics. 2004;114:e513-e516'},{id:"B14",body:'Geller S, Gat A, Harel A, et al. Childhood pemphigus foliaceus with exclusive immunoglobulin G autoantibodies to desmocollins. Pediatric Dermatology. 2016;33:e10-e13'},{id:"B15",body:'Amber KT, Valdebran M, Grando SA. Paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome (PAMS): Beyond the single phenotype of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Autoimmunity Reviews. 2018;17:1002-1010'},{id:"B16",body:'Kaplan I, Hodak E, Ackerman L, et al. Neoplasms associated with paraneoplastic pemphigus: A review with emphasis on non-hematologic malignancy and oral mucosal manifestations. Oral Oncology. 2004;40:553-562'},{id:"B17",body:'Shahidi-Dadras M, Abdollahimajd F, Barzkar N, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus with underlying retroperitoneal inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor: A case report and review of the literature. Indian Dermatology Online Journal. 2017;8:478-481'},{id:"B18",body:'Lim JM, Lee SE, Seo J, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with a malignant thymoma: A case of persistent and refractory oral ulcerations following thymectomy. Annals of Dermatology. 2017;29:219-222'},{id:"B19",body:'Cho JH, Kim NJ, Ko SM, et al. A case report of paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Research and Treatment. 2013;45:70-73'},{id:"B20",body:'Wang Y-Z, Gao Z-Y, Lei F-M, et al. A case report on paraneoplastic pemphigus associated colonic carcinoma. Chinese Medical Journal. 2016;129:1501-1502'},{id:"B21",body:'Gill H, Trendell-Smith NJ, Loong F, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus due to CD8-positive cytotoxic T-cell lymphoma. British Journal of Haematology. 2010;149:464'},{id:"B22",body:'Ghigliotti G, Di Zenzo G, Cozzani E, et al. Paraneoplastic autoimmune multi-organ syndrome: Association with retroperitoneal Kaposi’s sarcoma. Acta Dermato-Venereologica. 2016;96:261-262'},{id:"B23",body:'Hong WJ, Lee SE, Chang S-E, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with metastatic lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma originating from the thyroid gland. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2015;172:831-834'},{id:"B24",body:'Ohzono A, Sogame R, Li X, et al. Clinical and immunological findings in 104 cases of paraneoplastic pemphigus. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2015;173:1447-1452'},{id:"B25",body:'Verrini A, Cannata G, Cozzani E, et al. A patient with immunological features of paraneoplastic pemphigus in the absence of a detectable malignancy. Acta Dermato-Venereologica. 2002;82:382-384'},{id:"B26",body:'Liu Q , Bu D-F, Li D, et al. Genotyping of HLA-I and HLA-II alleles in Chinese patients with paraneoplastic pemphigus. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2008;158:587-591'},{id:"B27",body:'Martel P, Loiseau P, Joly P, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus is associated with the DRB1*03 allele. Journal of Autoimmunity. 2003;20:91-95'},{id:"B28",body:'Kasperkiewicz M, Ellebrecht CT, Takahashi H, et al. Pemphigus. Nature Reviews Disease Primers. 2017;3:17026'},{id:"B29",body:'Okahashi K, Oiso N, Ishii N, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with Castleman disease: Progression from mucous to mucocutaneous lesions with epitope-spreading phenomena. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2017;176:1406-1409'},{id:"B30",body:'Gloghini A, Colombatti A, Bressan G, et al. Basement membrane components in lymphoid follicles: Immunohistochemical demonstration and relationship to the follicular dendritic cell network. Human Pathology. 1989;20:1001-1007'},{id:"B31",body:'Futei Y, Amagai M, Hashimoto T, et al. Conformational epitope mapping and IgG subclass distribution of desmoglein 3 in paraneoplastic pemphigus. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2003;49:1023-1028'},{id:"B32",body:'Ohyama M, Amagai M, Hashimoto T, et al. Clinical phenotype and anti-desmoglein autoantibody profile in paraneoplastic pemphigus. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2001;44:593-598'},{id:"B33",body:'Schepens I, Jaunin F, Begre N, et al. The protease inhibitor alpha-2-macroglobulin-like-1 is the p170 antigen recognized by paraneoplastic pemphigus autoantibodies in human. PLoS One. 2010;5:e12250'},{id:"B34",body:'Galliano M-F, Toulza E, Gallinaro H, et al. A novel protease inhibitor of the alpha2-macroglobulin family expressed in the human epidermis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2006;281:5780-5789'},{id:"B35",body:'Wang L, Bu D, Yang Y, et al. Castleman’s tumours and production of autoantibody in paraneoplastic pemphigus. Lancet. 2004;363:525-531'},{id:"B36",body:'Wang R, Li J, Wang M, et al. Prevalence of myasthenia gravis and associated autoantibodies in paraneoplastic pemphigus and their correlations with symptoms and prognosis. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2015;172:968-975'},{id:"B37",body:'Wade MS, Black MM. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: A brief update. The Australasian Journal of Dermatology. 2005;46:1-8. Quiz 9-10'},{id:"B38",body:'Reich K, Brinck U, Letschert M, et al. Graft-versus-host disease-like immunophenotype and apoptotic keratinocyte death in paraneoplastic pemphigus. The British Journal of Dermatology. 1999;141:739-746'},{id:"B39",body:'Konichi-Dias RL, Ramos AF, de Almeida Santos Yamashita ME, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with chronic lymphocytic leukemia: A case report. Journal of Medical Case Reports. 2018;12:252'},{id:"B40",body:'Kelly S, Schifter M, Fulcher DA, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: Two cases of intra-abdominal malignancy presenting solely as treatment refractory oral ulceration. The Journal of Dermatology. 2015;42:300-304'},{id:"B41",body:'Wieczorek M, Czernik A. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: A short review. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology. 2016;9:291-295'},{id:"B42",body:'Sokumbi O, Wetter DA. Clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of erythema multiforme: A review for the practicing dermatologist. International Journal of Dermatology. 2012;51:889-902'},{id:"B43",body:'Usatine RP, Tinitigan M. Diagnosis and treatment of lichen planus. American Family Physician. 2011;84:53-60'},{id:"B44",body:'Healy WJ, Peters S, Nana-Sinkam SP. A middle-aged man presenting with unexplained mucosal erosions and progressive dyspnoea. Case Reports. 2015;2015:bcr2014208677'},{id:"B45",body:'Yokokura H, Demitsu T, Kakurai M, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus mimicking erosive mucosal lichen planus associated with primary hepatocellular carcinoma. The Journal of Dermatology. 2006;33:842-845'},{id:"B46",body:'Meyers SJ, Varley GA, Meisler DM, et al. Conjunctival involvement in paraneoplastic pemphigus. American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1992;114:621-624'},{id:"B47",body:'Broussard KC, Leung TG, Moradi A, et al. Autoimmune bullous diseases with skin and eye involvement: Cicatricial pemphigoid, pemphigus vulgaris, and pemphigus paraneoplastica. Clinics in Dermatology. 2016;34:205-213'},{id:"B48",body:'Bialy-Golan A, Brenner S, Anhalt GJ. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: Oral involvement as the sole manifestation. Acta Dermato-Venereologica. 1996;76:253-254'},{id:"B49",body:'Mutasim DF, Pelc NJ, Anhalt GJ. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. Dermatologic Clinics. 1993;11:473-481'},{id:"B50",body:'Yong AA, Tey HL. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. The Australasian Journal of Dermatology. 2013;54:241-250'},{id:"B51",body:'Khandpur S, Verma P. Bullous pemphigoid. Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 2011;77:450'},{id:"B52",body:'Ferrara JLM, Levine JE, Reddy P, et al. Graft-versus-host disease. Lancet. 2009;373:1550-1561'},{id:"B53",body:'Maldonado F, Pittelkow MR, Ryu JH. Constrictive bronchiolitis associated with paraneoplastic autoimmune multi-organ syndrome. Respirology. 2009;14:129-133'},{id:"B54",body:'Mar WA, Glaesser R, Struble K, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus with bronchiolitis obliterans in a child. Pediatric Dermatology. 2003;20:238-242'},{id:"B55",body:'Zimmermann J, Bahmer F, Rose C, et al. Clinical and immunopathological spectrum of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft. 2010;8:598-606'},{id:"B56",body:'Poot AM, Siland J, Jonkman MF, et al. Direct and indirect immunofluorescence staining patterns in the diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2016;174:912-915'},{id:"B57",body:'Joly P, Richard C, Gilbert D, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of clinical, histologic, and immunologic features in the diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2000;43:619-626'},{id:"B58",body:'Hashimoto T, Amagai M, Ning W, et al. Novel non-radioisotope immunoprecipitation studies indicate involvement of pemphigus vulgaris antigen in paraneoplastic pemphigus. Journal of Dermatological Science. 1998;17:132-139'},{id:"B59",body:'Probst C, Schlumberger W, Stöcker W, et al. Development of ELISA for the specific determination of autoantibodies against envoplakin and periplakin in paraneoplastic pemphigus. Clinica Chimica Acta. 2009;410:13-18'},{id:"B60",body:'Poot AM, Diercks GFH, Kramer D, et al. Laboratory diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2013;169:1016-1024'},{id:"B61",body:'Kelly S, Culican S, Silvestrini RA, et al. Comparative study of five serological assays for the diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Pathology. 2015;47:58-61'},{id:"B62",body:'Hashimoto T, Amagai M, Watanabe K, et al. Characterization of paraneoplastic pemphigus autoantigens by immunoblot analysis. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 1995;104:829-834'},{id:"B63",body:'Camisa C, Helm TN. Paraneoplastic pemphigus is a distinct neoplasia-induced autoimmune disease. Archives of Dermatology. 1993;129:883-886'},{id:"B64",body:'Helou J, Allbritton J, Anhalt GJ. Accuracy of indirect immunofluorescence testing in the diagnosis of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 1995;32:441-447'},{id:"B65",body:'Cozzani E, Dal Bello MG, Mastrogiacomo A, et al. Antidesmoplakin antibodies in pemphigus vulgaris. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2006;154:624-628'},{id:"B66",body:'Kazerounian S, Mahoney MG, Uitto J, et al. Envoplakin and periplakin, the paraneoplastic pemphigus antigens, are also recognized by pemphigus foliaceus autoantibodies. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 2000;115:505-507'},{id:"B67",body:'van der Waal RI, Pas HH, Anhalt GJ, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus as the presenting symptom of a lymphoma of the tongue. Oral Oncology. 1998;34:567-570'},{id:"B68",body:'Lee SE, Hashimoto T, Kim S-C. No mucosal involvement in a patient with paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with thymoma and myasthenia gravis. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2008;159:986-988'},{id:"B69",body:'Frew JW, Murrell DF. Current management strategies in paraneoplastic pemphigus (paraneoplastic autoimmune multiorgan syndrome). Dermatologic Clinics. 2011;29:607-612'},{id:"B70",body:'Martínez De Pablo MI, Iranzo P, Mascaró JM, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with non-Hodgkin B-cell lymphoma and good response to prednisone. Acta Dermato Venereologica. 2005;85:233-235'},{id:"B71",body:'Vezzoli P, Berti E, Marzano AV. Rationale and efficacy for the use of rituximab in paraneoplastic pemphigus. Expert Review of Clinical Immunology. 2008;4:351-363'},{id:"B72",body:'Gergely L, Váróczy L, Vadász G, et al. Successful treatment of B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia-associated severe paraneoplastic pemphigus with cyclosporin A. Acta Haematologica. 2003;109:202-205'},{id:"B73",body:'Williams JV, Marks JG, Billingsley EM. Use of mycophenolate mofetil in the treatment of paraneoplastic pemphigus. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2000;142:506-508'},{id:"B74",body:'Hertzberg MS, Schifter M, Sullivan J, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus in two patients with B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: Significant responses to cyclophosphamide and prednisolone. American Journal of Hematology. 2000;63:105-106'},{id:"B75",body:'Tan-Lim R, Bystryn JC. Effect of plasmapheresis therapy on circulating levels of pemphigus antibodies. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 1990;22:35-40'},{id:"B76",body:'Izaki S, Yoshizawa Y, Kitamura K, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus: Potential therapeutic effect of plasmapheresis. The British Journal of Dermatology. 1996;134:987-989'},{id:"B77",body:'Granata G, Greco A, Iannella G, et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome—Insight into pathogenesis, clinical variants and treatment approaches. Autoimmunity Reviews. 2015;14:830-836'},{id:"B78",body:'Hertl M, Zillikens D, Borradori L, et al. Recommendations for the use of rituximab (anti-CD20 antibody) in the treatment of autoimmune bullous skin diseases. Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft. 2008;6:366-373'},{id:"B79",body:'Hainsworth JD, Burris HA, Morrissey LH, et al. Rituximab monoclonal antibody as initial systemic therapy for patients with low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood. 2000;95:3052-3056'},{id:"B80",body:'Hohwy T, Bang K, Steiniche T, et al. Alemtuzumab-induced remission of both severe paraneoplastic pemphigus and leukaemic bone marrow infiltration in a case of treatment-resistant B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. European Journal of Haematology. 2004;73:206-209'},{id:"B81",body:'Lee SE, Kim S-C. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. Dermatologica Sinica. 2010;28:1-14'},{id:"B82",body:'Zhu X, Zhang B. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. The Journal of Dermatology. 2007;34:503-511'},{id:"B83",body:'Anhalt GJ. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. Advances in Dermatology. 1997;12:77-96. Discussion 97'},{id:"B84",body:'Leger S, Picard D, Ingen-Housz-Oro S, et al. Prognostic factors of paraneoplastic pemphigus. Archives of Dermatology. 2012;148:1165-1172'},{id:"B85",body:'Wang J, Zhu X, Li R, et al. Paraneoplastic pemphigus associated with castleman tumor: A commonly reported subtype of paraneoplastic pemphigus in China. Archives of Dermatology. 2005;141:1285-1293'},{id:"B86",body:'Rencz F, Gulácsi L, Tamási B, et al. Health-related quality of life and its determinants in pemphigus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2015;173:1076-1080'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Richard Lucas Konichi-Dias",address:"richardkonichi95@gmail.com",affiliation:'
School of Health Sciences, Dr. Paulo Prata-FACISB, Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7054",title:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",slug:"current-trends-in-cancer-management",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",bookSignature:"Liliana Streba, Dan Ionut Gheonea and Michael Schenker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7054.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92199",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Streba",slug:"liliana-streba",fullName:"Liliana Streba"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"176720",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",email:"hsin-hui.shen@monash.edu",fullName:"Hsin-Hui Shen",slug:"hsin-hui-shen",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Monash University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Neutron Reflectometry for Studying Proteins/Peptides in Biomimetic Membranes",slug:"neutron-reflectometry-for-studying-proteins-peptides-in-biomimetic-membranes",abstract:"The development of biomimetic surfaces for protein and peptide adsorptions is continuously expanding. Their biological functions can be influenced by the properties of the underlying artificial environment but the detailed mechanism is still not clear. In the past 30 years, neutron reflectometry has been widely applied to characterise the molecular structure of proteins or multi-protein complexes and their interactions with fluid artificial membrane that mimics the cellular environment. The specific interactions, bindings or structural changes between proteins and membranes play a crucial role in cellular responses and have promising potential in diagnostics and other biosensor applications. This chapter presents the progression of surface design for protein adsorption/interactions on membranes in detail, ranging from a simple phospholipid monolayer setup to more complicated artificial lipid bilayer systems. Furthermore, a new development of designed surfaces for studying the integral membrane protein system is also discussed in this chapter. A brief overview of various membrane mimetic surfaces is first outlined, followed by presenting specific examples of protein-membrane interactions studied by neutron reflectometry. The author demonstrates how to use neutron reflectometry as an advanced technique to provide step-by-step structural details for biomolecular applications in a well-controlled manner.",signatures:"Joyee Chun In Yeung, Tsung-Wu Lin and Hsin-Hui Shen",authors:[{id:"176720",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-Hui",surname:"Shen",fullName:"Hsin-Hui Shen",slug:"hsin-hui-shen",email:"hsin-hui.shen@monash.edu"},{id:"176942",title:"Ms.",name:"Chun In",surname:"Yeung",fullName:"Chun In Yeung",slug:"chun-in-yeung",email:"joyee.yeung@monash.edu"},{id:"176943",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsung-Wu",surname:"Lin",fullName:"Tsung-Wu Lin",slug:"tsung-wu-lin",email:"twlin@thu.edu.tw"}],book:{title:"Neutron Scattering",slug:"neutron-scattering",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"25243",title:"Prof.",name:"bao",surname:"yang",slug:"bao-yang",fullName:"bao yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"34708",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian-Ping",surname:"Wang",slug:"jian-ping-wang",fullName:"Jian-Ping Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"91843",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo De Tarso",surname:"Freire",slug:"paulo-de-tarso-freire",fullName:"Paulo De Tarso Freire",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do Ceará",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"176605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Cunsolo",slug:"alessandro-cunsolo",fullName:"Alessandro Cunsolo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176605/images/system/176605.jpeg",biography:"With over two decades of professional experience to his credit, Dr. Alessandro Cunsolo is currently a physicist at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. He has held this position since 2015, and has been with Brookhaven since 2009, when he began working there as an associate scientist. Previously, Dr. Cunsolo had been a scientist at Argonne National Laboratory, the National Institute for the Physics of Matter (Now the National Counsel for Research), the University of L’Aquila, and the University of Roma III. He has also spent some time teaching, and held an adjunct professorship at the Stony Brook University from 2011 to 2013. Dr. Cunsolo received a PhD in physics from Joseph Fourier University in 1999. Since then he has gone on to accomplish a great deal in the field. He is an expert in high resolution spectrometry, and in his time at Brookhaven Laboratory was responsible for the construction of a spectrometer there. He is in charge of the science behind it, and has worked hard to help build a community of users around it. He has contributed a number of articles to professional journals, and is a former member of the American Physical Society. He has been featured in Who’s Who in America, appearing in the 65th edition of the publication.",institutionString:"University of Wisconsin–Madison",institution:{name:"Brookhaven National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"176709",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",surname:"Dragolici",slug:"cristian-dragolici",fullName:"Cristian Dragolici",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Horia Hulubei National Institute for R and D in Physics and Nuclear Engineering",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"176871",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiajun",surname:"Xu",slug:"jiajun-xu",fullName:"Jiajun Xu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"176942",title:"Ms.",name:"Chun In",surname:"Yeung",slug:"chun-in-yeung",fullName:"Chun In Yeung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"176943",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsung-Wu",surname:"Lin",slug:"tsung-wu-lin",fullName:"Tsung-Wu Lin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"181497",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Pereira",slug:"jose-pereira",fullName:"José Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"181498",title:"Prof.",name:"Heloisa",surname:"Bordallo",slug:"heloisa-bordallo",fullName:"Heloisa Bordallo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Cancer, Autoimmunity and Inflammation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Ms. Katja Lakota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9667",title:"Neuroimmunology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9cf0e8203ce088c0b84add014fd8d382",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Robert Weissert",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"79343",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Weissert",slug:"robert-weissert",fullName:"Robert Weissert"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10270",title:"Fog Computing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"54853b3034f0348a6157b5591f8d95f3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Isiaka Ajewale Alimi, Dr. Nelson Muga, Dr. Qin Xin and Dr. Paulo P. Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10270.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208236",title:"Dr.",name:"Isiaka",surname:"Alimi",slug:"isiaka-alimi",fullName:"Isiaka Alimi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10370",title:"Advances in Fundamental and Applied Research on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f16232a481c08a05cc191ac64cf2c69e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian FG Katz and Dr. Piotr Majdak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10370.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278731",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian FG",surname:"Katz",slug:"brian-fg-katz",fullName:"Brian FG Katz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:191},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5238},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1317",title:"Public Health",slug:"social-sciences-education-public-health",parent:{title:"Education",slug:"social-sciences-education"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"social-sciences-education-public-health",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8645",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76d224ba3c158c43fda8141a61ababd6",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, James P. Orlando and Thomas J. Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8645.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"64635",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82343",title:"Wellness in Residency: A Paradigm Shift",slug:"wellness-in-residency-a-paradigm-shift",totalDownloads:396,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Roderick M. Quiros and Elspeth Black",authors:null},{id:"64979",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82618",title:"Teaching Balanced Patient Care Using Principles of Reductionism and Holism: The Example of Chronic Low Back Pain",slug:"teaching-balanced-patient-care-using-principles-of-reductionism-and-holism-the-example-of-chronic-lo",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Alan Remde, Stephen DeTurk and Thomas Wojda",authors:null},{id:"63925",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81532",title:"Curriculum Development: Foundations and Modern Advances in Graduate Medical Education",slug:"curriculum-development-foundations-and-modern-advances-in-graduate-medical-education",totalDownloads:1639,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Simiao Li-Sauerwine and Andrew King",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63925",title:"Curriculum Development: Foundations and Modern Advances in Graduate Medical Education",slug:"curriculum-development-foundations-and-modern-advances-in-graduate-medical-education",totalDownloads:1642,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Simiao Li-Sauerwine and Andrew King",authors:null},{id:"67021",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Quest to Transform Graduate Medical Education into a Seamless Journey toward Practice Readiness",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-quest-to-transform-graduate-medical-education-into-a-seamless-journey-toward-",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, James P. Orlando and Thomas J. Papadimos",authors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}]},{id:"64979",title:"Teaching Balanced Patient Care Using Principles of Reductionism and Holism: The Example of Chronic Low Back Pain",slug:"teaching-balanced-patient-care-using-principles-of-reductionism-and-holism-the-example-of-chronic-lo",totalDownloads:566,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Alan Remde, Stephen DeTurk and Thomas Wojda",authors:null},{id:"65522",title:"The Importance of Post-Doctoral Program to GME in an Academic Medical Center",slug:"the-importance-of-post-doctoral-program-to-gme-in-an-academic-medical-center",totalDownloads:295,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Tracy L. Butryn, Parampreet Kaur, Vikas Yellapu, Alyssa Green and James Dalkiewicz",authors:null},{id:"66801",title:"Physician Burnout",slug:"physician-burnout",totalDownloads:440,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Bess Connors, Charlotte Horne, Valery Vilchez and Sofya Asfaw",authors:null},{id:"66759",title:"Resident Autonomy",slug:"resident-autonomy",totalDownloads:443,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Amanda Cooper and Steven Allen",authors:null},{id:"64635",title:"Wellness in Residency: A Paradigm Shift",slug:"wellness-in-residency-a-paradigm-shift",totalDownloads:397,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Roderick M. Quiros and Elspeth Black",authors:null},{id:"64409",title:"Implementing Wellness Curriculum in Residency",slug:"implementing-wellness-curriculum-in-residency",totalDownloads:556,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Nguyet-Cam V. Lam and Elspeth Black",authors:null},{id:"66601",title:"Leadership in Graduate Medical Education",slug:"leadership-in-graduate-medical-education",totalDownloads:311,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"contemporary-topics-in-graduate-medical-education",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education"},signatures:"Jay M. Yanoff",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"social-sciences-education-public-health",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/176720/hsin-hui-shen",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"176720",slug:"hsin-hui-shen"},fullPath:"/profiles/176720/hsin-hui-shen",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()