\r\n\tIt is a relatively simple process and a standard tool in any industry. Because of the versatility of the titration techniques, nearly all aspects of society depend on various forms of titration to analyze key chemical compounds.
\r\n\tThe aims of this book is to provide the reader with an up-to-date coverage of experimental and theoretical aspects related to titration techniques used in environmental, pharmaceutical, biomedical and food sciences.
The most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia, nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (AF), has an increasing prevalence and incidence in association with increased age and medical comorbidities. Nonvalvular AF is defined as AF in the absence of prosthetic mechanical heart valves, or haemodynamically significant mitral stenosis (moderate or severe) [1]. Evaluation of patients with AF requires an assessment of cardiac structure and function by echocardiography. Such an assessment complements the clinical evaluation and helps decision-making regarding rhythm strategy (rhythm control vs. rate control), stroke risk stratification, and prognosis. Currently approved AF therapies are only partially effective and are associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. The new treatment standard in this arrhythmia, AF catheter ablation, requires a multidisciplinary team approach involving interventional cardiologists and imaging specialists. For AF ablation, there is a need to identify individualized mechanism-based ablation targets (defined as mapping), located especially in left atrium (LA). Achieving durable pulmonary vein isolation as first step in AF ablation therapy remains technically challenging. AF substrate ablation (by targeting LA myocardium attaint by fibrosis due to the LA structural remodelling), in addition to pulmonary vein isolation, may prevent AF recurrence if pulmonary veins reconnect or nonpulmonary vein triggers emerge. Intrinsic cardiac autonomic nerve activity precedes the onset of AF. Autonomic activity is mediated by discrete ganglionated plexi localized on the LA posterior epicardium. It promotes LA electrical remodelling. Targeting these ganglionated plexi is another method for AF ablation. New approaches to mapping and ablation may target regions of oscillating action potential duration (especially in the LA myocardium) that can cause wave breaks leading to AF [2]. Recently, European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging and the European Heart Rhythm Association published evidences available on the role of imaging techniques (including echocardiography) and their applications in patients with AF, and provided recommendations for their use in clinical practice [3]. Echocardiography is critical in the assessment of candidates for AF ablation, providing both anatomic and haemodynamic information; it offers the potential for improved safety of AF ablation. Echocardiography is very useful at each step of the procedure: before AF ablation (by patient selection and pre-procedural LA appendage thrombus exclusion), intraprocedural guidance, and after AF ablation for detection and monitoring for early and late ablation-related complications, and also atrial reverse remodelling occurrence after obtaining stable sinus rhythm.
\nTransthoracic echocardiography (TTE) allows rapid and comprehensive assessment of cardiac anatomical structure and function. It plays a central role in each of identifying comorbidities and identification of suitable candidates for AF catheter ablation. Pulmonary vein flow monitoring using echocardiography has the potential to an increasing role in the evaluation of cardiac diastolic function directly related to LA remodelling. Transoesophageal echocardiography (TOE) also provides accurate information about the presence of a thrombus in the atria or LA appendage (which is an absolute contraindication for AF ablation) and thromboembolic risk. The novel technique of intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) has emerged as a popular and useful tool in AF ablation during the procedure.
\n\nBiplane left atrial volume measurement by disk summation method in apical 4-chamber (a) and apical 2-chamber (b) views of bidimensional transthoracic echocardiography. LA: left atrium, LV: left ventricle, RA: right atrium, RV: right ventricle.
LA dilatation (structural remodelling) can occur in a broad spectrum of cardiovascular diseases including hypertension, left ventricular dysfunction, mitral valve disease, and AF. In general, two major conditions are associated with LA dilatation: pressure overload and volume overload. TTE has an important role to diagnose all these diseases in patients with AF. The LA size has an incremental value of overconventional risk factors. However, LA size has also prognostic value for long-term outcome. The current guidelines on management of patients with AF recommend a standard two‐dimensional (2D) TTE and Doppler echocardiogram, with assessment of LA size and function, in the clinical evaluation of all patients with AF (not only before AF ablation) [2].
LA size in addition to LA anatomy and function are the parameters mandatory to be assessed before deciding to include a patient for AF ablation procedure. The LA anterior-posterior diameter was one of the first standardized echocardiographic parameters for assessment of LA size. LA enlargement may result in an asymmetrical geometry of the LA. LA anterior-posterior diameter assessed in the parasternal long-axis view by 2D or M‐mode echocardiography may underestimate LA size [4]. Anterior-posterior linear dimension should not be used as the sole measure of LA size [4]. Optimal assessment of LA size should include LA volume or LA area (preferably indexed) measurements [4]. LA dimensions can be assessed in the apical four- and two-chamber views. LA dimensions should be measured at end-ventricular systole, at maximal LA size. Each view must be optimized in order to avoid: an underestimation of LA size by foreshortening of the major length of the LA, inaccurate assumption of the mitral annulus boundary, loss of lateral resolution of the LA wall in the apical view, or dropout of the interatrial septum or anterior wall [4]. LA area is easy to assess and closer to LA size than anterior-posterior diameter. Various methods for the assessment of LA volume with 2D echocardiography are available, including the cubical method, area-length method, ellipsoid method, and modified Simpson’s rule [4]. Because it is theoretically more accurate than the area-length method, the biplane disk summation technique, which incorporates fewer geometric assumptions, should be the preferred method to measure LA volume in clinical practice. For LA volume assessment, the same views as LA area are indicated (Figure 1). In addition, the same precautions must to be respected. LA appendage and pulmonary veins should be avoided to be included as LA cavity. LA long diameter is recommended to be considered the shorter value of this length assessed in the two views specified above. The measurement of LA length is considered appropriate if the difference between the two values (in apical two- and four-chamber views) is not higher than 5 mm.
\n\nAlternatively, LA volume can be calculated using the disk summation technique by adding the volume of a stack of cylinders and area calculated by orthogonal minor and major transverse axes assuming an oval shape.
\nLA volume enables accurate assessment of the asymmetric structural remodelling of the LA and is a more robust predictor of cardiovascular events than linear or area measurements. However, the cornerstone of LA volume assessment is geometric assumptions about LA shape (as an ellipsoid shape).
\nThe upper normal limit for 2D echocardiographic LA volume is 34 mL/m2 for both genders. Single-plane apical four-chamber indexed LA volumes are typically 1–2 mL/m2 smaller than apical two-chamber volumes. Apical four- and two-chamber linear measurements and nonindexed LA area and volume measurements are not recommended for routine clinical use [4].
\nIn conclusion, TTE is the recommended approach for assessing LA size [4]. LA size should be measured at end-ventricular systole, at maximal LA size, with precautions to not underestimate or overestimate LA dimensions [4]. TOE slightly underestimates LA size; it provides good correlation with TTE. Although TOE permits good views on the LA and the LA appendage, it should not be used to assess LA size [4].
\nRecently has been demonstrated the feasibility of three‐dimensional (3D) TTE for the assessment of LA volumes [5]. 3D echocardiography has the advantage that no geometrical assumption about LA shape has to be made and it seems to be more accurate when compared to 2D measurements. In addition, this echocardiographic method has a lower intraobserver and interobserver variability as compared to 2D echocardiography [5]. However, there still remain some technical limitations: The spatial and temporal resolution is low, depends on adequate image quality, and requires patient’s cooperation; in addition, there are limited data on normal values [4].
\nLA size and volumes throughout the cardiac cycle can be acquired more precise with magnetic resonance image or computer tomography. Because the longitudinal axes of the left ventricle and LA frequently lie in different planes, dedicated acquisitions of the LA from the apical approach should be obtained for optimal LA volume measurements. However, these imaging methods are more expensive, sometimes with limited accessibility and more invasive (X-ray irradiation for computer tomography and potential kidney complications for both image techniques).
\nICE is only used during AF catheter ablation procedure [6]. Therefore, no standardized measurements of LA size or volume are available. Although ICE is limited by the monoplane character and the lack of standardized measurements of LA size, it is a valuable tool for guidance ablation procedure.
\nThe assessment of LA anatomy is important in the setting of catheter ablation procedures for AF [6]. Because of the complex anatomy of the LA and the variability in pulmonary vein anatomy, a detailed roadmap is mandatory to be known before the ablation procedure. The various imaging modalities that are available for assessment of LA and pulmonary vein anatomy in catheter ablation procedures include multislice computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, ICE, and electroanatomical mapping systems. Patients referred for AF ablation often have highly variable pulmonary vein anatomy, which could influence the procedure technique [6]. Four discrete pulmonary veins are present in the minority of patients with paroxysmal AF undergoing pulmonary vein isolation [6]. Anatomical variations include a single insertion or common antrum of the ipsilateral pulmonary veins, and an additional pulmonary vein. Assessment of LA and pulmonary vein anatomy by cardiac magnetic resonance or computed tomography before AF ablation is mandatory before the procedure. Pulmonary vein anatomy may in part explain the variable outcome to electrical isolation in patients with paroxysmal AF, although there is still debate concerning the best ablation strategy and the optimal lesion set. This information might aid in planning procedural strategies, and reducing unexpected procedural complications in AF ablation [6]. Among echocardiographic methods, only ICE (not TTE and TOE) has the capacity to assess a detailed pulmonary vein anatomy and morphology [7–9]. The interest in LA anatomy increases with AF ablation techniques developing [7–9]. New image integration systems have become available for AF catheter ablation procedures [8].
\nTissue Doppler Imaging study (at the level of basal segment of septal interventricular wall) in apical four-chamber view of transmitral inflow in a patient with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation during sinus rhythm. Sa represents systolic myocardial velocity of left ventricle; Ea represents early diastolic filling myocardial velocity of left ventricle; Aa represents late diastolic filling myocardial velocity of left ventricle.
In patients in sinus rhythm LA has three important functions: the reservoir, the conduit, and the booster pump function. The change in the LA function in different phases can be evaluated noninvasively by echocardiography, utilizing not only usual methods including transmitral flow and changes in LA area and volume.
\nPulsed-wave Doppler permits the assessment of late diastolic filling wave (A) on transmitral inflow pattern as marker of LA mechanical function. Both peak velocity and time-velocity integral of the mitral A wave could be used. However, in AF patients A wave is absent, so cannot be used for LA mechanical function assessment [5].
\nNew echocardiographic techniques, such as Tissue Doppler Imaging (TDI) and speckle tracking (strain and strain rate) imaging, allow noninvasive measurement of regional function of the myocardium (including LA). TDI allows the quantification of the low-velocity, high-amplitude, long-axis intrinsic myocardial velocities in both systole and diastole, and provides a relatively load-independent measure of both left ventricle systolic and diastolic function (Figure 2).
\nThe similar parameter of peak A velocity measured by TDI (Aa) is a myocardial velocity (not flow velocity) and could be also used as an atrial function parameter. It correlates with other parameters of atrial function as atrial fraction and atrial ejection force. In addition, it seems that Aa velocity assessed by TDI correlates with LA fractional area and volume change [5].
\n\nHowever, regional LA function is not routinely assessed, and therefore, no standardized parameters for regional LA functions are yet available [5]. A strong limitation for current using of this parameter is LA walls, which are thin and therefore difficult to be measured during wall moving. Improvement of LA regional function as marker of atrial electromechanical remodelling is an important outcome in patients that underwent AF catheter ablation.
\nTotal electromechanical activity of the atria could be calculated by the interval between the onsets of the P‐wave on the electrocardiogram to the end of the Aa wave on the TDI. However, TDI evaluation of regional LA function is the angle dependent. Therefore, careful adjustment of the beam and gain settings should be made to avoid aliasing and to allow reliable measurement of tissue velocities of the LA.
\nAnother brand new technique, namely speckle tracking, is based on myocardial deformation assessment. Strain and strain rate are the two parameters that measure myocardial tissue velocity gradient by speckle tracking. This technique has some major advantages comparing with TDI: It is independent of wall movements and could differentiate between active and passive motion [5].
\nAll TDI‐derived parameters of the LA, including tissue velocities, strain and strain rate, were significantly reduced in patients with AF. Using TDI and/or strain imaging techniques, the decreased compliance of LA walls, the impairment of the reservoir and conduit function of LA, and the loss of the booster pump function in patients with AF were found.
\nAfter catheter ablation of AF, decreasing of these parameters means a possible criterion of do not interrupt the antiarrhythmic and anticoagulation treatment even in sinus rhythm due to the AF recurrences [5].
\nAll changes in left ventricle diastolic function reflect on pulmonary venous flow morphology assessed by pulsed-wave Doppler [5]. In patients with AF due to LA pressure and functions (mainly the reservoir function), the following changes are possible: The wave of atrial reverse flow is absent due to the active LA mechanical function disappearance; peak velocity of systolic flow decreases and is related to the LA appendage dysfunction and thromboembolic risk; peak diastolic velocity higher than peak systolic velocity; an early systolic reverse flow is present [5]. In patients with AF catheter ablation pulmonary venous flow monitoring is important to assess LA mechanical function recovering. Preserved reservoir function of LA during AF is predictive of satisfactory recovery of mechanical function after pulmonary vein isolation [4, 5].
\nPulmonary venous diastolic deceleration time is very useful to predict diastolic left ventricle filling pressure, as estimated by pulmonary capillary wedged pressure in AF [9]. This parameter is easy to be assessed after pulmonary venous flow registration by pulsed-wave Doppler. It is defined as duration between peak diastolic velocity and the upper deceleration slope extrapolated to the baseline.
\nAccording to the current guidelines, all these measurements should be taken on 5–10 cardiac cycles during a heart rate of 60–80 beats/min.
\nIt seems that pulmonary venous deceleration time correlates better with pulmonary capillary wedged pressure than transmitral deceleration time in patients with AF [10]. Pulmonary venous deceleration time ≤150 ms could predict pulmonary capillary wedged pressure ≥18 mm Hg with 100% sensitivity and 96% specificity in patients with AF [10].
\nPatients with larger LA size, reduced LA function, and increased LA fibrosis (as marker of advanced electrical and structural remodelling) content are more likely to experience AF recurrences after ablation. The new echocardiography techniques have an emerging role in assessment of atrial fibrosis in patients with AF [7]. The appropriate selection of patients is mandatory for better outcomes in AF ablation; less fibrosis (that means less structural remodelling) seems to translate in better outcomes. Until now, there are not known imaging techniques able to predict AF ablation rate success tailored to each patient undergoing this treatment. However, there are some useful clinical tools (risk scores such as CHADS2, CHA2DS2-VASc, or APPLE scores) to identify patients with low, intermediate, or high risk of AF recurrence after AF ablation. However, echocardiography is very useful to detect and monitor LA reverse remodelling and improvement in atrial or ventricular function after AF ablation.
\nAtrial cardiomyopathies may provide the basis for the development of atrial fibrillation. The molecular alterations may also contribute to the occurrence of atrial thrombi. Thus, the concept of thrombogenic endocardial remodelling was introduced. In the future, echocardiography might be useful in this new type of atrial remodelling assessment.
\nThe presence of LA appendage or LA thrombi is an absolute contraindication for AF ablation. Therefore, echocardiography assessment of thrombi presence is mandatory before AF ablation procedure. 2D TTE has a low sensitivity for detection of thrombi in LA and especially LA appendage. 2D or 3D TOE provides excellent visualization of posterior cardiac structures because of the anatomic relationship of these structures to the oesophagus. TOE is one of the modality of choice for detecting LA or LAA thrombi (Figure 3a).
\nTwo-dimensional transesophageal echocardiogram, midoesophageal view, allowing the identification of a left atrial appendage thrombus (a); zoom of the left atrial appendage illustrating the presence of a dense spontaneous echo contrast with swirling movements in the left atrial appendage (b).
(a) Two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiogram, midoesophageal view, shows left atrial appendage with muscular ridge, namely coumadin ridge and pectinate muscles which could be misinterpreted as clots. (b) Pulsed-wave Doppler of the left atrial appendage demonstrates the decreased emptying and filling velocities in patients with atrial fibrillation.
It can detect thrombi with a high degree of sensitivity and specificity varying from 93% to 100% [5]. LA appendage has a very complex anatomy with variable shape, size, and orientation, with the possibility of several lobes and branches; therefore, thrombi assessment can be challenging. The muscular ridges and pectinate muscles (Figure 4a) must be carefully observed, because they can be misinterpreted as clots. Also ICE is very useful during AF ablation procedure to make the difference between muscular ridges and pectinate muscles (Figure 5). However, 3D TOE could make a better distinction between the pectinate muscles and thrombi, comparing with 2D TOE [11]. In addition, TOE is helpful in assessment of LA appendage velocities by pulsed-wave Doppler (Figure 4b). Usually, in patients in sinus rhythm without history of AF the average LA appendage filling velocity is 40–50 cm/s and correlates well with the LA appendage contraction velocity; the average LA appendage contraction velocity is 50–60 cm/s. Low LA appendage emptying flow velocities (defined as <20 cm/s) in AF correlate strongly with the presence of spontaneous echo contrast and thrombus formation. For patients with AF, TOE risk factors for thromboembolism associated with high risk of stroke include at least one of the following factors: LA appendage thrombus, severe spontaneous echo contrast, low flow velocities at LA appendage ostium, and complex aortic plaques [3].
Intracardiac echocardiography shows very clearly anatomic structures during ablation procedure. This image was offered by courtesy of the editor. RVOT: right ventricle outflow tract; LSPV: left superior pulmonary vein.
Thrombus identification is also challenging even if the appendage is visualized adequately. In the absence of formed thrombi, a dense spontaneous echo contrast (Figure 3b) has been demonstrated to be strong a predictor of thromboembolism. Spontaneous echo contrast can be classified into four groups (1 to 4+), depending on the intensity, location, and presence of the swirling movement [12]. It seems that patients under anticoagulation and with thromboembolic risk scores (CHADS2 and CHA2DS2-VASc) <2 have a negative predictive value approaches to 100%; therefore, TOE before catheter ablation of AF might be avoided [13].
\nSometimes it is difficult to distinguish small thrombi from artefacts, including prominent trabecular structures, duplication artefacts, and adipose tissue within the transverse sinus. It is necessary to attempt to differentiate any suspicious abnormalities from thrombus in multiple views. The mechanical function of LA appendage is best assessed with TOE utilizing pulsed-wave Doppler measurement of LA appendage emptying and filling velocities.
\nIn addition to LA appendage Doppler assessment, measuring LA appendage area and ejection fraction (evaluated through vector velocity imaging), TDI, and 3D TOE are less validated and less frequently performed parameters associated with cerebrovascular events and the formation of LA appendage thrombus [11]. Pre-procedural multislice computed tomography may also identify the presence of thrombi in the LA appendage, but the gold standard is TOE [11]; in addition to the anatomy of the LA and pulmonary veins, it also provides detailed information on surrounding structures, such as the oesophagus and coronary arteries.
\nAccording to the new theories of AF physiopathology, some ablation strategies were elaborated; however, none is known as golden standard of this therapy. Depending on ablation technique, LA anatomy and pulmonary vein morphology are of essential importance to be well known during the ablation procedure. The veno-atrial junctions and anatomical structures of the LA, such as Coumadin ridge or the ridge between the left superior pulmonary vein and LA appendage, are critical for a safe and successful procedure.
Two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiogram, midoesophageal view, shows (a) interatrial septum with left-right shunt in colour Doppler through patent foramen oval and (b) lipomatous interatrial septum. Ao: aorta; IAS: interatrial septum; LA: left atrium; RA: right atrium.
For pulmonary vein isolation or LA substrate ablation, it is mandatory to puncture the interatrial septum to gain left atrial posterior wall and pulmonary veins. If the patient has a patent foramen oval (Figure 6a), some operators say that transseptal puncture could be avoided. However, this is arguable, because accessibility to LA to gain pulmonary veins is difficult through a patent foramen oval. During TOE, a microbubble test under Valsalva manoeuvre could unmask a patent foramen oval. Rarely, TTE in subxiphoid view could identify the presence of a patent foramen oval. However, TOE has better sensibility to diagnose patent foramen oval before AF ablation. In patients with the lipomatous hypertrophy of the interatrial septum (Figure 6b), transseptal puncture could be difficult, without echocardiographic guidance.
\n\nTransseptal puncture guided by bidimensional TOE shows direct visualization of the transseptal catheter and its relationship to the fossa ovalis and the ascending aorta. Ao: aorta; IAS: interatrial septum; LA: left atrium; RA: right atrium.
Uses of ICE for transseptal puncture guidance. LA: left atrium; RA: right atrium. This image was offered by courtesy of the editor.
Transseptal puncture allows procedural access to the LA. Anatomic structures are not directly visualized during transseptal puncture by fluoroscopic guidance. TTE and especially TOE may be helpful in performing this procedure by allowing direct visualization of the transseptal catheter and its relationship to the fossa ovalis. Anatomic variability in the position and orientation of the fossa ovalis and its surrounding structures may be challenging to even those interventional cardiologists with significant transseptal experience. However, echocardiography imaging offers increased safety to the operator, by avoiding the puncture of the intrapericardial aorta, a serious complication of transseptal puncture. In addition, radiation minimizes the fluoroscopy time required for the procedure, being very important during the learning curve. It was shown that TOE is of great value in performing transseptal punctures in AF ablation procedures. TTE can delineate the aorta and interatrial septum, and the characteristic bulging (or tenting) of the fossa ovalis and saline contrast echocardiography with TTE may help confirm needle position in the right atrium before puncture and in the LA after puncture (Figure 7). Anatomical variations in interatrial septum such as aneurismal septum, double-membrane septum, patent foramen oval, and others make this process complicated. Because TTE does not always offer sufficient imaging resolution, TOE and more recently ICE are preferably (Figure 8).
\nICE could be useful only during the ablation procedure. It enables visualization of anatomical particularities of LA, being mostly important in transseptal puncture guidance and circular Lasso catheter positioning [14]. ICE enables to visualize the tenting of the interatrial septum due to the transseptal sheath tip during the puncture. It is important to be correctly placed in the posterior region of the fossa ovalis to avoid potential life-threatening complications such as aortic root perforation or LA lateral wall penetrating. For an appropriate mapping and ablation lesions, a good placement of Lasso catheter at the pulmonary vein antrum is mandatory. It could avoid important complications such as acute thrombus formation or early or late pulmonary vein stenosis by power, impedance, and temperature monitoring during energy delivery. Impedance increasing could be proceeding by microbubbles due to tissue superheating. ICE enables directly visualization of these microbubbles. In this case, immediate interruption of lesion creation is recommended to prevent severe complications such as cardiac tamponade by LA perforation, oesophageal injury or pulmonary vein stenosis. ICE is a useful tool also for the placement of mapping/ablation catheter according to anatomic landmarks and morphologic lesion changes monitoring for a safety and efficacy AF ablation procedure [7]. ICE has becoming a gold standard in complex AF ablation procedures by replacing fluoroscopy technique [14].
\nThere has been a revival in the use of transseptal catheterization due to the increased use of radiofrequency ablation in the LA. Utilization of ICE in conjunction with fluoroscopy allows the electrophysiologist to clearly identify the interatrial septum and adjacent structures. ICE provides excellent views of the fossa ovalis and of the transseptal apparatus [7]. Life-threatening complications following inadvertent puncture of anatomic structures can be avoided under direct visualization. For electrophysiologist is important a direct visualization of the Brockenbrough needle and the Mullins sheath during the transseptal puncture. Sheath position in the LA could be verified by saline microbubbles or intravenous contrast injection. The location of the Marshall vein, relevant in AF ablation, can also be identified from imaging of the “Q-tip” ridge, seen between the LA appendage and left pulmonary veins [7].
\nDuring AF ablation procedure, the mapping is followed by energy applications and lesion creation. Atrial myocardium suffers some alterations after energy application such as thickening, dimpling, and hyper-echogenicity. ICE enables identification of all myocardium sites transformed during ablation. The characteristics of lesions could be controlled by monitoring and titrating of energy parameters (temperature, impedance, and power). In addition, ICE allows identification of triggers sites such ligament of Marshall and to treat by applications under direct visualization. The applications on LA posterior wall could translate into fistula between anterior wall of the oesophagus and LA, a lethal complication of an extensive AF ablation procedure. Therefore, ICE is very useful during the procedure to titrate energy parameters to avoid this. In conclusion, ICE is used only during the ablation procedure; it allows better results of the procedure and lower risk of complications [15].
\nAll echocardiography methods, TTE, TOE, or ICE, have the ability to detect early and avoid potential lethal complications during AF ablation [15]. Appropriate anticoagulation could prevent spontaneously thrombus formation and embolization during the procedure. Immediate detecting of thrombus by ICE allows prompting removal of catheters to avoid embolic complications.
\nMicrobubbles visualization is most useful for prompting discontinuation of energy delivery when microbubbles are seen. Early detection of a pericardial effusion before cardiac tamponade (preferable before signs of haemodynamic compromise) and catheter-based treatment of the effusion are two facilitations allowed by TTE, TOE, or ICE. Pulmonary vein stenosis is a serious complication that can be detected early by visual tissue swelling and assessing severity with peak velocity measurements and colour flow parameters or pulsed-wave Doppler imaging, available with phased-array imaging [14].
\nDuring ablation procedure, ICE can accurately visualize LA anatomy and related structures and may guide transseptal catheterization and it is helpful in monitoring potential complications during catheter ablation procedures. In addition, it allows to establish a clear-cut relationship between the catheter tip and underlying tissue and to visualize the lesion formation; it can be performed with minimal additional patient risk and discomfort, without additional sedation or general anaesthesia; it does not need prolonged oesophageal intubation, accompanying patient discomfort, or the risk for aspiration. ICE offers imaging that is comparable with or superior to TOE and is an alternative to TOE in selected patients with absolute contraindications to TOE (oesophagectomy). This technique is quite safe with a negligible rate of complications and good patient tolerance. It allows improvement in success rate and decrease in complication when compared to fluoroscopic approach. ICE has been shown to improve patient comfort, shorten both procedure and fluoroscopy times, and offer comparable cost with TEE-guided interventions [5].
\nComparing with TOE, ICE has some advantages: clearer image, reduced irradiation, and shorter duration of the procedure [16]. It has also some disadvantages such as: the shaft is thick without the possibility to have ports for pressure, therapeutic devices, and guide wires; the phased-array catheters are cost-ineffective (single use, higher costs); ICE offers only monoplane image views being difficult to obtain some sections as for TOE [10].\nIn addition, there are not still standard views for ICE as for other echocardiographic imaging modality such as TTE or TOE. In addition, in the literature there are described some potential risks of vascular lesion, cardiac perforation, arrhythmias, thromboembolism, and cutaneous nerve palsy [5]. However, it is expected to be used widely in clinical practice and even to become the standard for the transseptal catheterization.
\nEchocardiography is very useful after AF ablation for detection and monitoring for early and late related complications, and also for LA reverse remodelling assessment in patients with stable sinus rhythm.
\nPulmonary veins flow monitoring is used to detect early pulmonary vein stenosis after AF ablation, which could occur in 1% to 3% of current series [17]. TOE allows the suspicion of a significant PV stenosis (Figure 9) by a combination of elevated peak pulmonary vein velocity (≥110 cm/s) with turbulence and little flow variation [17]. Although TOE has been used, it does not usually provide adequate assessment.
(a) Colour Doppler mode by transoesophageal echocardiography at the level of left superior pulmonary vein identify a significant pulmonary vein stenosis. (b) Pulsed-wave Doppler of left superior pulmonary vein inflow confirms haemodynamically significant stenosis. LA: left atrium, AO: aorta, LSPV: left superior pulmonary vein.
However, TTE or TOE are limited by its inability to image deeply into all four pulmonary veins and are less useful in establishing the extent and location of pulmonary vein stenosis. Diagnostic tests of value include magnetic resonance angiography and computed tomography. Progression of stenosis is unpredictable and may be rapid. Recurrent restenosis after angioplasty and stenting, as therapeutic solution of this complication, may occur in 30–50% of patients with pulmonary veins stenosis [17]. Follow-up of these patients typically involves computed tomography imaging to document restenosis.
\nPulmonary vein stenosis could occur late after AF ablation. TOE could raise the suspicion by detection of high pulmonary vein velocities. Follow-up of these patients typically involves computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging to document stenosis.
\nTOE and ICE allow early identification of complications related with procedure including damage to intracardiac structures, thrombus formation, pulmonary vein stenosis, and pericardial effusion during catheter ablation of AF.
\nA TOE performed 3–6 months after AF ablation can also evaluate thromboembolic risk and need for long-term anticoagulation, as echocardiographic risk factors may be present even if restoration of sinus rhythm is successful.
\nCatheter ablation has been demonstrated to be successful in the restoration of sinus rhythm and is performed in an increasing number of patients with symptomatic drug‐refractory paroxysmal and persistent AF. It has been demonstrated that restoration and maintenance of sinus rhythm after catheter ablation is associated with a decrease in LA volumes (reverse structural LA remodelling), with subsequent improvement of LA function [5]. Using the new tissue Doppler‐derived parameters, it was shown that in parallel with the improvement in LA function, both left ventricle systolic and diastolic function improved in the patients who maintained sinus rhythm [5]. In addition to LA reverse remodelling, even the area of the pulmonary venous ostia may decrease after successful catheter ablation procedures [5]. Post-procedural imaging to evaluate the extent of reverse LA remodelling after catheter ablation is critical to appropriate decisions regarding ongoing anti-arrhythmic therapy and long-term anticoagulation.
\nConversion of AF and atrial flutter to sinus rhythm could result in a transient mechanical dysfunction of LA and LA appendage, termed atrial stunning [17]. Atrial stunning has been reported including after radiofrequency ablation. This phenomenon is well recognized with peak A velocity of transmitral inflow (by a very low value or absence) as well as TDI or strain imaging. Atrial stunning is at maximum immediately after procedure and improves progressively with a complete resolution within a few minutes to 4–6 weeks depending on the duration of the preceding AF, atrial size, and structural heart disease [18]. This suggests that a dissociation of electrical and mechanical recovery occurs after successful restoration of sinus rhythm, with a delay in gradual improvement of atrial mechanical function.
\nStiff LA syndrome, defined as pulmonary hypertension with LA diastolic dysfunction, has regained attention in patients who had undergone catheter ablation for AF, especially after multiple ablation procedures [19]. This syndrome is a rare but potentially significant complication of AF ablation. Severe LA scarring, LA ≤45 mm, diabetes mellitus, obstructive sleep apnoea, and high LA pressure are clinical variables that predict the development of this syndrome [19]. The main echocardiographic findings include pulmonary hypertension in the absence of pulmonary vein stenosis or LA pressure tracings in the absence of mitral regurgitation. Pulmonary vein diastolic flow velocity (assessed by TTE or TOE) and E/Ea (by TTE using pulse wave Doppler and TDI) can be used as a noninvasive parameter predicting high LA pressure peak (during sinus rhythm) in patients with AF [19]. Elevated LA pressure was closely associated with electroanatomical remodelling of the LA and was an independent predictor for recurrence after AF ablation [20, 21].
\nMultimodality echocardiography is needed at each step of AF ablation procedure. LA size, morphology, and function together with other cardiac parameters are mandatory for patient selection. 2D TTE allows rapid and comprehensive assessment of cardiac anatomical structure and function. 2D or 3D TOE provides accurate information about preprocedural LA appendage thrombus in the atria and thromboembolic risk and is very useful for intraprocedural guidance. The novel technique of ICE has emerged also as a popular and useful tool in the guidance of AF ablation procedure. TTE or TOE is need for early and late ablation-related complications detection and monitoring. In the future, echocardiography might be useful in thrombogenic endocardial remodelling assessment, a novel concept in atrial cardiomyopathies such as atrial fibrillation.
\nWetlands are defined based on the Canadian Wetland Classification System as land that is saturated with water long enough to promote wetland or aquatic processes as indicated by poorly drained soils, hydrophytic vegetation and various kinds of biological activity which are adapted to a wet environment [1]. Wetlands are important ecological systems which play a critical role in hydrology and act as water reservoirs, affecting water quality and controlling runoff rate [2]. Also, they are amongst the most productive ecosystems, providing food, construction materials, transport, and coastline protection. They provide many important environmental functions and habitat for a diversity of plant and animal species [2]. Furthermore, wetlands bring economic value with social benefits for people, providing significant tourism opportunities and recreation that can be a key source of income. For these reasons, the continuous and accurate monitoring of wetlands is necessary, especially for better urban planning and improved natural resources management [3]. The formation of wetlands requires the presence of the appropriate hydrological, geomorphological and biological conditions [2].
\nThe Canadian Wetland Classification System divides wetlands into five classes based on their developmental characteristics and the environment in which they exist [1]. As shown in Figure 1, these classes are: bogs, fens, marches, swamps, and shallow water. Bogs (Figure 2a) are peatlands with a peat layer of at least 40 cm thickness, consisting partially decomposed plants. Bogs surface is usually higher relatively to the surrounding landscape and characterized by evergreen trees and shrubs and covered by sphagnum moss. The only source of water and nutrients in this type of wetlands is the rainfall [4]. Bogs are extremely low in mineral nutrients and tend to be strongly acidic [1].
\nWetland classes hierarchy.
Wetland classes as defined by the Canadian Wetland Classification System: (a) bog, (b) fen, (c) marsh, (d) swamp and (e) shallow open water.
Like bogs, fens (Figure 2b) are also peatlands that accumulate peats. Fens occurs in regions where the ground water discharges to the surface [1]. This type of wetlands is usually covered by grasses, sedges, reeds, and wildflowers. Typically, fens have more nutrients than bogs, and the water is less acidic [4]. Marshes (Figure 2c) are wetlands that are periodically or permanently flooded with standing or slowly moving water and hence are rich in nutrients [4]. Some marshes accumulate peats, though many do not. Marshes are characterized by non-woody vegetation, such as cattails, rushes, reeds, grasses and sedges [1]. Similar to marshes, swamps (Figure 2d) are wetlands that are subject to relatively large seasonal water level fluctuations [4]. Swamps are characterized by woody vegetation, such as dense coniferous or deciduous forest and tall shrubs. Some marshes accumulate peats, though many do not [1]. Shallow open water wetlands (Figure 2e) are ponds of standing water bodies, which represent a transition stage between lakes and marshes. This type of wetlands is free of vegetation with a depth of less than 2 m [1].
\nSpaceborne remote sensing technology is necessary for effective monitoring and mapping of wetlands. The use of this technology provides a practical monitoring and mapping approach of wetlands, especially for those located in remote areas [5].
\nWetlands are usually located in remote areas with limited accessibility. Thus, remote sensing technology is attractive for mapping and monitoring wetlands. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems are active remote sensing systems independent of weather and sun illumination. SAR systems transmit electromagnetic microwave from their radar antenna and record the backscattered signal from the radar target [6]. The sensitivity of SAR sensors is a function of the: (1) band, polarization, and incidence angle of the transmitted electromagnetic signal and (2) geometric and dielectric properties of the radar target [7]. Radar targets can be discriminated in a SAR image if their backscattering components are different and the radar spatial resolution is sufficient to distinguish between targets [6]. Conventional SAR systems are linearly polarized radar systems which transmit horizontally and/or vertically polarized radar signal and receive the horizontal and/or vertical polarized components of the backscattered signal (Figure 3). In SAR systems, polarization is referred to the orientation of the electrical field of the electromagnetic wave.
\nHorizontally and vertically polarized radar signal.
A single polarized SAR system is a SAR system which transmits one horizontally or vertically polarized signal and receives the horizontal or vertical polarized component of the returned signal. A dual polarized SAR system is a SAR system which transmits one horizontally or vertically polarized signal and receives both the horizontal and vertical polarized components of the returned signal. A single or dual polarized SAR system acquires partial information with respect to the full polarimetric state of the radar target. A fully polarimetric SAR system transmits alternatively horizontally and vertically polarized signal and receives returns in both orthogonal polarizations, allowing for complete information of the radar target [6, 8]. While full polarimetric SAR systems provide complete information about the radar target, the coverage of these systems is half of the coverage of single or dual polarized SAR systems. Also, the energy required by the satellite for the acquisition of full polarimetric SAR imagery and the pulse repetition frequency of the SAR sensor are twice the single or dual polarized SAR systems.
\nA new SAR configuration named compact polarimetric SAR is currently being implemented in SAR systems, where a circular polarized signal (Figure 4) is transmitted and two orthogonal polarizations (horizontal and vertical) are coherently received [9]. Thus, the relative phase between the two receiving channels is preserved and calibrated, but the swath coverage is not reduced.
\nCircular polarized radar signal.
In comparison to the full polarimetric SAR systems, compact polarimetric SAR operates with half pulse repetition frequency, reducing the average transmit power and increasing the swath width. Consequently, this SAR configuration is associated with low-cost and low-mass constraints of the spaceborne polarimetric SAR systems. The wider coverage of the compact SAR system reduces the revisit time of the satellite, making this system operationally viable [10]. These advantages come with an associated cost in the loss of full polarimetric information. Hence, generally, a compact polarimetric SAR system cannot be “as good as” a full polarimetric system [11]. Such SAR architecture is already included in the current Indian Radar Imaging Satellite-1 (RISAT-1) and the Japanese Advanced Land Observing Satellite-2 (ALOS-2) carrying the Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar-2 (PALSAR-2). Also, compact polarimetric SAR will be included in the future Canadian RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM).
\nFully polarimetric SAR systems measure the complete polarimetric information of a radar target in the form of a scattering matrix [S]. The scattering matrix [S] is an array of four complex elements that describes the transformation of the polarization of a wave pulse incident upon a reflective medium to the polarization of the backscattered wave and has the form [6]:
\nwhere H and V refer to horizontal and vertical polarized signals, respectively. The elements of the scattering matrix [S] are complex scattering amplitudes. For most natural targets including wetlands, the reciprocity assumption holds where HV = VH. The diagonal elements HH and VV are called co-polarized elements, while the off-diagonal elements HV and VH are called cross-polarized elements. Two polarimetric scattering vectors can be extracted from the target scattering matrix, which are the lexicographical scattering vector and the Pauli scattering vector [12]. Assuming the reciprocity condition, the lexicological scattering vector has the form:
\nwhere the superscript T denotes the vector transpose. The multiplication of the cross-polarization with 2 is to preserve the total backscattered power of the returned signal. The Pauli scattering vector can be obtained from the complex Pauli spin matrices [6] and, assuming the reciprocity condition, has the form:
\nDeterministic scatterers can be described completely by a single scattering matrix or vector. However, for remote sensing SAR applications, the assumption of pure deterministic scatterers is not valid. Thus, scatterers are non-deterministic and cannot be described with a single polarimetric scattering matrix or vector. This is because the resolution cell is bigger than the wavelength of the incident wave. Non-deterministic scatterers are spatially distributed. Therefore, each resolution cell is assumed to contain many deterministic scatterers, where each of these scatterers can be described by a single scattering matrix [Si]. Therefore, the measured scattering matrix [S] for one resolution cell consists of the coherent superposition of the individual scattering matrices [Si] of all the deterministic scatterers located within the resolution cell [6, 12].
\nAn ensemble average of the complex product between the lexicological scattering vector \n
where \n
The relationship between the covariance matrix [C] and the coherency matrix [T] is linear. Both matrices are full rank, hermitian positive semidefinite and have the same real non-negative eigenvalues, but different eigenvectors. Moreover, both matrices contain the complete information about variance and correlation for all the complex elements of the scattering matrix [S] [12].
\nA compact polarimetric SAR system transmits a right- or left-circular polarized signal, providing a scattering vector of two elements:
\nwhere R refers to a transmitted right-circular polarized signal. A four-element vector called Stokes vector [g] can be calculated from the measured compact polarimetric scattering vector, as follow [11]:
\nwhere Re and Im are the real and imaginary parts of a complex number. The first Stokes element g0 is associated with the total power of the backscattered signal while the fourth Stokes vector is associated with the power in the right-hand and left-hand circularly polarized component [13]. The elements of the Stokes vector can be used to derive an average coherency matrix, which takes the form [14]:
\nRadar backscattering is a function of the radar target properties (dielectric properties, roughness, target geometry) and the radar system characteristics (polarization, band, incidence angle). Three major backscattering mechanisms can take place during the backscattering process. These are the surface, double bounce and volume scattering mechanism (Figure 5).
\nThe three major scattering mechanisms: surface, double bounce and volume.
In the case of surface scattering mechanism (Figure 5), the incident radar signal features one or an odd number of bounces before returns back to the SAR antenna. In this case, a phase shift of 180o occurs between the transmitted and the received signal [6]. However, a very smooth surface could cause the radar incident signal to be reflected away from the radar antenna, causing the radar target to appear dark in the SAR image. In this case, scattering is called specular scattering. An example of such surfaces is the open water in wetlands [12]. In the case of double bounce scattering mechanism (Figure 5), the incident radar signal hits two surfaces, horizontal and adjacent vertical forming a dihedral angle, and almost all of incident waves return back to the radar antenna. Thus, the scattering from radar targets with double bounce scattering is very high. The phase difference between the transmitted and the received signal is equal to zero. Double bounce scattering mechanism is frequently observed in open wetlands, such as bog and marsh, as the results of the interaction of the radar signal between the standing water and vegetation [15]. In the case of volume scattering mechanism (Figure 5), the radar signal features multiple random scattering within the natural medium. Usually, a large portion of the transmitted signal is returned back to the SAR sensor, causing rise to cross polarizations (HV and VH). Thus, illuminated radar targets with volume scattering appear bright in a SAR image. Volume scattering is commonly observed in flooded vegetation wetlands due to multiple scattering in the vegetation canopy.
\nIn general, the penetration capabilities and the attenuation depth of radar signal in a medium, such as flooded vegetation, increases with the increasing of the wavelength [6, 12]. Figure 6 presents the penetration of radar signals for different bands. As shown in Figure 6, X-band SAR has a short wavelength signal with limited penetration capability, while L-band SAR has long wavelength signal with higher penetration capability. C-band SAR is assumed as a good compromise between X- and L-band SAR systems. As shown in Figure 6, the scattering mechanism of a radar target could be affected by the penetration depth of the radar signal. Thus, dense flooded vegetation could present volume scattering mechanism in X- or C-band SAR (return from canopy), but double bounce scattering mechanism in L-band due to scattering process from trunk-water interaction (Figure 6) [12].
\nThe radar signal penetration for different bands.
Different decomposition methods have been proposed to derive the target scattering mechanisms for both full polarimetric [6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24] and compact polarimetric [11, 25] SAR data. One of the earliest and widely used decomposition methods is the Cloude-Pottier decomposition [17]. This method is incoherent decomposition method based on the eigenvector and eigenvalue analysis of the coherency matrix [T]. Given that [T] is hermitian positive semidefinite matrix, it can always be diagonalized using unitary similarity transformations. That is, the coherency matrix can be given as
\nwhere [Λ] is the diagonal eigenvalue matrix of [T], λ1 ≥ λ2 ≥ λ3 ≥ 0 are the real eigenvalues and [U] is a unitary matrix whose columns correspond to the orthogonal eigenvectors of [T]. Based on the Cloude-Pottier decomposition, three parameters can be derived [17]. The polarimetric entropy H (0 ≤ H ≤ 1) is defined by the logarithmic sum of the eigenvalues
\nwhere \n
The anisotropy A provides additional information only for medium values of H because in this case secondary scattering mechanisms, in addition to the dominant scattering mechanism, play an important role in the scattering process [6]. The alpha angle α (0 ≤ α ≤ 90o) provides information about the type of scattering mechanism
\nwhere cos(αi) in the magnitude of the first component of the coherency matrix eigenvector ei (i = 1, 2, 3).
\nAnother widely used polarimetric decomposition method is the Freeman-Durden method [18]. Contrary to the Cloude-Pottier decomposition, which is a purely mathematical construct, the Freeman-Durden decomposition method is a physically model-based incoherent decomposition based on the polarimetric covariance matrix. It relies on the conversion of a covariance matrix to a three-component model. The results of this decomposition are three coefficients corresponding to the weights of different model components. A polarimetric covariance matrix [C] can be decomposed to a sum of three components, corresponding to volume, surface, and double bounce scattering mechanisms [18]:
\nwhere fv, fs, and fd are the three coefficients corresponding to volume, surface, and double bounce scattering, respectively. The Freeman-Durden decomposition is particularly well adapted to the study of vegetated areas [18]. Thus, it is widely used for multitemporal wetland monitoring to track changes of shallow open water to flooded vegetation [26].
\nScattering mechanism information can also be obtained using compact polarimetric SAR data. Two decomposition methods are commonly used. The first is the m-δ decomposition method [11], which is based on the degree of polarization of the backscattered signal \n
where Vd, Vv, and Vs refer to double bounce, volume, and surface scattering mechanisms, respectively. The second decomposition method is the m-χ decomposition [25], which is based on the degree of polarization m and the ellipticity \n
where Pd, Pv, and Ps refer to even bounce, volume, and odd bounce scattering mechanisms, respectively.
\nThe accurate, effective, and continuous identification and tracking of changes in wetlands is necessary for monitoring human, climatic and other effects on these ecosystems and better understanding of their response. Wetlands are expected to be even more dynamic in the future with rapid and frequent changes due to the human stresses on environment and the global warming [27]. Different methodologies can be adopted to detect and track changes in wetlands using SAR imagery, depending on the type of the change and the available polarization option. For example, a change in the surface water level of a wetland area due to e.g. heavy rainfall could extend the wetland water surface, causing flooding in the surrounding areas. Such a change can be easily detected using SAR amplitude images before and after the event acquired with similar acquisition geometry. The specular scattering of the radar signal can highlight the open water areas (dark areas due to low returned signal). Spatiotemporal changes in wetlands as dynamic ecosystems could be interpreted using SAR amplitude imagery only. This is because changes within wetlands could change the surface type illuminated by the radar. Sometimes, the change could be more complex with alternations in surface water, flooded vegetation and upland boundaries. In this case, the additional polarimetric information from full or compact polarimetric SAR is necessary for the detection and interpretation of changes within wetlands.
\nAs shown in Figure 7, a change within a wetland from wet soil with a high dielectric constant to open water is usually accompanied with a change in the radar backscattering from surface scattering with a strong returned signal (Figure 7a) to specular reflection with a weak returned signal (Figure 7b). The change in wetland could also be due to its seasonal development over time. Hence, intermediate marsh with large vegetation stems properly oriented could allow for double bounce scattering mechanism (Figure 7c). As the marsh develops, the strong observed double bounce scattering mechanism gradually decreases in favor of the volume scattering (Figure 7d) from the dense canopy of the fully developed marsh [28]. Thus, polarimetric decomposition methods enable the identification of wetland classes (e.g. flooded vegetation) and monitoring changes within these classes by means of the temporal change in the backscattering mechanisms. The role of decomposition methods for identification and monitoring of wetlands was highlighted in a number of recent studies [26, 29, 30, 31]. Another way of monitoring changes within wetlands could be through polarimetric change detection methodologies using full [10], compact [10, 32], or even coherent dual [33] polarized SAR imagery. These methodologies are based on polarimetric coherency/covariance matrices. Herein, changes are flagged without information about the scattering mechanisms, which occurred during the scattering process. Test statistics, such as those proposed in [34, 35], were proven effective for polarimetric change detection over wetlands.
\n(a) Surface scattering mechanism from wet soil, (b) radar signal reflection from shallow open water, (c) double bounce scattering mechanism from signal interaction with vegetation stems and water surface and (d) volume scattering due to random scattering within the dense flooded vegetation canopy.
Ever since the launch of the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) in 1972 there has been interest in using satellite remote sensing as a tool for wetland mapping and classification because the traditional air photo and field visit approaches are too costly and time consuming [36]. Wetlands are difficult to map and classify due to a large degree of spatial and temporal variability as well as structural and spectral similarities between wetland classes. Over the last decade or so a state-of-the-art approach for wetland classification has emerged. This is an object based classification approach using multi-source input data (optical and SAR) with a machine learning classification algorithm and a quality Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for identifying terrain suitability for wetlands or surface water [37, 38, 39, 40]. Using this approach, greater than 90% accuracy is often achieved for a wide variety of wetland classification systems [41].
\nThe early satellite SAR systems produced single channel intensity only output data, which limited its value for land cover and wetland classification. This type of data when used synergistically with optical data improved the wetland classification compared to using optical data alone but only to a minor degree [37, 42, 43, 44, 45]. This is largely due to the ability of the SAR wavelengths to penetrate wetland vegetation and “see” the underlying water, thereby improving the flooded vegetation class discrimination. The flooded vegetation tends to produce a double bounce scattering mechanism, as explained earlier, which increases the intensity of the backscatter. HH polarization is best for this due to the enhanced penetration in vegetation.
\nAs one goes up the polarization hierarchy from single channel intensity only data to dual-channel, compact polarimetry, and full polarimetry data sets the information content increases and the wetland classification subsequently improves [11, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. In general, dual channel SAR’s and polarization ratios outperform single channel intensity only data systems and compact polarimetric data is better than dual channel data. Fully polarimetric data consistently shows the best information content for wetland classification by using polarimetric parameters derived from the data matrices, or polarimetric decompositions such as the Cloude and Pottier [17], Freeman-Durden [18], or Touzi [24] decompositions. You can use the decompositions or polarimetric parameters such as the polarization phase difference to identify flooded vegetation due to the double bounce effect increasing intensity and producing the phase shift. The Shannon Entropy has also proven useful for wetland mapping [51] and may have some benefit for finding the transition from flooded to saturated soil and between flooded vegetation and open water. This is a two-parameter model with one parameter relating to intensity and the other polarization diversity, and it may be simpler than using the decompositions.
\nThere have been numerous frequency effect evaluations since the early observations of enhanced scattering from flooded vegetation on SEASAT imagery [52]. This effect for swamps and many vegetated wetlands with high biomass is quite evident in L-band data due to the increased canopy penetration and better interaction with the water/trunk/stem interface, resulting in the double bounce scattering mechanism [53, 54]. It is also evident at C-band and in some cases at X-band depending on the biomass and density of the canopy and the subsequent wavelength dependent penetration [41, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. In general, X- and C-band are preferred for herbaceous wetlands and less dense canopies while L-band is preferred for woody wetlands such as swamps and other wetland classes with high biomass.
\nSAR data has also proven effective for mapping peatlands, which is becoming more important because of climate change and carbon emission issues [61, 62, 63, 64]. Due to the penetration of these longer wavelengths and the ability to penetrate beneath the plant canopy, there have been some indications that L-band polarimetric SAR can be used to differentiate between bog and fen peatlands due to the sensitivity of the water flow characteristics beneath the surface [65].
\nSAR does not penetrate water so provides little information on invasive aquatic submersive plants, but L-band and to a lesser degree C-band have shown some success at identifying invasive Phragmites [66]. This tall dense invasive provides significant SAR backscatter and can be separated from other land-cover due to this characteristic and its location in the landscape. It helps to use LiDAR as well as SAR due to the relative height and landscape position of the Phragmites [67].
\nIn general, one wants to use a steep incidence angle for woody wetlands or flooded vegetation mapping in order to enhance the penetration to reach the water surface and realize the enhanced scattering effect due to double bounce scattering between the vegetation and the water surface. A shallow angle may be preferred if the focus is on the open water mapping as this can enhance the contrast between the specular scattering of surface water and the flooded vegetation with volume and double bounce scattering. Recent reviews of wetland remote sensing and SAR are provided in [40, 41, 68, 69, 70].
\nThe specular backscatter from calm water surfaces allows for easy discrimination of open water from upland and flooded vegetation using SAR data. At the same time, the double bounce scattering from flooded vegetation allows discrimination from upland and open water as described earlier. This, combined with the all-weather data collection capabilities, makes SAR an ideal sensor for mapping flood as well as dynamic surface water and flooded vegetation [40].
\nFlood mapping is operational with SAR data in many countries using data from a variety of SAR systems from X- to L-band (see for example [71, 72, 73, 74]). Intensity thresholding techniques have traditionally been used for open water mapping [75]. Texture, cross-polarization data, and other techniques are being developed to solve the problem when the water is brighter due to wind or current induced roughness, as well as to automate the process [76, 77, 78, 79].
\nAs described in the section on wetland mapping the double bounce effect and enhanced scattering from flooded vegetation makes SAR a good sensor for mapping flooded vegetation from non-flooded vegetation [40, 59, 80]. This allows the delineation of wetland extent and with multi-temporal data can be very useful for monitoring seasonal and/or annual changes in the wetland size and extent. [81] showed that flooded vegetation tends to remain coherent using InSAR techniques and this can then be used to map wetland type and extent. Thus, SAR is an ideal sensor for monitoring the spatially and temporally dynamic flooded vegetation components of wetlands.
\nThe development of standard coverages, like that used for the Sentinel program, results in stacks of data with the same geometry and facilitates the use of temporal filters for speckle noise reduction. The use of a multi-temporal filter rather than the conventional spatial filtering approach can be an effective way to reduce the speckle while maintaining the spatial resolution and the ability to detect small objects and edges [82, 83]. This also allows the use of intensity metrics rather than thresholds to separate water from land, which can also help solving the wind roughness problem [84]. The multi-temporal coverage provided by SAR systems enables generating hydro-period and dynamic surface water as well as flooded vegetation masks [85, 86]. This enables better mapping of temporary, seasonal and ephemeral water bodies as well as the permanent water bodies, which are static and much easier to map. A recent review of SAR flood mapping and flood studies with SAR is provided in [87], while [88] provides a review of flooded vegetation mapping with SAR.
\nWetland interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is a relatively new application of the InSAR technology that detects water level changes over wide areas with 5–100 m pixel resolution and several centimeters vertical accuracy [89, 90, 91]. The wetland InSAR technique works where vegetation emerges above the water surface due to the “double bounce” effect, in which the radar pulse is backscattered twice from the water surface and vegetation [53]. InSAR observations were successfully used to study wetland hydrology in the Everglades [90, 91, 92, 93], Louisiana [94, 95, 96] and the Sian Ka’an in Yucatan [97].
\nOne of the key issues in using the InSAR observations for assessing wetland hydrology is the calibration of the InSAR observations, which are relative in both space and time. In time, the measurements provide the change in water level (not the actual water level) that occurred between the two data acquisitions. In space, the measurements describe the relative change of water levels in the entire interferogram with respect to a zero change at an arbitrary reference point, because the actual range between the satellite and the surface cannot be determined accurately. However, the relative changes between pixels can be determined at the cm-level. In many other InSAR applications, such as earthquake or volcanic induced deformation, the reference zero change point is chosen to be in the far-field, where changes are known to be negligible [98]. However, in wetland InSAR, the assumption of zero surface change in the far-field does not hold, because flow and water levels can be discontinuous across the various water control structures or other flow obstacles.
\nThe calibration stage requires additional information on water level changes, which can be derived from various sources. In areas monitored by stage (water level) stations, as in the Everglades, the stage data can be used for the InSAR calibration, as conducted by [90]. Another calibration technique relies on spaceborne radar altimetry, which detects absolute water level changes over a few km wide footprints with accuracy of 5–10 cm [94]. However, the altimetry observations are limited in space and time, as the radar altimeter data can only be acquired along the satellite tracks, which are spaces roughly 100 km apart. Also, the altimetry data is not always synchronized with the InSAR observations, which are acquired by different satellites.
\nWetland biomass is of increasing interest due to methane emission contributions to climate change from degraded and thawing wetlands. Wetland change can also be used as an indicator of climate change impacts. Wetland vegetation biomass can therefore be an important indicator of carbon sequestration in wetlands and is essential for understanding the carbon cycle of these ecosystems. SAR data has the potential to estimate vegetation biomass in wetlands because radar is particularly sensitive to the vegetation canopy over an underlying water surface [99]. The biomass of totora reeds and bofedal in water-saturated Andean grasslands was mapped with ERS-1 data in [100]. The goal was to protect this ecosystem from overgrazing. They found that the backscatter signal of ERS-1 was sensitive to the humid and dry biomass of reeds and grasslands and their biomass maps were useful for the livestock management in the study region. [101] developed regression and analytical models for estimating mangrove wetland biomass in South China using RADARSAT images. [102, 103] also found that L-band ALOS PALSAR can be used to estimate the aboveground biomass because of the correlation between HH and HV backscatter signals. C-band backscatter characteristics from RADARSAT-2 data were used by [104] to estimate the biomass of the Poyang Lake wetlands in China. Also, [105] used ENVISAT ASAR data to estimate wetland vegetation biomass in Poyang Lake. These studies have shown that it is possible to estimate above water biomass in wetlands with SAR data.
\nAs shown in the previous section, spaceborne SAR remote sensing technology is recognized as essential tool for effective wetland observation. With the presence of global warming and its associated risks on Earth systems, there is an expressed interest in increased temporal and spatial resolution of satellite measurements. Thus, a trend toward increased temporal and spatial resolution of SAR imagery is noted in recent and future SAR missions. The Sentinel-1 SAR mission with its two identical SAR satellites (Sentinel-1A&B) is a good example of a recent SAR mission with a spatial resolution ranging from 5 m to 100 m and a revisit time of 6 days. This high temporal and spatial resolution is expected to be even higher in the near future with the launch of the RCM in late 2018. The RCM is expected to provide SAR imagery in a spatial resolution ranging from 1 m to 100 m, in a revisit time of only 4 days [32]. The increased temporal and spatial resolution would be required to adequately monitor wetlands and characterize the actual implications of climate change. Also, it is expected to further improve our understanding of climate change in wetlands and water quality, allowing ecosystem managers and decision makers to have sufficient information regarding wetland preservation.
\nWith the availability of different remote sensing data with various information contents, the application of multi-source data for advanced wetland applications is demonstrated in a number of studies; see for example [2, 44, 61, 67, 106]. In addition to SAR imagery, experiments on the integration of topographic and remote sensing data, such as optical imagery and LiDAR data, were conducted. The ultimate objective of these experiments was the improved mapping accuracy of wetlands. The integration of SAR imagery with optical and topographic data from multiple sensors was shown in [44, 106] to be necessary for improved wetland mapping and classification during the growing season. However, the integration of SAR imagery and LiDAR data did not improve significantly the classification accuracy of wetland in [61, 67]. The modern advances in remote sensing technology and the availability of multi-source information are shifting the manner in which Earth observation data are used for wetland monitoring, indicating the need for automated and efficient techniques. Different studies, such as [2, 44, 61, 106], have highlighted the effectiveness of machine learning algorithms for automated wetland classification. An example of these algorithms is the Random Forest (RF) classification algorithm proposed in [107]. This shift toward the automated machine learning algorithms comes to fulfill the requirement for operational wetland monitoring systems.
\nThe continuing advancements in computer processing power and software development as well as the trend toward free and open access to remote sensing imagery, such as those from the current Sentinel satellites and the future RCM, are enabling the ingestion of data into a centralized archive. This also supports the application of a standard rapid processing chain to generate analysis-ready wetland products. The provision of analysis-ready products to a wide range of users would revolutionize the role of remote sensing in Earth system science [108].
\nThis chapter highlighted the SAR remote sensing technology and its potential for wetland monitoring and mapping. It was shown that a wide range of wetland applications can be addressed using SAR remote sensing imagery. SAR data with enhanced target information provided by full or compact polarimetric SAR systems can provide information for advanced wetland applications. In many studies, the information about the polarimetric scattering mechanisms was found necessary for observing the temporal development of wetlands and detecting their changes. This chapter shows that the fusion of multi-source data improves wetland mapping, especially during the growing season. Furthermore, a relatively new application of the InSAR technology is currently implemented for water level monitoring. Given the problem of climate change, wetland biomass estimation using SAR imagery is becoming necessary for the evaluation of methane emission contributions to climate change from degraded and thawing wetlands. The current advanced computing capabilities along with the shift toward free and open access remote sensing data are enabling analysis-ready products for a wide range of users.
\nAuthors would like to thank Mr. Jean Granger and Dr. Bahram Salehi from the Memorial University of Newfoundland and Dr. Koreen Millard form Environment and Climate Change Canada for their help in providing pictures of different wetland classes.
\nAuthors declare no conflict of interest.
SAR | synthetic aperture radar |
HH | horizontal transmitted horizontal received signal |
VV | vertical transmitted vertical received signal |
HV | horizontal transmitted vertical received signal |
VH | vertical transmitted horizontal received signal |
RH | right circular transmitted horizontal received signal |
RV | right circular transmitted vertical received signal |
RISAT-1 | Radar Imaging Satellite-1 |
ALOS-2 | Advanced Land Observing Satellite-2 |
PALSAR-2 | Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar-2 |
RCM | RADARSAT Constellation Mission |
InSAR | interferometric synthetic aperture radar |
RF | random forest |
DEM | digital elevation model |
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\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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