\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",keywords:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive Cardiomyopathy, Transesophageal Echocardiography, Intracardiac Echocardiography, 3-Dimensional Echocardiography, Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Tetralogy of Fallot, Transposition of the Great Vessels, Coronary Artery Disease, Risk Stratification, Revascularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an Assistant Professor at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, certified in Cardiology. After completing his certification in cardiology, Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu. He has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in the field of cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological study, and catheter ablation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Raluca Tomoaia is an MD, Ph.D. in novel techniques in Echocardiography at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Cluj-Napoca, Romania., assistant professor, and a researcher in echocardiography and cardiovascular imaging.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191888/images/system/191888.png",biography:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an assistant professor at the Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where he has been qualified in cardiology since 2011. He obtained his Ph.D. in medicine with a research thesis on electrophysiology and pro-arrhythmic drugs in 2016. Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu, France, after finishing his cardiology certification with stages in Clermont-Ferrand and Dinan, France. He began working at the Rehabilitation Hospital\\'s Electrophysiology Laboratory in Cluj-Napoca in 2011. He is an experienced operator who can implant pacemakers, CRTs, and ICDs, as well as perform catheter ablation of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. He has been qualified in pediatric cardiology since 2022, and he regularly performs device implantation and catheter ablation in children. Dr. Cismaru has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed publications and book chapters on cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological studies, and catheter ablation.",institutionString:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5970",title:"Bedside Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba56d3036ac823a7155f40e4a02c030d",slug:"bedside-procedures",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5970.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9064",title:"Epidemiology and Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cd6bf2b3181eb82446347fbe478a2bc",slug:"epidemiology-and-treatment-of-atrial-fibrillation",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru and Keith Andrew Chan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9064.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59446",title:"Silver Nanoparticles and PDMS Hybrid Nanostructure for Medical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74372",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-and-pdms-hybrid-nanostructure-for-medical-applications",body:'\nPolydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is a biocompatible material approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in the Biocompatibility Guidelines for Medical Products (Code of Federal Regulations, 2013). PDMS is odorless, flavorless and resistant to both temperature and chemicals, including acids, oxidants, ammonia and alcohol.
\nAll of these properties are advantages for using this polymer in human body implants. In addition, it can be manufactured easily in different forms. The PDMS is a hybrid compound with a chemical formula (R2SiO)n, where R is an organic group, such as methyl, ethyl or phenyl, attached to an inorganic chain of silicon and oxygen (Figure 1).
\nPDMS molecular structure.
This kind of compound can be synthesized with a wide variety of properties and compositions, allowing the consistency to vary from liquid to gel, or rubber to hard plastic.
\nPDMS is a good elastomer, because the bonds between the silicon atom and the two oxygen atoms are highly flexible and very strong at the same time, so the angle formed by these links can be opened and closed [1], Figure 2.
\nPDMS flexibility and elasticity.
The substrate elasticity of PDMS plays an important role in cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, thus improving implant integration in the human body.
\nThe porosity, roughness, and surface energy are dominant factors for the material’s wettability. These factors are especially valuable in biological environments.
\nThe use of porous materials can be a very practical approach to reaching several goals in current medical applications such as surgical implants. Some chemical compounds, such as sugar or salts with water solubility, can play an important role in the synthesis of porous matrices because these compounds can be removed with water to empty the pores. The pore size, pore connection, and pore density are directly proportional to the crystals size of the chemical compounds and their quantity [2]. Pore size window and accessible void space are critical factors for medical applications [3].
\nTherefore, optimal pore size and specific surface area are important factors determining migration and cell attachment [4]. Small pores limit the cells’ access within the porous matrix, and the diffusion of nutrients and removal of waste products, that can produce necrotic effects in the end. Large pores limit cell attachment in a porous matrix. Composite scaffolds with preserved morphology and microstructure at micrometer scale are promising for tissue engineering. Pore size distribution from 164 ± 52 μm can support the cells’ attachment to the porous material for medical applications [5].
\nMaterial technologies are critically important for tissue engineering in designing scaffolds or implants, and control of certain properties, such as porosity and pore size distribution, key factors on medical applications [6, 7]. Cell adhesion and growth on a scaffold or implant is controlled by the size and structure of the pore matrix [8, 9].
\nSugar or sodium chloride can be used as pore-forming agents. For example, sieved sodium chloride salt (99% purity), with a controlled crystal size can be mixed with polymers to prepare a slurry, then the polymer is cured and the salt removed with water to obtain a porous material with a controlled pore size distribution [10, 11].
\nThe pore structures typically consist of irregularly shaped voids and connecting channels that can be difficult to define. This is due to merging of adjacent cavities in the void walls. Pore size and interconnectivity play key roles in cell interaction with scaffolds and implants [12], see Figure 3.
\nPorous PDMS matrix synthesized with sieved sugar as an agent to form pores: (A) optical micrograph and (B) SEM micrograph.
Adding to the benefits of porous biomaterials, micro, meso and macro channels can be covered with metallic nanoparticles, to further improve their biocompatibility properties. Recent research has been focused on providing porous materials with interconnected channels and walls. The growing surface functionality is centered primarily on silica-based materials, where their composition arrangement can add different functional groups that interact with metals [13]. Porous materials can be prepared with organic compounds used as templates or pore-forming agents that are later removed with a solvent to empty the pores. Compounds such as sucrose, fructose, d-glucose, d-maltose, dibenzoyl-L-tartaric acid, ascorbic acid, citric acid, etc., can be used as pore-forming agents, then removed these with a solvent extraction process [14]. These pore-forming agents can control the growth of biopolymers into various sizes and shapes to obtain porous matrices for medical applications. Biomaterials of different composition and structures (nanoparticles, nanowires, nanotubes, and nanoporous) can be synthesized through simple wet chemistry [15].
\nBiocompatible materials (scaffolds and implants) allow the human body to recover biological and mechanical functions, thereby increasing the quality of life. Based on the application or use, the implant must support mechanical loads, and promote long-term biological interaction with the body tissue. Current characteristics from bulk material give the load-bearing capacities for implant applications where this characteristic is required. The interaction with the adjacent tissue is dependent on the scaffold or implant surface [16, 17]. However, the biomaterials, which have micro, meso and macro-porous, show special characteristics, based on pore size, roughness, porosity, and surface energy, that can induce tissue development. The porous matrices with functionalized surfaces can be hosted and allow to leave specific biological molecules that encourage cells to grow inside and over the porous matrix. The hosting and releasing of peptides and proteins is an important key factor, because it opens new design ways for surgical scaffolds and implants. Biomaterials can improve bone rebuilding. In general, organ regeneration, as well as cell and tissue growth where required [18]. Silica porous materials have been used extensively for different medical applications, such as bone regeneration. Ceramic’s characteristics, such as large surface area, porosity, and easy functionalization, allow the design biomaterial to enclose active molecules (drugs, peptides, proteins, etc.) [19].
\nThe combination of porous materials with inorganic materials is a developing research area. These products are actually based on the outstanding properties for specific applications of this combination. Direct substitution of component elements in original porous materials, while maintaining structural regularity, provides novel properties that could be applied to surgical implants [20].
\nA porous PDMS matrix can incorporate silver nanoparticles, and immobilize these particles without affecting pore size distribution or producing a cytotoxic effect [21].
\nThe ability of silver particles to kill microbes by airway blockage or breaking the outer walls of the bacteria has become one of the most important properties or factors for the development of these technologies at nanoparticle level. Application of nanoparticles in medical devices is currently important because some of them have bactericidal and disinfectant effects. The use of biomaterials in implants or scaffolds for medical application is limited by bacterial contamination that introduces infection or disease. Silver nanoparticle coatings or nanoparticle immobilization are currently used as antibacterial additive in poly-methylmethacrylate, the polymer used to manufacture bone implants (prosthetic knees, hips, etc.) [22].
\nThe constantly expanding field of silver nanocomposites has gained significant importance, mainly due to proven antimicrobial properties offering great potential as antimicrobial coatings and agents. Many experimental methods have been proposed, but all of these have advantages as well as drawbacks. In general, identifying the method that allows the preparation of composites with biocompatible, biodegradable, and nontoxic materials (minimize toxic effects after production) is an objective for creating outstanding medical products [23, 24].
\nCurrently, bacterial resistance to antibiotics that have been customarily used poses a challenge. A possible solution is turning to silver nanoparticles, because of their special properties. Antimicrobial uniform or non-uniform films, such as silver nanoparticles immobilized on a biomaterial, may be a viable solution to help in this critical issue [25, 26].
\nThis new research field is not only investigating nanoparticles but also focuses in nanostructures, nanocompounds, nanofilms, and so on. This is a new technology, nanotechnology that has gained widespread acceptance.
\nThe experimental method used synthetized porous PDMS matrices with pore sizes from 100 to 300 μm and PDMS film, described in previous papers. Silver nanoparticle immobilization was addressed in two different ways:
Surface silver nanoparticles immobilization
Occluded silver nanoparticles inside the polymer
The PDMS film is prepared from a solution (30% PDMS, 70% heptane, mass/volume). This solution was applied over a piece of glass, evaporating the heptane for 25 min at room temperature and curing the PDMS film at a temperature of 100°C.
\nPoly-dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Nusil Silicone technology’s product (MED-4860), silver nitrate (99.99%, Sigma-Aldrich), disodium ethylenediaminetetra-acetate (EDTA-2Na) ACS reagent (99.4%, powder from Sigma-Aldrich), d-glucose monohydrate (USP grade, Sigma-Aldrich), sodium hydroxide (ACS reagent, ≥97.0%, pellets, Sigma-Aldrich), ammonia water solution (ACS reagent, 28.0–30.0%, Sigma-Aldrich), anhydrous heptane (99%, Sigma-Aldrich), and anhydrous sodium sulfite (≥98%, Sigma-Aldrich).
\nSilver nitrate (AgNO3) was dissolved in a minimum amount of DI-water, later ammonia water solution was added, and the chemical mixture produced a silver ammoniacal complex. The silver concentration was adjusted to 0.0135 M. Next, ethylenediaminetetraacetic disodium salt solution was prepared, and this solution was added to the silver solution, molar ratio 1:1 respect to AgNO3.
\nNext the porous silicone matrices or PDMS film was combined with the silver solution, and mixed. Then, d-glucose solution was prepared and added to the mixture, and heated to reach at a temperature of 50°C for 1 h. The molar ratio from silver nitrate to d-glucose monohydrate was 1:5, final pH = 9.0.
\nFor more details on preparation of a porous PDMS matrix, silver immobilization, and PDMS’s film see previous papers.
\nThe AgNO3 was dissolved in DI-water, added to the PDMS solution (30% PDMS, 70% heptane) mass/volume, placed in a magnetic mixer hot plate, mixed and heated from 35 to 45°C. Heptane was added to maintain the volume.
\nLater the solution was applied over a piece of glass, the heptane was evaporated for 25 min at room temperature and the PDMS film was cured at a temperature of 100°C.
\nAn optical microscope, Smart Scope Flash 200, model CNC200, serial SVW2003849 was used to perform a visual inspection. Smart Scope Flash is an automatic dimensional piece of equipment, with a measurement system, and optical metrology.
\nSEM images were obtained, using a JEOL JSM-6390LV Scanning Electron Microscope, pores and particle size were verified.
\nA contact angle goniometer was used to measure PDMS’s wettability, some film samples with and without silver immobilized nanoparticles were used to measure the wettability. The silicone film was mixed with the silver solution as described in Section 2.3. Then the contact angle was measured.
\nTransmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to form an image and observe small components such as metallic nanoparticles.
\nFTIR was used to show some changes in the functional groups on the silicone surface.
\nThe PDMS can be oxidized to produce silanol. Silanol is a functional group with the bond Si▬O▬H, as the functional group (C▬O▬H) found in alcohols.
\nSilanol compounds are more acidic than corresponding organic alcohols. This behavior contrasts with its electronegative property. Silicone is less electronegative than carbon (1.90 vs. 2.55), Et3SiOH’s pKa is 13.6 vs. 19 for tert-butyl alcohol. Because of their greater acidity, silanol can be fully deprotonated in an aqueous solution [27]. Also this group Si▬O▬H gives a little polar characteristic to the polymer that contributes to the surface energy and improves the wettability.
\nPoly-dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) product, from Nusil Silicone technology (MED-4860), can be oxidized with hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution treatment (etching).Figure 4 shows PDMS ATR FTIR spectrum from the elastomer without treatment and Figure 5 shows PDMS ATR FTIR spectrum after the etching process and silver immobilization.
\nPDMS, ATR FTIR spectrum, sample without treatment.
PDMS, ATR FTIR spectrum from a sample after the etching treatment and silver nanoparticle immobilization.
PDMS spectrums, Figures 4 and 5 show the symmetric and asymmetric stretching peaks of the methyl groups at 2963 and 2906 cm−1, along with the deformation vibration peak of this group, too, at 1412 and 1258 cm−1. Also, the Si▬O▬Si asymmetric stretching peaks are present, between 930 and 1200 cm−1, and the Si▬C vibrations and methyl rocking peak at around 800 cm−1.
\nComparing Figure 4 to Figure 5, a weak broad peak approximately from 3200 to 3700 cm−1 is present only in Figure 5, and it corresponds to the ▬OH functional group present on the PDMS surface representing Si▬OH bonding after the oxidation process (etching). Also, the characteristic peaks shown by the presence of methyl (▬CH3) functional group in Figure 5 show a gradual decrease in intensity.
\nThe different and bright colors observed on the porous PDMS matrices after silver immobilization are produced by the nanoparticles’ plasmon effect (the quantum of plasma oscillation produced by the vibration of noble metals, such as silver and gold, and free electrons that is the consequence of the formation of a dipole in the material due to exposition of electromagnetic waves). Generally metallic silver nanocrystals show typical optical absorption due to their surface plasmon resonance, showing a bright color (Figure 6).
\nPDMS before and after silver nanoparticle immobilization, optical micrograph from different positions.
The silver nanoparticles’ immobilization on PDMS has an important medical application improving the PDMS surface properties. Therefore, these particles potentially have antimicrobial activity toward many microbes. Along with this antimicrobial activity, silver nanoparticles show unacceptable toxic effects on human health. In addition, chronic exposure to silver causes adverse effects such as permanent bluish-gray discoloration of the skin (argyria) and eyes (argyrosis). Exposure to soluble silver compounds may produce other toxic effects. Some of these effects are liver and kidney damage, eyes, skin, respiratory and intestinal tracts irritation, and changes to blood cells [28].
\nDespite the toxicity data, silver nanoparticles have many medical applications. During recent years outbreaks of re-emerging and emerging infectious diseases have been a significant burden on the global economy and public health. Population and urbanization growth, poor water quality and lack of environmental hygiene are the main reasons for increased outbreak of infectious pathogens. Comprehensive treatments using advanced disinfectant nanomaterials have been proposed for prevention of such outbreaks. Among these nanomaterials, silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) with unique properties of high antimicrobial activity have attracted much interest from scientists and technologists for the development of nanosilver-based products [29].
\nSilver nanoparticles have been demonstrated to be an effective biocide with a broad-spectrum, including Gran-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, in which there are many highly pathogenic bacterial strains [30, 31].
\nSilver nanoparticles biocide activity is based on three mechanisms:
Nanoparticles can attach to the surface of the cell membrane and drastically disturb its proper functions, such as permeability and respiration.
Nanoparticles are able to penetrate inside the bacteria and cause further damage by interacting with sulfur and phosphorus containing compounds.
Silver nanoparticles release silver ions. Silver ions are predominantly responsible of silver nanoparticles’ bactericidal activity. Silver ions can kill bacteria cells [32].
Silver nanoparticles’ toxic responses are related to their chemical characteristics and their aggregation; their toxicity depends on their composition [33]. There are mechanisms devised to nullify any toxicity caused by silver nanoparticles to humans and the environment so that their unique properties can be used to increase human quality of life without any negative effects [34].
\nAntimicrobial materials with immobilized or occluded silver nanoparticles are of considerable interest because those applications avoid all issues associated with the negative impact from the nanoparticles’ toxicity. There is a significant debate on the mode of bactericidal action of silver nanoparticles. Both contact killing and/or ion-mediated killing have been proposed. Contact killing is the predominant bactericidal mechanism when silver nanoparticles are immobilized in or on a substrate, and these show great efficacy. Silver–silica-based hybrid nanostructures are becoming more and more common as silica surface satisfies different functionalities for silver nanoparticles’ immobilization, which makes possible the nanostructure surface modification. The silica’s surface terminates in siloxane groups (▬Si▬O▬Si▬) with oxygen atoms on its surface as silanol groups (▬Si▬OH) that make the silver nanoparticles’ immobilization possible. The antibacterial surface was found to be extremely stable in an aqueous medium; no significant leaching was observed. Thus, immobilization of silver nanoparticles on a silica surface may promote reuse, reduce environmental risks associated with leaching of AgNPs and also enhance cost-effectiveness [35].
\nPDMS as was mentioned has (▬Si▬O▬Si▬) too and it can perform a chemical reaction with different compounds to produce (▬Si▬OH) groups, the same functional group used on the silver nanoparticle immobilization over silica. The research consists of silver nanoparticle immobilization in PDMS. In this application, silver ion release decreases because silver nanoparticles are not free, and their big surface area is not totally exposed based on the silver’s interaction with the oxygen groups (silver immobilization over PDMS surface). This effect is reflected by the non-toxicity of this nanostructure as reported in previous papers.
\nAs shown in Figure 7, silver nanoparticles were immobilized over the PDMS surface and some of them formed clusters near to the pores. Also, the EDX spectrum shows the presence of silver, Figure 8.
\nSilver nanoparticles immobilized on PDMS, SEM micrograph. (A) ×50, (B) ×500, (C) ×6000.
Silver nanoparticles immobilized on PDMS, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) spectrum.
When silver nitrate solution is mixed with the PDMS solution, the silver ions are reduced to silver nanoparticles and the PDMS is oxidized to silanol. This reaction is illustrated by the color change in the mixture, Figure 9. Later the solvent evaporated, and the silver nanoparticles were occluded inside the polymer structure, Figure 10.
\nSilver nanoparticles synthetized inside PDMS’ dispersion: (A) PDMS heptane solution and (B) PDMS heptane solution and silver nanoparticles synthetize inside.
Silver nanoparticles occluded inside PDMS’ film, SEM micrograph: (A) ×50 and (B) ×2000.
Figure 11, as in Figures 4 and 5, demonstrates strong characteristic peaks from the PDMS, the methyl symmetric and asymmetric stretching respectively, and the deformation vibration of the same group, the Si▬O▬Si asymmetric stretching, Si▬C vibrations and methyl rocking. Also, as in Figure 5, the spectrum shows a weak broad flat peak ranging from approximately 3200 to 3700 cm−1 that correlates to Si▬OH bonding after the redox chemical reaction between the silver ions and the PDMS. On this spectrum (Figure 7) the characteristic peaks from methyl (▬CH3) functional groups also show a decrease in intensity.
\nPDMS, ATR FTIR spectrum from a sample with occluded silver nanoparticles.
PDMS material in general comprises of repeated units of ▬O▬Si(CH3)2−, which on exposure to oxygen plasma or corona treatment develops silanol groups (▬OH) at the expense of methyl groups (▬CH3). The surface oxidation layer increases the concentration of hydroxyl groups. As the hydroxyl groups are polar, they turn the hydrophobic exposed PDMS surface to a hydrophilic surface [36]. This effect can be shown by the contact angle change of deionized water or the changes in ATR FTIR spectrum peaks; the OH peak appears and the methyl peaks’ intensity is reduced.
\nThe mix of strong acids like H2SO4 and HNO3 in an H2O solution can induce the PDMS oxidation. Wet surface chemical oxidation produces a rough oxidase surface [37]. A different wet surface chemical oxidation (etching) used to treat the PDMS is piranha solution, followed by a dip in KOH solution. The piranha solution has hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in 1:1 ratio. The above-mentioned PDMS surface activation processes involve cleavage of the nonpolar hydrophobic methyl (▬CH3) group of the siloxane polymer chain and oxidation of the cleaved sites to polar hydrophilic silanol (Si▬OH). The result is the increase of the polymer surface energy, thereby rendering it wettable [38].
\nThe silver nanoparticles immobilized over the surface or occluded on PDMS film (Figures 10 and 12) were visualized with a SEM and TEM micrograph. The TEM micrograph shows an agglomerated or cluster when the nanoparticles are immobilized over the surface, Figure 12A. When these nanoparticles are occluded, these are more spread out, Figure 12B.
\nTEM micrograph, silver nanoparticles on PDMS. (A) Immobilized over the surface and (B) occluded.
PDMS film samples with immobilized and occluded silver nanoparticles were tested to check their wettability and compare them with pure PDMS film, see Figure 13.
\nWater drop placed on different PDMS hybrid structures. (A) Silver nanoparticles immobilized over PDMS surface, (B) pure PDMS, and (C) occluded silver nanoparticles inside PDMS.
The obtained results are:
Water drop contact angle measured of the pure PDMS sample 107°
PDMS with immobilized silver nanoparticles over their surface 61°
PDMS with occluded silver nanoparticles 76°
The data obtained reflect the different wettability (surface energy) between the samples. Pure PDMS’ wettability is lower than occluded silver nanoparticles in PDMS’ wettability, but silver nanoparticles immobilized over PDMS surface’s wettability is stronger than occluded silver nanoparticles in PDMS’ wettability. These data demonstrate how the silver nanoparticles turn the hydrophobic PDMS surface into a hydrophilic surface. Also the decrease in the water drop contact angle coincides with the results obtained in Figures 4, 5 and 7. Figure 5 shows stronger Si▬OH peak than Figure 11. Si▬OH peak intensity is related to wettability properties, because silanol groups contribute to the wettability too, just as the silver nanoparticles.
\nThe PDMS chain, although it has oxygen groups (Si▬O▬Si) on its structure, is hydrophobic, because the methyl groups (▬CH3) bond to the chain are non-polar compounds with hydrophobic properties.
\nPDMS oxidation can turn a hydrophobic surface into a hydrophilic surface, because in this process the methyl group is changed by the hydroxyl group. The hydroxyl group is polar and gives hydrophilic characteristics to the surface, so then surface energy increases.
\nHydrophilic PDMS can be addressed with a special treatment such as plasma, corona or other treatments, but it can also be done with wet chemical treatment (etching). In this process the strong acids following the alkaline solution produce the PDMS oxidation, as is shown in these research data. This etching process permits the silver nanoparticle immobilization on a PDMS surface, and wettability increases. Also, the silver nitrate can react directly with a PDMS/heptane solution to produce a PDMS nanostructure with occluded silver nanoparticles. During the process a little PDMS oxidation is produced and it improves PDMS wettability, too.
\nProduction of PDMS’ matrices with silver nanoparticles to form hybrid nanostructures, in addition to giving bactericidal properties to the surface, fosters cellular growing, associated with wettability.
\nThe sports industry is growing extensively. It is a dynamic and unique industry that is inherently entrepreneurial on numerous fronts. Sports have progressed from a pure pursuit of leisure to a multi-million dollar industry [1]. It is a unique entertainment industry that has been growing in a geometric progression in a commercial environment. Sports provide a lucrative and continually growing marketplace worthy of immense investments [2], thereby providing not only economic impact, but also entertainment for millions of people globally. However, unlike other industries, sport has a unique combination of profit and non-profit organizations that work together to create a competitive environment [3]. While entrepreneurship literature has expanded to include various categories of entrepreneurship, including social, community based, and corporate entrepreneurship, few connections between sport and entrepreneurship exist in current literature.
Business organizations operate in a complex and competitive environment characterized by changing conditions and highly unpredictable economic climate. These changing environmental constraints not only affect their internal structure of business organizations but also their survival, growth and development. Thus, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is at the centre of this global change. ICT directly affects how managers decide, how they plan and what products and services are produced. Sports entrepreneurs need to acquire specialized ICT skills in order to develop new and innovative way to satisfy the growing needs of sports consumers.
Reference [4] defined sports entrepreneurs as those persons who act as change agents in the supply of sports products, who attempt to increase the output of the industry, improve the consumer experience, or raise interest in sports products by such means as developing new markets and creating new products. Most discuss on sports entrepreneurs are directed to large scale enterprises by focusing on how new products emerge in the market and the role of ICT in sports innovation. Thus focus has not been directed towards small and medium scale sports entrepreneurship which a graduate of physical education and sports studies can delve into in other to be self-employed. This group of entrepreneurs needs to be developed especially in a developing country like Nigeria where graduate unemployment rate is steadily on the increase. This chapter therefore, focuses on the integration of ICT in the operations of small business enterprises in the area of sports.
Sport generally defined, means any form of physical activity that aims to improve fitness or mental well-being. The emphasis is on physical expression but it can vary in intensity from low impact sports like walking to high impact sports such as aerobics. Hence [5] considers it to be organized physical activities through which exercise, amusement, fun and play are enjoyed. It provides a lucrative and continually growing market place worthy of immense investments that provides not only economic impact but also entertainment for millions of people globally [2]. The sports industry has thus developed into big business which individuals can harness for entrepreneurship ventures.
The concept of entrepreneur is changing as there are evolving ways to conduct business depending on the market context. An entrepreneur refers to a person, an initiator of business ventures who identifies and harness opportunities and bearing the risk to produce goods and services in order to satisfy the needs of the consumers to maximize profit [6]. Entrepreneurs are innovative individuals who have developed an on-going business activity to satisfy the existing needs of people in order to maximize profit. Entrepreneurs constantly discover new markets and try to figure out how to supply those markets efficiently and make a profit. He is a person that searches for change, respond to change, and exploits change by converting change into business opportunity, [7]. Characteristics of entrepreneurs include being self-motivated individuals who start enterprises relying on their initiative to satisfy existing needs [8]; having the ability to implement their vision and confidence in their ability to develop a business. This means that an entrepreneur is a leader and individual who identifies and solve existing problems. He is creative, innovative, resourceful, opportunist, risk-taker, initiator, skilled and open minded with vision and mission to motivate and drive a business venture with sense of value, team-building and managerial skills, [9].
Entrepreneurship development is the pivot point for economic growth globally. Reference [10] defines entrepreneurship as any attempt at new businesses or venture creation, such as self-employment, a new business organization or the expansion of an existing business by an individual, team of individuals or established business. It is the practice of starting new organizations or revitalizing mature organizations particularly, new businesses in response to identified opportunities [11]. In order words, entrepreneurship requires skill acquisition, critical thinking to know business opportunities, planning to map out strategies to execute them, and creative and innovative skills to develop new products [6]. These can be found in all fields of endeavor including sports.
The sports industry is growing extensively and offers variety of entrepreneurial opportunities. Sports entrepreneurship is the marketing of sports products and services to satisfy the sports needs of individuals and for profit making [6]. It entails the identification of conditions and procedures in which emergent business ventures with a social orientation are formed. In other words, it provides opportunities to promote innovations, investments, competitiveness, sustenance of sports business ventures and ability to create a market niche for income.
Sports entrepreneurship is a panacea for economic transformation in Nigeria as it encourages innovative activities that facilitate sustainable economic development. [5] noted that Sports organization in Nigeria has resources at their disposal that can be turned around for entrepreneurship development through sports marketing. [5] further noted that Sports also provide tremendous business opportunity in merchandising, whole lots of manufacturing industries have emerged producing sports attires, sports equipment, sports sourvenirs, and services for sportsmen, women and fans. These sports industries are contributing immensely to entrepreneurship development in Nigeria. Sports entrepreneurship is supposed to thrive in Nigeria considering its population and the passion Nigerians have for sports. With a population of over 180 million of which 65% are between 15 and 35 years [12], Nigeria guarantees a long term market for sports entrepreneurship. This is complemented by a TV and media audience of between 25 and 50 million- capable of attracting a fair share of the over N400 Billion advertising spent on sports content and events; and a mobile and internet growth projection of 10% annually [12]. The creation and development of small and medium scale enterprises in the sports ancillary sectors such as merchandising, equipment manufacture as well as investment in venues and facilities construction and content development, management and broadcast, is capable of adding considerably to the size of the industry [12]. However, [13] lamented that the Nigerian sports landscape is replete with immense, yet untapped, business opportunities. The development of entrepreneurial practice among sports experts (especially graduates of Human Kinetics and sports) will go a long way to reducing graduate unemployment rampant in Nigeria.
Sports entrepreneurship has not really been harnessed by Physical education graduates in Nigeria. An industry as large as the sports industry requires educated people to run a variety of sports related businesses [14]. The sports industry entails a variety of entrepreneurial outfits. These may include: health club facilities, sports arena and facility operators, league owner/operators, sporting goods store owners, sports ticket agencies, and sport physical therapists – just to name a few [14]. [14] further stated that there has been significant growth in the coaching and fitness type businesses in recent years within the sports industry. In a study by [15] 23.19 per cent of Physical Education students undertook employment in sports-related occupations including sports coaching in a variety of sports, fitness gym coach, dance instructor, life guard and personal trainer. [16] equally reported that the most entrepreneurial engagement of graduates of physical education is sports events centres. Entrepreneurial practices of Physical education graduates include organizing sports events like inter-house, inter-community sports, etc. (21.30%), coaching (19.03%), establishment of health and fitness club (11.60%) and dance instructor (10.97%) [17]. In other words, organizing sports events like inter-house, inter-community sports, etc. is the most entrepreneurial practice engaged in by Physical education graduates, because most of them are in the teaching profession. This is partly due to the curricular deficiencies of the Physical education programme in Nigeria. The nature of the curriculum utilized for the preparation of prospective physical education specialists lacks entrepreneurial skills. This is so because the curriculum as stipulated by the National Universities Commission (NUC) benchmarks and minimum standards consistently emphasized school-based Physical Education solely aimed at training prospective graduates to become teachers of Physical Education in schools. This has adversely affected the profession by restricting the role it could play in developing entrepreneurial skills and creating newer job opportunities in order to enhance national economic growth.
Possible entrepreneurial areas in sports that has been neglected by vast majority of physical education graduates include such businesses like sports magazines and newspaper, sports viewing centres, owning a sports shop, running a sports television and radio show, becoming personal trainers, coaching, owning an academy and a gymn [18]. Others include becoming a football scout, nutrition coach, owning a local sports club, sports blog, public relations outfit for athletes, sports betting company and a sports jersey customization business.
Physical education graduates if well exposed to entrepreneurial skills can start a sports magazine or newspaper. Most people in Nigeria are not yet internet connected and as such still depend on the print media for news including sports news. This explains why a lot of people still flock newspaper stands today on a daily basis in order to read the latest news. Most sports lovers are not exempted from this practice as they follow news about their favorite players, athletes and football clubs both at home and abroad. A typical example of such magazines was SportsWorld floated in the 80s in Nigeria and also Complete Sports.
Sports viewing centres are also sports entrepreneurial outfit open to physical education graduates. Due the passion Nigerians have about sports, sports viewing centres are well patronized. During tournaments, tennis match, national and international football matches, club matches, etc.; such viewing centres are always filled up. This is because fans prefer where they will interact with fellow fans and engage in sports discussions about their clubs and favorite players. Most of these centres in Nigeria are floated by non-professionals.
Opening sports shop for sale of sports equipment and supplies are also sports entrepreneurial options that can be lucrative. So many people in Nigeria today engage in exercise and fitness workouts. Such individuals need sports wears in other to participate actively in such programmes. This can include producing customized jerseys and sportswear for individuals and teams. It is also not uncommon to find people wear sports wears for non-sporting activities and gathering either for the fun of it or to show solidarity and support for a team or sport among the people. Moreover, with the ever increasing population of the country, sports shop outlets are promising business. By starting a sports shop in a well visited sports environment, you can serve the needs of fitness junkies by selling sport shoes, trophies, gym supplements, gloves, jerseys, face towels, shakers, and a lot more [12].
Becoming a personal trainer can equally be a lucrative business venture. With the current rise in over weight and obesity brought about by changes in lifestyle and nutritional practices, a great number of people want to train in order to reduce or watch their shape. A lot of women for example, want to look beautiful after childbirth. Such women require the services of well trained professionals to guide and prescribe exercise for them. With a large market looking for ways to shed weight, [12] stated that one could apply for the job of a fitness trainer at a hotel, health centre, and more, to train people daily. More so, some of the trainees may request private sessions from their homes.
Sports coaching have become a very lucrative business in the world today. This is an entrepreneurial option that graduates needs to explore because so many athletes needs to start their career early in order to acquire the basic fundamentals and necessary complex skills in their chosen sport. The key element is for them to undergo the right training to be able to improve their skills to a national or international level. This ability to a great extent depends partly on the ability of a good coach to guide them. Areas of specialization abound in the field of sports coaching. These include association football (soccer), athletic, basketball, volleyball, hockey, badminton, tennis, table tennis, squash, handball, squash, etc.
Establishment of sports academy gives young sportsmen and women the opportunity to hone their talents, and also offers them exposures that increase their chances of being spotted by higher clubs. This has over time proven to be a profitable venture. By starting a sports academy that trains would-be professional footballers, you will not just be responsible for the success of many future players, but would build a profitable business in the process [12].
Establishing or working in a multi-gym shop is one area with the potential of accommodating a lot of graduates in the area of sports entrepreneurial outfit. Many people flock the gyms and fitness centres these days just to maintain a sexy look. This can be attributed to the strong influence of social media. With the increasing number of people looking for places to engage in a workout, setting up a standard and affordable gym in a residential area is a smart sports business startup.
Starting a sports blog can also be an entrepreneurial outfit worthy to be ventured into. By taking advantage of people’s cravings to find solutions to various health or fitness problems, starting a sports blog focused on fitness and general wellbeing could be a great bet [12].
Blogs can serve various purposes such as telling sports stories through a personal blog or media channel. One could also run a fitness blog, where people could learn various ways to stay healthy, how to work out right, and what meals to consume to be in top shape.
Sports betting have become one the most lucrative business enterprise today. So many people are addicted to placing bets on various matches every time there is a game to be played. According to [12], the average revenue generated from sports betting companies daily in Nigeria, is about $7 million dollars. This has made the government to hike the cost of obtaining sports betting license to fifty million naira as at 2016.
In the present digital environment, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is central and a key factor to economic and national development. It is a pivot point around which every economic and social development revolves globally. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are playing a pivotal role in every walk of life. Information and communication technology (ICT) emerged from the fusion of information technology (IT) and communication technology. In explaining the concept of ICT, [19] defined (ICT) as the handling and processing of information using electronic devices. ICT is defined as the creation, collection, storage, processing, transmission, display and use of information by people and machines [20]. ICT is defined as the various technologies that facilitate communication, processing and transmission of information, goods and services by electronic means. It consists of hardware, software, networks and media for the collection, storage, processing, dissemination and presentation of information (such as audio, visual, text, images) as well as related services. Both traditional technologies (telephone, fax, radio, television, and print media) and newer technologies (such as mobile phones, computers, and internets) are usually included in the concept of ICT [21, 22].
Information and communications technology (ICT) describe the variety of technological tools and resources used to produce, distribute, store and manage information and knowledge [23]. These technological tools include all kind of computer system, software and applications and networking systems which facilitates communicate within the digital world, [24]. To [25], information and communication technology offers new innovation modes for all students at all education levels. In other words, they are those technological tools and resources utilized to create, store, manage and disseminate information. [26] identified these tools and resources as computers, the internet, broadcasting technologies such as radio and television and telephone (including mobile phones). ICT is at the centre of a global change curve that have directly affected how managers decide, how they plan and what products and services are produced. ICT has dramatically transformed the lives of individuals. It provides businesses the scope to analyze data and plan business strategies accordingly. Utilizing ICT means that the data analysis is accurate, thus optimizing profits. ICT has permeated all aspects of human endeavor globally.
The integration of these technologies in sports has brought a paradigm shift in sports industry and has dramatically improved the operations, products and services delivery in sports industry. ICTs have brought about a lot of innovations and revolutionary transformations in sport industry. In cricket, hot spot technology is used to gain information and make precise decision. In football goal line technology is used to detect when the ball crosses the goal line. In sports like badminton and lawn tennis, hawk-eye technology is used to make correct decision [24]. The application of cutting-edge Information and Communication Technologies in Sports has the potential to boost Nigerian Economy and entrepreneurial opportunities for the teeming population. It has a lot of potential to ensure efficiency in sports database management, enhance collaboration, co-ordination, global visibility, easy access to information and networking in sports industry for sustainable economic and social development in Nigeria. ICT will in no small measure enhance productivity of sports products, services, advertisement and marketing. On this note, [27] agreed that all sectors of the economy (trading, manufacturing, services, culture, entertainment, education, medical, transportation etc.) have a lot to benefit from the existing information and communication technologies such as micro-controllers, personal computers, internet access, mobile phones, digital video conferencing, e-mail, multimedia among others. This has offered most Nigerian youth employment opportunities by establishing outlets of sports products and services where people watch football match and other sports activities as well as predict sports outcomes, for example
ICT can play a major role in the procurement and supply of sports products and services. This can be achieved through accessing electronic procurement systems. Electronic procurement is an internet-based business process for obtaining materials and services, and managing their inflow into the organization [28]. This is a business-to-business or business-to consumer purchase and sale of supplies and services through the internet as well as other information and networking systems. Electronic procurements includes the use of purchasing cards, reverse auctions, integrated automatic procurement systems to facilitate the buying process. This helps in providing global visibility of sports products and services to allow sports manufacturing companies to have better access and control over their products as well as information flow across supply chain.
Electronic procurement can help to reduce problems associated with procurement and supplies, track data and make it easier for sports entrepreneurs to make their purchases and track their progress. E-Procurement, also known as electronic procurement or supplier exchange, is the purchase and sale of supplies, equipment, works and services through a web interface or other networked system. The technology is designed to centralize and automate interactions between an organization, customers, and other value chain partners to improve speed and efficiency of procurement practices [29]. Typically, E-Procurement web sites can be used to look for buyers or sellers of sports goods and services. Interested buyers and sellers may specify costs of the sports good. E-procurement can also reduce purchasing agent overhead costs. E-Procurement activities that can be utilized by sports entrepreneurs include online indents and demand aggregation, online expression of interest, online bid submission, system supported evaluation, online status publishing, online release of purchase order, letter of award, and order fulfillment and post procurement processes.
ICT provides the best tools for communicating with producers, wholesalers, customers and other business partners. It has unlocked the facilities like e-mail, social media and other messaging platforms for purposes of communication. This can be accessed for making inquiry and contacts by sports entrepreneurs. Also, information search is best achieved through ICT facilities. ICT can positively affect information processes and the information made available to sports entrepreneurs in making business decision.
ICT can be used by sports entrepreneurs in the design and manufacture of sports equipment and supplies. Sports equipment manufacturers can employ computer aided design such as 2D design, Pro-Desktop and Google Sketch up. These are computer software that allows the user to design their products on the computer. Others include rapid prototyping, virtual reality modeling and computer integrated manufacture. This can help to reduce the waste of materials as instant changes and developments can be sent virtually for partners to work on and make adjustments.
ICT can also play major roles in digital marketing of sports equipment and supplies. Digital Marketing according to the [30] is a term that encompasses modern marketing techniques used online, for example, Social Media, Blogging, Search Engine Optimization (SEO), Pay per Click Management (PPC), Branding, Content Marketing, Video Marketing and App creation. [31] stressed that nowadays, digital marketing is indispensable for successful sports retailers. If used properly it is much more than an ideal supplement to traditional advertising. With clever online marketing you can support product sales effectively, maintain your own image and build up your shop as a brand. Digital marketing of sports products and services is a key driver to economic development and is rapidly changing the way sports products are packaged, disseminated, accessed, consumed and sold to sports consumers. According to [32], sport has a unique marketing approach, as most of its messages and images are conveyed through media. ICT in marketing avoids storage costs as orders are readily available through quick response marketing. Also most products for sale are marked with a bar code. These bar codes are scanned at an Electronic Point of Sale machine. This means that individual items can be tracked from end of manufacture, to distribution, to shop and finally to sale. This is essential for JIT production and QRM. This implies that products do not need to be stored as only the essential amount of products are released at a time based on the stock currently held for example by the store.
Advertisement of sports equipment and services is another area that ICT can be employed by sports entrepreneurs. By advertising we refer to the promotion of an enterprise’s products and services with the main aim of driving up sales products and services. The use of websites and social networking sites for the advertisement of sporting events have ushered in a modern and innovative means of disseminating sports news to a wider population. They play a key role in advertising sports events, goods and services. This can be harnessed by sports entrepreneurs to boost their sales and global visibility. Advertisements can be engaged in order to increase sales of product and service, create and maintain a brand identity or image, communicate changes in the existing product line, and introduce new product or service. The ubiquitous availability, access and use of smartphone technologies have continued to promote online branding and mobile internet marketing of sports events, sports goods and services. Therefore, ICT has the capability of transforming sports business if well harnessed.
ICT plays significant role in the area of business management. ICT systems can enable sports entrepreneurs to store, process, analyze and share vast amounts of data. The information available enables sports business managers and by extension the employees to make fast business decisions. Technology has over the years caused an explosion in business and commerce. Many sports enterprises can be revolutionized and remodeled to best practices due to the introduction of ICT in its management. Some of the areas in which technology is crucial to sports business include point of sales systems, the use of ICT in management, accounting systems, and other aspects of day to day running of sports business activities.
ICT can also be utilized for business record keeping purposes. The need for a records management in sports business enterprises cannot be overstressed in the digital age. This has to do with the creation, storage, accessibility and security of digital information. Daily sales and purchases records can be kept with the aid of ICT tools. The ultimate aim of both record management to support, protect and enable the sports business in a cost-effective manner. It is also important it has superior data storage capacity, faster data retrieval, quicker data sorting and analysis. The application of ICT the management of records in sports enterprises therefore, will go a long way in making such records accessible and usable.
Monetary transaction is another area ICT can be utilized in sports entrepreneurship. ICT has made possible various monetary transaction activities like electronic banking. This is simply the use electronic and telecommunications network for banking transactions (making payments for goods and services). Sports enterprises can have Point of Sale (POS) services, online transfers, and the use of credit and debit cards in their business outfits. This encourages non cash payments for products and services.
Storage and data backup is another area that ICT can be utilized in sports entrepreneurship. This can be carried out by use of cloud computing. Cloud storage is a service where data is remotely maintained, managed, and backed up over a network. This is also called storage virtualization. The service is available to users over a network, which is usually the internet. It allows the user to store files online so that the user can access them from any location via the internet. Storage virtualization could be a private storage, like those hosted by a company, or a public storage, like those hosted outside of a company.
ICT has been proven to enhance customer satisfaction in entrepreneurial outfit. The perceived effect of ICT on service quality and customer satisfaction was investigated by [33]. The study established that as the ICT service delivery increases, so does the customer satisfaction. To enhance customer satisfaction, there is need to increase the use of ICT in service delivery. The ICT service delivery affects customer satisfaction. [34] also reported that ICT positively affects customer satisfaction and the ease of carrying out business. In addition, ICT have created opportunities for sports equipment entrepreneurs to advertise their business online. This allows wide visibility and remote access for the product [6]. Customers can thus order for sports equipment and services online. They can equally make online payments without the barrier of physical boundary. In the area of sports equipment design, technology is also playing a growing impact [6]. [35] reported that the application of ICT to sports serves a role in creating whole new opportunities for entrepreneurs and provides sports events and tools such as Computer Assisted Design (CAD) which can play a very important role in sports equipment.
The rise of ICT has paved the way for various innovations. With the digitization of business through ICT, more and more businesses are increasingly leveraging the benefits of digital tools to improve their prospects and sports entrepreneurs are not exceptions. Information technology infrastructure includes computer hardware, software, data, storage technology, and networks providing a portfolio of shared information technology resources for the enterprise [36]. ICT facilities that can be integrated into sports entrepreneurship can be categorized into two: software and hardware.
Hardware refers to any physical part of the computer system which you can physically touch, hold, pick or move. Software on the other hand, refers to a set of instructions which tells the computer what to do. These can be integrated for one purpose or the other in a sports enterprise.
Computers became so popular in business establishments solely for secretarial purposes namely word processing and spreadsheet management. However, computers are today, used to carry out different functions in a business enterprise. Computers that can be used in business include desk tops, laptops, notepads, servers and even smart phones. Their uses in business are endless. Different kinds of programs and operating information, known as software, are used by computers to do specific tasks. Productivity tools such as Microsoft Word, a word processing package, and Microsoft Excel, a financial spreadsheet system are used software used by business entrepreneurs. Businessmen/women choose software depending on what they intend to do.
Computers are now a vital tool for communication. Communication is the soul of any business enterprise especially in sports. It is the life wire and key driver of sustainable sports development around the world. Computers have enabled concepts such as remote working and flexible working schedules. It has also enabled businessmen and women to communicate with their customers. This is achieved through e-mail, Skype, zoom, short message system, social media platforms, etc. It has made it easier for customers to communicate with business enterprises in a timely and efficient manner. The biggest change to the sports industry has been the advent of social media. With platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, Blogging, Instagram, YouTube etc. There are millions of users of sports brands that sports entrepreneurs can use to promote their sports products and services, [30]. The use of ICT in sports has bridged the gap of physical boundary as sports fans can view sports activities from any part of the world.
Computers are also used for marketing of products and services. This is possible when the business outfit has internet connectivity [37]. The entrepreneur can also utilize different social media platforms to market their products and services. Computers are also very important as an accounting tool. They are critical for performing such tasks as preparing invoice for customers, calculating payroll, keeping income and expenditure accounts, among others. There is online accounting software like ‘Xero’ which does the work of an accountant and book keeper. It has the ability to track expenses, profits, and reconcile debts. It can also send invoices and create expense claims.
The use of digital video cameras plays an indispensable role in recording performance of players in the field. The recorded video can be broadcasted live or uploaded later on. It can be used to record motion pictures, capture moving images and synchronize sound. Recent advanced technology used high-tech video recorder to record any performance and can directly convert them to three-dimensional data using high level software, [24].
Printers are necessary in the event that you have the need to print out your marketing materials or need to handle basic jobs. Printers will enable you minimize costs by encouraging your employees to work as a paperless office whenever possible [38]. Printers are also needed for printing of contracts, legal documents, and other business materials. Some printers have multiple functions including scanning, photocopying, and faxing [38].
Cloud computing has offered a paradigm shift in sports industry and it is currently gaining grounds, popularity and acceptance globally. Cloud computing holds a lot of potentials, innovations and the capacity to transform the sports industry to a multi-million dollar business enterprise. Cloud computing involve storing data and information away from our physical location as against storing them on local hard disk or local servers. The term cloud computing means storing and accessing data and programmes over the internet from a remote location or computer instead of in the computer hard drive [39]. This is as opposed to local storage and computing (storing data or running a prgogramme from the local computer hard drive). Therefore, for it to be considered
The concept of cloud computing is immensely popular among entrepreneurial outfits due to the efficiency it provides in business operations. Some of the noteworthy benefits are cost savings, remote working, efficiency, flexibility, future proofing, morale boosting, and resilience without redundancy. It offers speedy, on-demand and easy access to sports data, products and services regardless of time and geographical boundaries. Adequate security of sports data from natural disaster, power and server failure is ensured. Cloud computing provides improved agility and time and resource management for businesses. Businesses are increasingly shifting to the clouds to leverage its many benefits. For cloud computing to be effectively utilized, a good internet connection and a commendable WiFi connectivity are important.
Mobile phone can be used to a great extent for short message service and multimedia message service. This can be used for communication purposes and advertisement placements. With over a billion handsets worldwide with majority being internet enabled, mobile phones have been one of the fastest adopted consumer products of all time which can be harnessed for by entrepreneurs. Mobile phone has made possible wireless applications that enable person-to-person messaging, email, banking, news, games, music, shopping, ticketing, and information feeds. A lot of information and even advertisement can be carried out in Facebook, WhattsApp, You tube, etc. These applications can be integrated into sports entrepreneurship in order to enhance business activities. [40] noted that Sport can provide meaningful content for mobile technology, which entails the use of cellular communication technology to distribute information to consumers via cellular phones.
The internet is a global communication network that provides direct connectivity to anyone over a local area network. The internet service can be accessed through an internet service provider (ISP). It is a public network that is connected and routed over gateways. The ISPs are connected to the network service providers, and eventually to the internet appliances. Communications has been enhanced to a great extent through the internet. The internet has enabled improved internal communication, improved business partnership channels, effective marketing, sales, and customer support and facilitated collaborative activities support. In the area of business, the internet has enabled faster time to market goods and services, potential for simultaneous engineering and collaboration among business enterprises, lower design and production costs of goods and services, improved customer relationships, and creation of new business opportunities. It has also reduced operational costs for business enterprises. These can to a large extent improve the business outfits of sports entrepreneurs if well harnessed.
ICT has enabled the automation of business processes. Business process automation (BPA) is the automation of the processes of business through technology. This allows businesses to cut costs and increase productivity. It also improves efficiency, increases workflow and saves time. BPA basically implies automating processes and workflow such as document approval process, employee on-boarding process, billing, tracking metrics, collecting customer data, monitoring, etc. Automation software is available for such purposes.
Network server solution is important if the sports entrepreneur will need any type of network to support the data base, email applications, and other files in the business. The entrepreneur has the option of choosing from several server solutions based on the amount of storage needed in the business, security requirements, and backup options required. There is need for the entrepreneur to work with a specialist in the area of networking to ensure the right package based on current and future needs are procured.
Wireless router is important to ensure that the business outfit is connected to the internet wirelessly. A strong wireless connection can ensure high-speed connectivity to all linked computers and mobile devices [38]. It will also reduce the need for extra cables running in and around the business enterprise.
Notwithstanding the potentials of ICT in sports industry in Nigeria, there have been a lot of factors militating against the effective integration of ICT in sports entrepreneurship in Nigeria such as the following:
The success of integrating ICTs in sports entrepreneurship hinges on proper training, adequate funding, motivation and creating enabling environment for potential sports entrepreneurs to encourage best practices in sports industry in Nigeria. The current transformation, innovation and revolutionary changes brought by the integration of ICT in sports industry demands an urgent revamping and repositioning of sports industry in Nigeria. In order to ensure the integration and sustainability of ICT in sports industry to boost entrepreneurship in Nigeria, the following measures should be adhered to:
Nigerian government need to ensure adequate human capacity training on ICT skill acquisition to enable individuals develop innovative ICT skill, knowledge and capacity to boost sports entrepreneurship in a competitive global digital environment. There is need for government, policymakers and stakeholders in sports industry to ensure the integration of ICT and e-business skills acquisition into education curriculum at all level. Such training and skill acquisition must be proactive, tangible, and in real time where all the necessary tools, machines, equipment and ICT facilities should be adequately provided.
Creating an enabling environment by the government to encourage investments in local content production especially in the area of sports goods and services using ICT facilities.
Access to broadband internet connectivity has the potential of global visibility, connecting people, places, businesses and services without the problem of physical boundary. Sports business owners highly depend on broadband internet connectivity for global access, easy marketing and effective distribution of sports goods, products and services. Hence, government should ensure the availability and accessibility of internet connection is very critical for the effective implementation of ICT is sports entrepreneurship in Nigeria
Creating awareness through sensitization programmes on the potentials of integrating ICTs in sports industry in Nigeria to boost sports entrepreneurship
Government should subsidize the cost of ICT facilities to encourage potential entrepreneurs who may want to venture into sports businesses. There is need to give incentives to young sports entrepreneurs to start off their business
Tackling the issue of poor power supply in Nigeria to encourage easy business operation is very critical.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\\n\\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \\n\\t\\t\\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\n\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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or treatment of diseases. In that a vaccine is a pharmaceutical product, vaccine development and production are costly and it takes years for this to be accomplished. Several approaches have been applied to reduce the times and costs of vaccine development, mainly focusing on the selection of appropriate antigens or antigenic structures, carriers, and adjuvants. One of these approaches is the incorporation of bioinformatics methods and analyses into vaccine development. This chapter provides an overview of the application of bioinformatics strategies in vaccine design and development, supplying some successful examples of vaccines in which bioinformatics has furnished a cutting edge in their development. Reverse vaccinology, immunoinformatics, and structural vaccinology are described and addressed in the design and development of specific vaccines against infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. These include some emerging or re‐emerging infectious diseases, as well as therapeutic vaccines to fight cancer, allergies, and substance abuse, which have been facilitated and improved by using bioinformatics tools or which are under development based on bioinformatics strategies.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Ribas‐Aparicio Rosa María, Castelán‐Vega Juan Arturo, Jiménez‐\nAlberto Alicia, Monterrubio‐López Gloria Paulina and Aparicio‐\nOzores Gerardo",authors:[{id:"193147",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Ribas-Aparicio",slug:"rosa-maria-ribas-aparicio",fullName:"Rosa María Ribas-Aparicio"},{id:"201116",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Castelán-Vega",slug:"juan-arturo-castelan-vega",fullName:"Juan Arturo Castelán-Vega"},{id:"201117",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Jiménez-Alberto",slug:"alicia-jimenez-alberto",fullName:"Alicia Jiménez-Alberto"},{id:"201118",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria Paulina",middleName:null,surname:"Monterrubio-López",slug:"gloria-paulina-monterrubio-lopez",fullName:"Gloria Paulina Monterrubio-López"},{id:"201119",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Aparicio-Ozores",slug:"gerardo-aparicio-ozores",fullName:"Gerardo Aparicio-Ozores"}]},{id:"65813",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84626",title:"Vaccine Types",slug:"vaccine-types",totalDownloads:1620,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"There are several different types of vaccines. Each type is designed to teach your immune system how to fight off certain kinds of germs and the serious diseases they cause. There are four main types of vaccines: live attenuated vaccines; inactivated vaccines; subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines; and toxoid vaccines.",book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Xiaoxia Dai, Yongmin Xiong, Na Li and Can Jian",authors:[{id:"276337",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoxia",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"xiaoxia-dai",fullName:"Xiaoxia Dai"},{id:"290421",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongmin",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"yongmin-xiong",fullName:"Yongmin Xiong"},{id:"290422",title:"Dr.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"},{id:"290424",title:"Dr.",name:"Can",middleName:null,surname:"Jian",slug:"can-jian",fullName:"Can Jian"}]},{id:"55860",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69547",title:"Biotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",slug:"biotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",totalDownloads:3163,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Vaccination, the administration of an antigenic material (vaccine), is considered to be the most effective method for disease prevention and control. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a diseases‐causing pathogen and is often made from inactivated microbes, live attenuated microbes, its toxins, or part of surface antigens (subunit). However, the modern biotechnological tools and genomics have opened a new era to develop novel vaccines and many products are successfully marketing around the world. It is important to formulate and deliver these vaccines appropriately to maximize the potential advances in prevention, therapy, and vaccinology. New vaccines employing biotechnological innovations are helping us to change the way for illness prevention. The clinical application of vaccines will be diversified along with the development of biotechnologies. In modern society, the outbreak of many infectious diseases has decreased through vaccination, but the burden of noninfectious diseases is growing. The new biotechnologies may result in not only the appreciation of vaccines which are critical in inducing protection against an infectious disease but also the production of therapeutic vaccines which are effective for alldiseases including infectious and noninfectious diseases.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Yuan‐Chuan Chen, Hwei‐Fang Cheng, Yi‐Chen Yang and Ming‐\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang"}]},{id:"55384",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68890",title:"Cocoon Strategy of Vaccinations: Benefits and Limitations",slug:"cocoon-strategy-of-vaccinations-benefits-and-limitations",totalDownloads:1647,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A cocoon vaccination strategy refers to vaccinations in persons from the immediate environment of those patients who might develop an illness (they are susceptible to illnesses) but cannot be vaccinated due to permanent or temporary medical contraindications to a vaccination (e.g. immunosuppressed patients) or are too young to have a vaccination. Most frequently, a cocoon vaccination strategy is associated with vaccinations in adults aimed at preventing the spread of an illness in children (e.g. pertussis vaccination or influenza vaccination), but it is worth considering whether this strategy should not be understood also as vaccinations in children with the view of protecting adults and the elderly against illnesses (e.g. influenza or pneumococcal diseases). The aim of the cocoon strategy is to minimize the risk of the transmission of pathogens in the environment of a patient who is susceptible to an infection. A vaccinated patient is not a source of infection any more for a non-vaccinated patient. The chapter presents a history, current implementation of the strategy in different countries, its benefits and limitations.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Aneta Nitsch-Osuch",authors:[{id:"199131",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Nitsch-Osuch",slug:"aneta-nitsch-osuch",fullName:"Aneta Nitsch-Osuch"}]},{id:"77035",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98378",title:"Introduction on Monoclonal Antibodies",slug:"introduction-on-monoclonal-antibodies",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a group of antibodies produced by identical clones of B lymphocytes against a particular antigen. mAbs are identical in several properties such as protein sequence, antigen-binding site region, binding affinity for their targets, and identical downstream functional effects. These characteristics of mAbs highlight their differences with the polyclonal antibodies which have heterogenous activities and recognize different epitopes on an antigen. Murine mAbs was the first generation of mAbs developed by hybridoma technology however, because of their murine origin, they can trigger the anti-mouse antibody response in the host which could accelerate mAb clearance and undesirable allergic reactions upon repeated administration. This issue was resolved by developing engineering methods toward producing less immunologic chimeric or humanized antibodies. mAbs applications have become a novel way of targeting antigens in a wide variety of diseases such as autoimmunity, malignancies, and asthma. In addition, high specificity and high affinity binding properties of mAbs make them effective biological reagents in immunodiagnostic assays. They can be used in diagnosis of infectious diseases and detection of certain antigens or in serological assessments for detection of antibodies against a certain antigen. This chapter summarizes the general properties of mAbs, their production processes, and their important diagnostic and therapeutic applications.",book:{id:"8043",slug:"monoclonal-antibodies",title:"Monoclonal Antibodies",fullTitle:"Monoclonal Antibodies"},signatures:"Mona Sadeghalvad and Nima Rezaei",authors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"},{id:"353771",title:null,name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Sadeghalvad",slug:"mona-sadeghalvad",fullName:"Mona Sadeghalvad"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66363",title:"GMO Regulatory Aspects of Novel Investigational Vaccine Candidates",slug:"gmo-regulatory-aspects-of-novel-investigational-vaccine-candidates",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Recent scientific and technical developments create novel opportunities for vaccine development. Regulatory compliance has to be ensured from preclinical research to market authorization, whereby different legal frameworks that go beyond quality, efficacy or patient safety aspects need to be taken into account. As academia and start-ups are often focused on gathering scientific evidence, the regulatory maze is often regarded by applicants as challenging in the overall pathway to clinical translation. This is particularly true for applications concerning vaccine candidates containing or consisting of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Active communication between applicants and competent authorities or advisory bodies early in the development stages facilitates a correct implementation of the regulatory frameworks and is of utmost importance to identify challenges or hurdles in order to avoid unnecessary delay in scientific review. Based on the state-of-play in Belgium, this chapter discusses examples of regulatory journeys of applications with genetically modified viral vectors and novel vaccine candidates that have been reviewed by GMO national competent authorities in Belgium and in Europe. They highlight the need of having a comprehensive view of global perspectives early in the development to facilitate the translation of research to clinical development or even market authorization.",book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Amaya Leunda and Katia Pauwels",authors:[{id:"281429",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Amaya",middleName:null,surname:"Leunda",slug:"amaya-leunda",fullName:"Amaya Leunda"},{id:"281703",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Pauwels",slug:"katia-pauwels",fullName:"Katia Pauwels"}]},{id:"55860",title:"Biotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",slug:"biotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",totalDownloads:3169,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Vaccination, the administration of an antigenic material (vaccine), is considered to be the most effective method for disease prevention and control. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a diseases‐causing pathogen and is often made from inactivated microbes, live attenuated microbes, its toxins, or part of surface antigens (subunit). However, the modern biotechnological tools and genomics have opened a new era to develop novel vaccines and many products are successfully marketing around the world. It is important to formulate and deliver these vaccines appropriately to maximize the potential advances in prevention, therapy, and vaccinology. New vaccines employing biotechnological innovations are helping us to change the way for illness prevention. The clinical application of vaccines will be diversified along with the development of biotechnologies. In modern society, the outbreak of many infectious diseases has decreased through vaccination, but the burden of noninfectious diseases is growing. The new biotechnologies may result in not only the appreciation of vaccines which are critical in inducing protection against an infectious disease but also the production of therapeutic vaccines which are effective for alldiseases including infectious and noninfectious diseases.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Yuan‐Chuan Chen, Hwei‐Fang Cheng, Yi‐Chen Yang and Ming‐\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang"}]},{id:"77035",title:"Introduction on Monoclonal Antibodies",slug:"introduction-on-monoclonal-antibodies",totalDownloads:790,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a group of antibodies produced by identical clones of B lymphocytes against a particular antigen. mAbs are identical in several properties such as protein sequence, antigen-binding site region, binding affinity for their targets, and identical downstream functional effects. These characteristics of mAbs highlight their differences with the polyclonal antibodies which have heterogenous activities and recognize different epitopes on an antigen. Murine mAbs was the first generation of mAbs developed by hybridoma technology however, because of their murine origin, they can trigger the anti-mouse antibody response in the host which could accelerate mAb clearance and undesirable allergic reactions upon repeated administration. This issue was resolved by developing engineering methods toward producing less immunologic chimeric or humanized antibodies. mAbs applications have become a novel way of targeting antigens in a wide variety of diseases such as autoimmunity, malignancies, and asthma. In addition, high specificity and high affinity binding properties of mAbs make them effective biological reagents in immunodiagnostic assays. They can be used in diagnosis of infectious diseases and detection of certain antigens or in serological assessments for detection of antibodies against a certain antigen. This chapter summarizes the general properties of mAbs, their production processes, and their important diagnostic and therapeutic applications.",book:{id:"8043",slug:"monoclonal-antibodies",title:"Monoclonal Antibodies",fullTitle:"Monoclonal Antibodies"},signatures:"Mona Sadeghalvad and Nima Rezaei",authors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"},{id:"353771",title:null,name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Sadeghalvad",slug:"mona-sadeghalvad",fullName:"Mona Sadeghalvad"}]},{id:"65813",title:"Vaccine Types",slug:"vaccine-types",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"There are several different types of vaccines. Each type is designed to teach your immune system how to fight off certain kinds of germs and the serious diseases they cause. There are four main types of vaccines: live attenuated vaccines; inactivated vaccines; subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines; and toxoid vaccines.",book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Xiaoxia Dai, Yongmin Xiong, Na Li and Can Jian",authors:[{id:"276337",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoxia",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"xiaoxia-dai",fullName:"Xiaoxia Dai"},{id:"290421",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongmin",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"yongmin-xiong",fullName:"Yongmin Xiong"},{id:"290422",title:"Dr.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"},{id:"290424",title:"Dr.",name:"Can",middleName:null,surname:"Jian",slug:"can-jian",fullName:"Can Jian"}]},{id:"67063",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Journey of Vaccines - The Past and the Present",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-journey-of-vaccines-the-past-and-the-present",totalDownloads:1106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Kumar Vijay",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"147",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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The research resented can consist of primary studies on various animal biology fields such as genetics, nutrition, behavior, welfare, and animal production, to name a few. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan 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