\r\n\tThe fundamental research areas of Evolutionary Psychology can be divided into two broad categories: on the one hand, the basic cognitive processes, and the way they evolved within the species, and on the other, the adaptive social behaviors that derive from the theory of evolution itself: survival, mating, parenting, family and kinship, interactions with non-parents and cultural evolution. Indeed, Evolutionary Psychology explains at individual and group level the fundamental behaviors of social life, such as altruism, cooperation, competition, social exclusion, social support, etc. etc. Similar to the mechanisms of natural selection for physical characteristics, not only the mind follows biological laws, but also psychological abilities - such as the theory of mind, the ability to represent the intentions, thoughts, beliefs, and emotions of others - have had to adapt and must make themselves functional to the social life of individuals and groups. In addition, Sociology takes the same aspects into consideration, emphasizing the interaction, symbolic and otherwise, of individuals. The latter investigates the neural mechanisms underlying the same social behaviors that are of interest to evolutionary psychology. To study the neural correlates involved in such behaviors is necessary to understand the biological laws that underlie human behavior and brain functioning.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to open a debate full of theoretical and experimental contributions among the different disciplines in social research, psychology, neuroscience, sociology, useful to give an innovative vision to the present research and future perspective on the topic.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-871-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-870-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-872-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd4df54e3fb185306ec3899db7044efb",bookSignature:"Dr. Rosalba Morese, Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma and Dr. Sara Palermo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10450.jpg",keywords:"Evolutionary Psychology, Human Social Evolution, Human Social Behaviour, Social Cognition, Social Neuroscience, Functional Neuroimaging, Neuropsychology, Altruism, Cooperation, Social Exclusion, Social Support, Social Inclusion",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rosalba Morese is carrying out research in the framework of Neuroscience and Social Psychology. She currently works at the Institute of Public Health of Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and at the Faculty of Communication, Culture, and Society of Università Della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma's focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions. He studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome in Italy, and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He is the principal responsible for the 'PERSEO' research which analyzes the reasons for the 'drop-out' in psychology.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Researcher of the EUROPEAN INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP on Active and Healthy Ageing and Assistant Specialty Chief Editor for Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214435/images/system/214435.jpg",biography:"Rosalba Morese obtained a degree in psychology at the University of Parma. She subsequently held various\nteaching positions at the Department of Psychology and the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery of the\nUniversity of Parma.\nHer training continued with the attainment of the title of PhD in Neuroscience at the University of Turin,\nduring which she acquired and developed interdisciplinary skills and point of view through the application\nof bioimaging and psychophysiological methods to investigate the neurophysiological mechanisms involved\nduring communication and social interactions.",institutionString:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"338363",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Auriemma",slug:"vincenzo-auriemma",fullName:"Vincenzo Auriemma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is pursuing a PhD in Sociology from the University of Salerno, Italy. He is a researcher of sociology and neurosociology at the University of Salerno, Italy. His focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions and he studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome 3 in Italy and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He has participated in national and international conferences with about 25 reports/communications. He is the principal responsible for the "PERSEO" research which analyzes the reasons for the "drop-out" in psychology, using the methodology of the Gounded Theory and analyzing empathy, fear and panic. He is Co-Editor for Frontiers. He is also a member of the Italian Society of Sociology (AIS).',institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.jpeg",biography:"Sara Palermo is a MSc in Clinical Psychology and a PhD in Experimental Neuroscience. Moreover, she obtained the National Scientific Enabling Certificate for Associate Professorship in April 2017 (ASN-2017). She is an expert in experimental neuroscience, clinical neuropsychology and advance neuropsychological testing. Moreover, she performs multidimensional geriatric evaluation and basic neurological symptomatology detection in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. She is also engaged in Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies.\r\nShe worked as a postdoc research fellow at the Department of Neuroscience 'Rita Levi Montalcini” in Turin until July 2017. Since then she works as research fellow at the Department of Psychology in Turin. To date, she owns three research Group memberships at the University of Turin (Italy). She is a member of the 'Center for the Study of Movement Disorders” (research area: Neurology) and the 'Placebo Responses Mapping Group” (research area: Physiology) at the Department of Neuroscience, and a member of the 'Neuropsychology of cognitive impairment and central nervous system degenerative diseases Group” at the Department of Psychology (Research Area: Psychobiology and physiological psychology).\r\nThe main topics of her research are the study of awareness of illness, metacognitive-executive deficits in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders, physical and cognitive frailty in the elderly, and placebo/nocebo phenomena. Interestingly, all of them may represent appealing perspectives from which to study how neuropsychological abnormalities can be explained in terms of brain activities and with the use of neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological batteries considering a neurocognitive approach. Given her research interests and scientific publications, she has been an ordinary member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology (SINP), of the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics (AIP), of the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia (SiNdem), and – finally – of the international Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies (SIPS). Importantly, she is a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Aging (EIP on AHA), for which she is involved in the Action Group A3 Functional decline and frailty. \r\n\r\nSara Palermo is Panel Editor for 'EC Psychology and Psychiatry'. She was recently appointed as Specialty Chief Editor for 'Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology'.",institutionString:"University of Turin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"259492",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Gojević-Zrnić",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259492/images/7469_n.png",email:"sara.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5810",title:"Socialization",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bfac2e9c0ec2963193e9d15d617c6a01",slug:"socialization-a-multidimensional-perspective",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo and Juri Nervo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5810.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7818",title:"Social Isolation",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary View",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db3b513d7d35476f333a0d4a3147935b",slug:"social-isolation-an-interdisciplinary-view",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo and Raffaella Fiorella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7818.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8262",title:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29bf235aa7659d3651183fe9ea49dc0d",slug:"the-new-forms-of-social-exclusion",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese and Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8262.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. Ryan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96493",title:"Prof.",name:"Huei Tse",surname:"Hou",slug:"huei-tse-hou",fullName:"Huei Tse Hou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53314",title:"Structure-Property Correlations and Superconductivity in Spinels",doi:"10.5772/65943",slug:"structure-property-correlations-and-superconductivity-in-spinels",body:'\n
1. Introduction
\n
Superconducting phenomenon incorporates the exact zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic flux fields occurring in many solid state materials when cooling below a certain critical temperature [1]. The expulsion of the magnetic flux fields, known as Meissner effect, and zero electric resistance has tremendous applications in the fields of transportation, electricity, and so on [2]. The “ideal” superconducting materials potentially could solve the most energy problems human being is facing. Back to the discovery of superconductivity in mercury in 1911, a century has passed by. However, the mechanisms of superconductivity are still undergoing extraordinary scrutiny. The conventional pictures arising from the Bardeen-Cooper-Scrieffer (BCS) theory merge the electron-phonon coupling to generate a pairing mechanism between electrons with the opposite crystal momenta that induce a superconducting state [3,4]. Derived from the BCS theory, the qualitative correlation between the superconducting critical temperature (Tc) and the density of states (DOS) at the Fermi level, N(EF), is kTc = 1.13 ħ ω exp(−1/N(EF)V), where V is a merit of the electron-phonon interaction and ω is a characteristic phonon frequency, similar to the Debye frequency [5]. According to the expression, a large density of states at Fermi level N(EF) or electron-phonon interaction V or both leads to a higher Tc superconductor. Later, Eliashberg and McMillan extended the BCS theory and gave a better correspondence between experiment and prediction [6].
\n
Until now, BCS theory is still in an even more dominant position to determine whether a superconductor will be classified as BCS-like or not. As more high temperature superconductors were discovered, more new “universal” mechanisms were sought for. However, neither BCS nor other exotic mechanisms established a relationship with the real chemical systems. Thus, the question appears whether the general statements of BCS theory can be associated with distinct chemical meanings, such as specific bonding situations, and whether the physical phenomenon of superconductivity can be interpreted from the viewpoint of chemistry.
\n
2. Electron counting rules in chemistry and superconductors
\n
Empirical observations of the range of electron counts to specific structural compounds are widely used in chemistry to help determine and find out the empirical rules to stabilize the compounds with specific structural frameworks, such as Wades-Mingo polyhedral skeletal rules for boron cluster compounds [7], 14e- rules for DNA-like helix Chimney Ladders phases [8] and Hume-Rothery rules for multi-shelled clustering γ-brass phases [9, 10]. The electronic structure calculation and the bonding schemes allow us to determine a structure’s preferred electron count for most compounds, for example, take Hume-Rothery rules in complex clustering compounds. The stability ranges of complex intermetallic alloys (CMAs) are frequently identified by specific valence electron-to-atom (e/a) ratios, such as 1.617 e-/a for transition-metal-free γ-brass systems, which are generally called Hume-Rothery rules and validated by the presence of pseudogaps at the corresponding Fermi level in the calculated electronic structures [10]. Moreover, a distinctive way to count electrons is applied for the transition-metal-rich systems, such as Chimney Ladders phases, endohedral gallides superconductors, and so on [11]. For example, Ga-cluster superconductor, ReGa5, containing 11 bonding orbitals in the cluster would be fully occupied by 22e- (Re: 7e- from 5d and 6s orbitals + 5Ga: 3e- from 4s and 4p orbitals) and the Fermi level of ReGa5 should be located in a gap or pseudo gap in the DOS [11]. Briefly, small values of density of states, N(EF), are corresponding to the stable electronic structures in the reciprocal space and chemical compounds in the real chemistry system [12]. As we mentioned in early section, N(EF) exists the close relationship with the superconducting critical temperatures: the larger values of N(EF) in DOS, the higher Tc is likely to appear in the solid state materials. An empirical electron counting method, although this follows a different, less chemical-based electron counting process, was generated by Matthias [13]. It states that the number of valence electrons in a superconductor has lost nothing of its fundamental importance to the value of Tc. For the transition-metal-rich compounds with simple crystal structures, the maximum in Tc is seen to occur at approximately 4.7 and 6.5 valence electrons per atom [14]. The particular impressive example is the Tc dependence on the average number of valence electrons in A15 phases, for example, take Nb3Ge. The valence electron concentration is calculated as follows: (5 e-/Nb × 3 Nb + 4 e-/Ge × 1 Ge)/4 = 4.75 e-/atom [15]. Similarly, 4.6 e-/atom work for (Zr/Hf)5Sb2.5Ru0.5 [16, 17]. Therefore, to increase the Tc in superconductivity is at a high risk of destabilizing the compounds. From the chemistry viewpoints, BCS-like superconductors need to balance the structural stability and superconducting property and result in the limited Tc [18]. Circumventing the inherent conflict of structural stability and superconducting critical temperatures in BCS-like superconductors would be analogous to the thermoelectric materials with a phonon glass with electron-crystal properties [19].
\n
In the past several decades, several new classes of high temperature superconductors were discovered, whose critical temperatures are way above the ones of conventional superconductors [20–23]. These discoveries give physicists hope to keep looking for the new mechanisms for superconductivity. Different from metallic superconductors, more chemistry terms can be applied for the high temperature superconductors, such as oxidation numbers, Zintl phases, valence-electron-precise systems, and so on [24, 25].
\n
3. Inducing superconductivity by the suppression of charge density waves
\n
In the semiconductor BaBiO3 compound, the bonding interaction can be described by the formula (Ba2+)(Bi4+)(O2-)3, Bi has the unusual oxidation state, +IV [26, 27]. At room temperature, it has the doubled perovskite unit cell and the structure distorted to monoclinic rather than being cubic. It contains two types of Bi atoms in different sized coordinated polyhedral, so the formula of BaBiO3 can be modified as (Ba2+)2(Bi3+)(Bi5+)(O2-)6. Now the complex structural distortion can be interpreted as the relocalization of two electrons at the Bi3+ ion with the “long pair” configuration [28]. Contradictory, the two Bi atoms show slightly different in the oxidation states (+3.9 versa +4.1) from the band structure calculation [29]. Another argument was arisen that the structural distortion, as well as the non-equivalent Bi atoms, caused by the charge density waves (CDWs) [30]. Suppression of the charge density waves in Bi oxides may induce the superconductivity. It is achieved by doping Pb4+, which has closed electron configuration and prefers a regularly coordinated environment to stabilize the structure. BaPbxBi1-xO3-δ shows no CDWs but the superconducting transition when cooling to 13 K [31]. Another way to stabilize the regular structure is increasing the Bi5+ ions, which also has the closed electron configuration. To obtain this, K was used to partially replace Ba and KxBa1-xBiO3 in cubic perovskite structure shows the superconducting transition around 30 K [26].
\n
4. Superconductivity hosted in the specific structural frameworks
\n
High temperature superconductivity in ThCr2Si2-type iron pnictides led to numerous investigations in these compounds in the past decade [32]. However, the structure of ThCr2Si2-type materials hosting superconductivity could be traced back to the quaternary superconductors, LnNi2B2C (Ln = Ho, Er, Tm, Y and Lu) [33]. In LnNi2B2C, we could treat the B-C-B as a single chemical unit based on the short bonding distance and strong bonding interaction between B and C [34]. Therefore, the ionic formula of LnNi2B2C can be treated as Ln3+(Ni0)2(B2C)3- [34]. In the viewpoint of chemistry, the large N(EF) in LnNi2B2C was mainly arisen from the slight orbital distortion of B-C-B fragments. Moreover, the structure could be considered to represent the first member of a homologous series (LnC)n(Ni2B2), in which the LnC block adopts to a NaCl-type packing, which naturally drove us to investigate the (LnC)2(Ni2B2), written as (LnC)(NiB), in which the ionic formula could be written as Ln3+(Ni0)(BC)3- [33]. (BC)3- is iso-electronic with CO, and the B-C interaction rapidly changes from bonding to antibonding in addition to the dispersionless band from Ln orbital below Fermi level in LnNiBC may be the important factor to kill the superconductivity [34].
\n
However, the “exotic” quantum mechanism for superconductivity is undergoing an unclear status even though the phenomenon has been discovered for more than a century. Superconductivity is still unpredictable currently. Condensed matter physicists try to predict superconductors based on analyzing the superconductivity through “k-space” pictures based on Fermi surfaces and particles interactions, that is, electron-phonon coupling [35]. Thus, there are few predictive rules from physics aspect, one of which, perhaps the most widely used, is that in intermetallic compounds of a known superconducting structure type, one can count electrons and expect to find the best superconductivity or the highest critical temperature (Tc) at ~4.7 or ~6.5 valence electrons per atom—Matthias rules mentioned above [14]. However, the chemists’ viewpoint is from real space such as chemical compositions and atomic structures, which play critical roles in superconductivity, rather than reciprocal space [11]. One of the chemical views to increase the occurrence of new superconducting materials is to posit that it carries out in structural families. The well-known examples are found in ThCr2Si2-type such as BaFe2As2 and LnNi2B2C systems and perovskites like bismuth oxides, which are fairly favored by superconductivity [32]. Laves phase compounds are previously well-investigated families for hosting superconductivity among alloys [36]. Here, we analyze the structural relationship between diamond framework and spinels from a molecular perspective, then apply this connection for interpretation and prediction of other possible new superconductors adopting to spinels and their derived structures.
\n
5. Calculation details
\n
5.1. Tight-binding, linear Muffin-Tin orbital-atomic spheres approximation (TB-LMTO-ASA)
\n
Calculations of the electronic structures were performed by TB-LMTO-ASA using the Stuttgart code [37–39]. Exchange and correlation were treated by the local density approximation (LDA) [40]. In the ASA method, space is filled with overlapping Wigner-Seitz (WS) spheres [41]. The symmetry of the potential is considered spherical inside each WS sphere, and a combined correction is used to take into account the overlapping part, and the overlap of WS spheresis limited to no larger than 16%. The empty spheres are necessary, and the overlap between empty spheres is limited to no larger than 40%.The convergence criterion was set to 0.1 meV.A mesh of ~100 k points [42] in the irreducible edge of the first Brillouin zone was used to obtain all integrated values, including the density of states (DOS) and Crystal Orbital Hamiltonian Population (COHP) curves [43].
\n
5.2. WIEN2k
\n
The electronic structures (density of states and band structure) of intermetallics were calculated using the WIEN2k code with spin orbital coupling, which has the full-potential linearized augmented plane wave method (FP-LAPW) with local orbitals implemented [44, 45]. For the treatment of the electron correlation within the generalized gradient approximation, the electron exchange-correlation potential was used with the parameterization by Perdew et al. (i.e. the PBE-GGA) [46]. For valence states, relativistic effects were included through a scalar relativistic treatment, and core states were treated fully relativistic [47]. The structure used to calculate the band structure was based on the single crystal data. The conjugate gradient algorithm was applied, and the energy cutoff was 500 eV. Reciprocal space integrations were completed over a 9 × 9 × 9 Monkhorst-Pack k-points mesh with the linear tetrahedron method. With these settings, the calculated total energy converged to less than 0.1 meV per atom.
\n
5.3. Materials projects
\n
The electronic structures of partial hypothetical compounds were predicted and calculated using the Materials Projects, which have been treated in the electron correlation within the generalized gradient approximation. The structure used to calculate the band structure was based on the single crystal data. The conjugate gradient algorithm was applied, and the energy cutoff was 520 eV. Reciprocal space integrations were completed over a 104 Monkhorst-Pack k-points mesh with the linear tetrahedron method.
\n
6. Hierarchical structural interpretation of existing superconductors with spinels
\n
Spinels, generally formulated as A2+(B3+)2O4, crystallize in the cubic crystal system, with the oxide anions arranged in a cubic close-packed lattice and the cations A and B occupy the octahedral and tetrahedral sites in the lattice [48, 49]. An alternative tantalizing way to view the spinel structure is to treat spinels as void-filled cubic Laves phases, both of which exhibit some close relationships with the diamond structure. In the cubic Laves phase, MgCu2, the Mg atom sites (Wyckoff designation 8a) arrange precisely into a three-dimensional (3D) diamond network. Within the voids, Cu atoms (Wyckoff designation 16d) form a 3D framework of vertex-sharing tetrahedra, as emphasized in Figure 1 (Left). Thus, the Mg and Cu sites become A and B, respectively, in spinels. Furthermore, in spinels, the O atoms on 32e (x, x, x) sites forming isolated tetrahedral were inserted into the B4 tetrahedra and center around 8b (½, ½, ½) sites in Figure 1 (Right). The formation of the complete cubic unit cell from the cubic Laves phase to the spinels A8B16O32 is, therefore, shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The structural relationship between the MgCu2-type, cubic Laves phase structure and the spinel-type, MgAl2O4. Left: MgCu2-type (Mg, green; Cu, purple); right: Spinel type MgAl2O4 (Mg, green; Al, purple and O, red).
\n
6.1. Li-doped “TiO2”: superconductivity in spinel LiTi2O4
\n
Superconductivity in Li1−xTi2+xO4 was first reported in 1973, much earlier than the discovery of high-Tc cuprate superconductors. The superconducting transition temperature (Tc) of LiTi2O4 is around 11 K [50]. As the first oxide superconductor with a relatively high critical temperature, LiTi2O4 remains widely intriguing for scientists. The most frequent questions arose are why LiTi2O4 adopts to a unique structure type, which is different from other high temperature superconducting materials, such as perovskites or cuprates. However, Li-doped TiO2 and LiTi2O4 can be treated as the analogy between Cu-doped TiSe2 and Cu0.08TiSe2 in a certain way [51]. TiSe2 adopts to the trigonal-layered structure (1T) (S.G. P-31m) with charge density waves observed around 220 K, and with doping Cu, the superconductivity in CuxTiSe2 appears and the charge density wave was suppressed. Similarly, for both rutile- and anatase-TiO2, Ti and O atoms form distorted Ti@O6 octahedra; thus, there exist empty voids in the structure shown in Figure 2a and b. Based on the electronic structures of TiO2in Figure 3a and b, both polymorphic TiO2 compounds are well-known n-type semiconductors with ~2eV gaps above Fermi levels [52]. Through doping with Li atom, which can be considered as the nearly free electron in solid state chemistry, the empty voids in TiO2 are occupied by the Li atoms, and the Fermi levels start lifting up and shifting to the peak in the DOS.
Figure 2.
The structure and space group connections between two types of TiO2 and LixTiO2. (a) The crystal structure of rutile-TiO2. The rutile-TiO2 adopts to the primitive tetragonal structure with space group P42/mnm. Each Ti atom surrounded by 6 O atoms forms the octahedral coordination. (b) The schematic picture showing the possible phase transitions when doping Li into TiO2. (c) The space group and sub-space group relationship among TiO2 and LiTi2O4.
Figure 3.
The band structures and density of states (DOS) of (a) anatase-TiO2 with ~2eV indirect band gap and (b) rutile-TiO2 with ~2eV direct band gap (generated from Materials Projects).
\n
To confirm our assumptions, the electronic structures of LiTi2O4 are calculated using TB-LMTO-ASA with Crystal Orbital Hamilton Population (COHP) codes. In Figure 4 (left), the DOS qualitative features obtained by this calculation state that are 2–6 eV below the Fermi level (EF) arise primarily from valence 4s and 3d orbitals from Ti and 2p orbitals from O, whereas the Li 2s band is broadly distributed from −6 to −2 eV. The contribution of Li 2s electrons to the DOS curve, as shaded in Figure 4 in black, shows it just contributes one free electron to the system rather than making any change to the DOS features of TiO2 in the diamond-like framework. The integrated DOS till the broad band gap around 1 eV below Fermi level results in the same electron counts as TiO2. Comparing with the DOS of rutile- and anatase-TiO2 in Figure 3, the difference between LiTi2O4 and TiO2 is the up-lift 1 e- per formula of the Fermi level. The Fermi level for LiTi2O4 falls just above the topmost peak of the largely Ti 3d bands. Therefore, we employed Local Spin Density Approximation (LSDA) to see if a magnetic moment would spontaneously develop, but the converged result yielded zero magnetic moment. This result of the unstable electronic structure gives a strong indication of the occurrence of superconductivity. The “bond energy” term is evaluated by the crystal orbital Hamilton populations (COHP) curves [53]. These curves illustrated in Figure 4 (Middle) show that the band gap around 1eV below Fermi level corresponds to the non-bonding for the compound, similar in rutile- and anatase-TiO2. Interestingly, there is no atomic interaction between Li and O or Li and Ti, which confirmed our claims discussed above—Li just acts as the electron-donator to change the Fermi level as well as balance the charge, and empty sphere to fill the volume, rather than giving the impact on the electronic structure including changing the atomic interactions. In –COHP, the Fermi level is located on the Ti-O anti-bonding and Ti-Ti bonding interactions, the sum of the anti-bonding and bonding effects is close to zero, which indicates the possibility of the stabilization of the compound. The strong Ti–O antibonding interactions at the Fermi level, contributing the unstable factors in the electronic structure is significant relative with the superconductivity in spinel LiTi2O4. Meanwhile, in the band structure of spinel LiTi2O4, the Fermi level locates on the saddle points around U and W points in the Brillouin zone, which is a strong evidence for the unstable electronic structure.The structural connection might also be noted from the links between the space groups in Figure 2. If we divided the unit cell of the spinel structure into two along ½(a + b) and ½(a - b), the cubic structure will become tetragonal, and space group will decrease from Fd-3m to I41/amds. Furthermore, the distortion of a and b decreases the symmetry from tetragonal to orthorhombic and the space group will become Imma instead of I41/amds. On the other side, Imma is also the direct sub-group of P42/mnm (rutile-TiO2). In summary, the structural transformation could be treated as the transition of a continuously doping Li process. When the amount of doped Li is small, the LixTiO2 keeps in I41/amds. As x increases, the orthorhombic structure appears. When x is close to 0.5, the spinel phase is more favored than other phases [54].
Figure 4.
Electronic structure of spinel LiTi2O4. Partial DOS curves, –COHP curves and band structure of “LiTi2O4” obtained from non-spin-polarization (LDA). (+ is bonding/ – is anti-bonding).
\n
Since the discovery of the superconductivity in spinel LiTi2O4, much effort has been put into finding more spinel oxide superconductors. The studies of spinel oxide superconductors endeavored for the physics community for many years. The alternative view on the spinel superconductor, LiTi2O4, could be considered as the electron-doping in transition metal dichalcogenides, similar with Cu-doped TiSe2. Li-doped anatase-TiO2 crystallizes in tetragonal structure with the space group of I41/amds. With doping more electrons into the system, the structural transitions happen from tetragonal to orthorhombic to cubic. The superconductivity was arisen when doping Li to ~1/2 per f.u. and the structure adopting to the cubic spinel. Similar structural transitions from tetragonal I41/amd to Fd-3m occur in another spinel superconductor, CuIr2S4 [55].
\n
6.2. Superconductivity in non-oxide spinel CuIr2S4 and CuV2S4
\n
CuIr2S4in the cubic structure with the space groupshows metallic properties at room temperature [56]. As the temperature decreases, CuIr2S4 undergoes a transition from a metal to an insulator around 230 K, which is also associated with a structural change from cubic to tetragonal [57]. Interestingly, a pseudogap is situated just above in the calculated density of states (DOS). In Figure 5 (left), the DOS shows that ~6 eV range below the Fermi level (EF) arises from all of the valence Cu, Ir and S orbitals. The contribution of Cu 4s and 3d electrons to the DOS curve, as shaded in Figure 5 in black, states the filled-up d electrons are delocalized and hybridized with 5d electrons from Ir as well as 3p electrons from S, which is quite different from LiTi2O4. To further confirm our assumptions, the bonding/anti-bonding interactions (–COHP) in CuIr2S4 are calculated. Unlike the –COHP in LiTi2O4, which was dominated by Ti-O and Ti-Ti interactions, Ir-S and Cu-S interactions play the most important roles in the structural stabilization and superconducting properties in CuIr2S4. The band gap in LiTi2O4 corresponds to the non-bonding boundary in LiTi2O4; however, the 0–1 eV below the Fermi level in CuIr2S4 is on the mixed status of Ir-S anti-bonding and Cu-S bonding interactions.The Fermi level at anti-bonding interactions indicates the instability of electronic structure of CuIr2S4 and the possible occurrence of superconductivity. The integrated DOS of CuIr2S4 gives 53e- per f.u., whereas the band gap just above Fermi level corresponds to 54e- per f.u., which can be expressed with the hypothetical compound “CuIr2S4(1e-)” according to the Zintl-Klemm concept. The ionic formula of CuIr2S4 can be interpreted as Cu2+(Ir3+)2(S2-)4(1e-), the electron configuration of Ir3+ becomes 5d6. Or Cu+(Ir4+)(Ir3+)(S2-)4(1e-) with two kinds of electron configurations of Ir, 5d6 and 5d5. The coordinated environment of Ir3+ is octahedral (Oh), thus, the d orbital will split into eg and t2g.
Figure 5.
Electronic structure of spinel CuIr2S4. Partial DOS curves, –COHP curves and band structure of “CuIr2S4” obtained from non-spin-polarization (LDA). (+ is bonding/ – is anti-bonding, EF for 53e– is set to zero).
\n
It has been well known even in textbooks that molecular transition metal complexes have a gap between the eg and t2g type in d orbitals, which is determined by the α and π boning of the coordinated ligands. However, the band gap between the eg and t2g in d bands in certain solids is dependent on more complex orbital considerations. Take perovskite LaCoO3 for example, the band gap is very small, close to 0 eV, but the iso-electronic LaRhO3 has ~1.6 eV band gap. Similarly, in CuIr2S4, the band gap between eg and t2g is so small that the 5d6 and 5d5 configurations can coexist [58]. Moreover, at higher temperatures, a whole series of transformations take place triggered by thermal excitation of electrons from the valence to the conduction band. In CuIr2S4 compound, the two possible oxidation state fluctuations of Cu+/Cu2+ and Ir3+/Ir4+ could be related to superconductivity. The presence of a metal-insulator (M-I) transition on cooling or under pressure has been of particular interest in the heavy metal chalcogenide spinel systems to make superconductors. Based on the decreased lattice parameters, CuRh2S4 and CuRh2Se4 can be treated as the compressed and expanded format of CuIr2S4 [59].
\n
Another representative non-oxide spinel superconductor is CuV2S4 [60]. Unlike CuIr2S4, the superconductivity in CuV2S4 is induced by suppressing the CDWs rather than the metal-insulator transition in CuIr2S4 [61]. Also, according to the Zintl-Klemm concept, the ionic formula of CuV2S4 can be written as Cu2+(V3+)(V3+)(S2-)4. From the electronic structural calculations of CuV2S4 in Figure 6, a ~0.3 eV band gap is located at 0.6 eV below the Fermi level. The integrated DOS shows the gap responds to the 42e- (45e- for Fermi level). The band gap above Fermi level corresponds to 54e-, just as “CuIr2S4 (1e).” The band structure indicates the similarity betweenCuV2S4 (early transition metal, V) and LiTi2O4 (early transition metal, Ti) and the difference between CuV2S4 (early transition metal, V) and CuIr2S4 (late transition metal, Ir). By analogy with Jahn-Teller distortion ideas, the partially occupied bands are subject to the geometrical distortions related to a lowering of the total energy and usually termed as the instability of the Fermi surface (CDWs). A band gap may open at the Fermi level to create a semiconductor or insulator as the structure changes. From the chemistry viewpoint, the highest occupied conduction band is filled to make insulators. For example, in MoS2, the charge density waves were observed in the localized unit of S-Mo-S rather than a localized atom. A series of superconductors were reported by suppression of the charge density waves in MoS2, just like CuV2S4 [58].
Figure 6.
Electronic structure of spinel CuV2S4. Partial DOS curves,–COHP curves and band structure of “CuV2S4” obtained from non-spin-polarization (LDA). (+ is bonding/ – is anti-bonding, EF for 45e– is set to zero).
\n
Based on the above considerations, one of the most interesting areas from both chemical and physical points of view is identification of the factors that determines whether a particular solid is a conductor of electricity or a specific structure type is favored to hold the conducting properties and how well they do it. Furthermore, how external events such as pressure and temperature may affect a system to transit from one regime to the other. Are there any surprises associated with the transition between metal and insulator? Indeed, one of the consequences of the discovery of this series of superconducting copper and bismuth oxides has been unraveling of the possible connection with the metal-insulator transition. But what are the rules associated with the generation of this state of affairs, and what are the factors which compete with them and which lead to the superconductivity and how can we use this to make new superconductors? Recently, the superconductivity was observed in the non-superconducting CuIr2Se4 spinel by partial substitution of Pt for Ir [62].
\n
7. Concluding remarks
\n
The understanding of superconductivity from the viewpoint of chemistry offers a relatively straightforward approach to the real space rather than thinking in reciprocal space from a physical viewpoint. This chemical thinking is obviously basic, though not sufficiently comprehensive, as clearly shown by the competition between superconductivity and other structural phase transition (CDWs), oxidation fluctuation or magnetism. In this work, the introduced ideas are coming from the chemistry and carried some way into physics, alternatively, using chemical concepts to explain some physical phenomenon. A few questions arise about chemical trivial materials, such as how to make an indirect band gap a direct one. Several empirical rules can be used for chemists to design new superconductors.
\n
Matthias’ rule to make diamond-related α-Mn type new superconductors: α-Mn framework can be treated as defected 2 × 2 × 2 diamond structure shown in Xie’s yet unpublished work. The space group of α-Mn is I-43m, which is the direct subgroup of Fd-3m. Re-rich binary compounds are favored by α-Mn structure. By tuning the electron counts to 6.5e- per atom, α-Mn type Re-rich compounds are highly likely to be superconductors.
Searching for the new pyrochlore-type superconductors: In a brief discussion of the structural chemistry of both cubic Laves phase and Ni2In structures, it is suggested that spinels and pyrochlores structures show the similarities just like cubic Laves phases and Ni2In. Pyrochlores can be treated as the superlattice of spinels according to the connection in the lattice parameters. The superconductor, Cd2Re2O7, in the pyrochlore-type structure can be conducted the similar research to LiTi2O4. Moreover, more non-oxide pyrochlore compounds can be synthesized to examine the superconducting properties.
It is not straightforward to predict the metallic or insulating properties, even harder to predict the M-I transition including the accompanying superconductivity sometimes. But many CDW instabilities are triggered by lowering the temperature and occur in a range of systems, which cover a wide range of chemical types, including metal oxides and sulfides and molecular metals. The surprise of superconductivity may be observed by suppressing the CDWs.
8. Acknowledgements
\n
W. Xie thanks Louisiana State University for the start-up funding support and also acknowledges very helpful discussions with Professor Robert Cava (Princeton University) and Professor Gordon Miller (Iowa State University). W. Xie appreciates Yuze Gao for editing the references.
\n',keywords:"superconductivity, chemical bonding, crystal structural analysis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53314.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53314.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53314",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53314",totalDownloads:1492,totalViews:400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 30th 2016",dateReviewed:"September 23rd 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 8th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, alternative views based on the structure have been presented in the spinel superconducting compounds, including the only oxide spinel superconductor, LiTi2O4, and non-oxide superconductors, CuIr2S4 and CuV2S4. Inspection of the atomic arrangements, electronic structures and bonding interactions of spinel superconductor, LiTi2O4 shows that LiTi2O4 can be interpreted as Li-doped TiO2, which is similar with doping Cu into TiSe2 to induce superconductivity. Different from LiTi2O4, the electronic structures of CuIr2S4 and CuV2S4 indicate a distinctive way to understand them in the structural viewpoint. The d6 electron configuration and the octahedral coordination of Ir in CuIr2S4 can be analogous to the d6 in perovskites, which sometimes host a metal-insulator transition. However, the superconductivity in CuV2S4 may be induced from the suppression of charge density waves. This kind of structural views will help chemists understand physical phenomena obviously more straightforward, though not sufficient, as clearly shown by the competition between each other, such as superconductivity and other structural phase transition (CDWs), oxidation fluctuation or magnsetism.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53314",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53314",book:{slug:"magnetic-spinels-synthesis-properties-and-applications"},signatures:"Weiwei Xie and Huixia Luo",authors:[{id:"192781",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",fullName:"Weiwei Xie",slug:"weiwei-xie",email:"weiweix@lsu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Louisiana State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Electron counting rules in chemistry and superconductors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Inducing superconductivity by the suppression of charge density waves",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Superconductivity hosted in the specific structural frameworks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Calculation details",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Tight-binding, linear Muffin-Tin orbital-atomic spheres approximation (TB-LMTO-ASA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. WIEN2k",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3. Materials projects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Hierarchical structural interpretation of existing superconductors with spinels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.1. Li-doped “TiO2”: superconductivity in spinel LiTi2O4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.2. Superconductivity in non-oxide spinel CuIr2S4 and CuV2S4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"8. Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Meyers, H. P.; Myers, H. P. Introductory Solid State Physics, 2nd Edition; CRC Press, USA 1997.'},{id:"B2",body:'Larbalestier, D.; Gurevich, A.; Feldmann, D. M.; Polyanskii, A. Nature 2001, 414 (6861), 368–377.'},{id:"B3",body:'Suhl, H.; Matthias, B. T.; Walker, L. R. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1959, 3 (12), 552–554.'},{id:"B4",body:'Anderson, P. W. J.Phys.Chem.Solids 1959, 11 (1), 26–30.'},{id:"B5",body:'Simon, A. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36 (17), 1788–1806.'},{id:"B6",body:'McMillan, W. L. Phys. Rev. 1968, 167 (2), 331–344.'},{id:"B7",body:'Fässler, T. F.; Hoffmann, S. D. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2004, 43 (46), 6242–6247.'},{id:"B8",body:'Fredrickson, D. C.; Lee, S.; Hoffmann, R. Inorg. Chem. 2004, 43 (20), 6159–6167.'},{id:"B9",body:'Xie, W.; Miller, G. J. Chem. Mater. 2014, 26 (8), 2624–2634.'},{id:"B10",body:'Mizutani, U. Hume-Rothery Rules for Structurally Complex Alloy Phases; CRC Press, USA 2016.'},{id:"B11",body:'Xie, W.; Luo, H.; Phelan, B. F.; Klimczuk, T.; Cevallos, F. A.; Cava, R. J. PNAS 2015, 112 (51), E7048–E7054.'},{id:"B12",body:'Miller, G. J. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 1998, 1998 (5), 523–536.'},{id:"B13",body:'Matthias, B. T.; Geballe, T. H.; Compton, V. B. Rev. Mod. Phys. 1963, 35 (1), 1–22.'},{id:"B14",body:'Matthias, B. T. Phys. Rev. 1955, 97 (1), 74–76.'},{id:"B15",body:'Matthias, B. T.; Geballe, T. H.; Geller, S.; Corenzwit, E. Phys. Rev. 1954, 95 (6), 1435–1435.'},{id:"B16",body:'Xie, W.; Luo, H.; Phelan, B. F.; Cava, R. J. J. Mater. Chem. C 2015, 3 (31), 8235–8240.'},{id:"B17",body:'Xie, W.; Luo, H.; Seibel, E. M.; Nielsen, M. B.; Cava, R. J. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27 (13), 4511–4514.'},{id:"B18",body:'Xie, W.; Fuccillo, M. K.; Phelan, B. F.; Luo, H.; Cava, R. J. J. Solid State Chem. 2015, 227, 92–97.'},{id:"B19",body:'Snyder, G. J.; Toberer, E. S. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7 (2), 105–114.'},{id:"B20",body:'Cava, R. J. Phys. C Superconductivity 1997, 282, 27–33.'},{id:"B21",body:'Cava, R. J.; Batlogg, B.; van Dover, R. B.; Krajewski, J. J.; Waszczak, J. V. Nature 1990, 345, 602–604.'},{id:"B22",body:'Takagi, H.; Cava, R. J.; Marezio, M.; Batlogg, B.; Krajewski, J. J.; Peck, W. F.; Bordet, P.; Cox, D. E. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1992, 68 (25), 3777–3780.'},{id:"B23",body:'Cava, R. J. Chemistry of Bismuth and Lead based Superconducting Perovskites. United States: American Ceramic Society Inc.,1990.'},{id:"B24",body:'Kauzlarich, S. M.; Brown, S. R.; Snyder, G. J. Dalton Trans. 2007, 21, 2099–2107.'},{id:"B25",body:'Schäfer, H.; Eisenmann, B.; Müller, W. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 1973, 12 (9), 694–712.'},{id:"B26",body:'Cava, R. J.; Batlogg, B.; Krajewski, J. J.; Farrow, R.; Rupp, L. W.; White, A. E.; Short, K.; Peck, W. F.; Kometani, T. Nature 1988, 332 (6167), 814–816.'},{id:"B27",body:'Cava, R. J.; Siegrist, T.; Peck, W. F.; Krajewski, J. J.; Batlogg, B.; Rosamilia, J. Phys. Rev. B 1991, 44 (17), 9746–9748.'},{id:"B28",body:'Retoux, R.; Studer, F.; Michel, C.; Raveau, B.; Fontaine, A.; Dartyge, E. Phys. Rev. B 1990, 41 (1), 193–199.'},{id:"B29",body:'Goodenough, J. B. Rep. Prog. Phys. 2004, 67 (11), 1915.'},{id:"B30",body:'Timusk, T.; Statt, B. Rep. Prog. Phys. 1999, 62 (1), 61.'},{id:"B31",body:'Mattheiss, L. F.; Hamann, D. R. Phys. Rev. B 1983, 28 (8), 4227–4241.'},{id:"B32",body:'Hosono, H.; Tanabe, K.; Takayama-Muromachi, E.; Kageyama, H.; Yamanaka, S.; Kumakura, H.; Nohara, M.; Hiramatsu, H.; Fujitsu, S. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 2015, 16 (3), 33503.'},{id:"B33",body:'Cava, R. J.; Takagi, H.; Zandbergen, H. W.; Krajewski, J. J.; Peck, W. F.; Siegrist, T.; Batlogg, B.; van Dover, R. B.; Felder, R. J.; Mizuhashi, K.; Lee, J. O.; Eisaki, H.; Uchida, S. Nature 1994, 367 (6460), 252–253.'},{id:"B34",body:'Miller, G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 63324336.'},{id:"B35",body:'Montorsi, A. The Hubbard Model: A Reprint Volume; World Scientific, Singapore 1992.'},{id:"B36",body:'Compton, V. B.; Matthias, B. T. Acta Crystallogr. 1959, 12 (9), 651–654.'},{id:"B37",body:'Blöchl, P. E.; Jepsen, O.; Andersen, O. K. Phys. Rev. B 1994, 49 (23), 16223.'},{id:"B38",body:'Andersen, O. K.; Jepsen, O. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1984, 53 (27), 2571–2574.'},{id:"B39",body:'Glötzel, D.; Segall, B.; Andersen, O. K. Solid State Commun. 1980, 36 (5), 403–406.'},{id:"B40",body:'Becke, A. D. J.Chem. Phys. 1993, 98 (2), 1372–1377.'},{id:"B41",body:'Methfessel, M.; Rodriguez, C. O.; Andersen, O. K. Phys. Rev. B 1989, 40 (3), 2009–2012.'},{id:"B42",body:'Monkhorst, H. J.; Pack, J. D. Phys. Rev. B 1976, 13 (12), 5188–5192.'},{id:"B43",body:'Dronskowski, R.; Bloechl, P. E. J. Phys. Chem. 1993, 97 (33), 8617–8624.'},{id:"B44",body:'Schwarz, K.; Blaha, P. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2003, 28 (2), 259–273.'},{id:"B45",body:'Schwarz, K. J. Solid State Chem. 2003, 176 (2), 319–328.'},{id:"B46",body:'Perdew, J. P.; Burke, K.; Ernzerhof, M. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1996, 77 (18), 3865–3868.'},{id:"B47",body:'Blaha, P.; Schwarz, K.; Sorantin, P.; Trickey, S. B. Comp. Phys. Commun. 1990, 59 (2), 399–415.'},{id:"B48",body:'Jain, A.; Ong, S. P.; Hautier, G.; Chen, W.; Richards, W. D.; Dacek, S.; Cholia, S.; Gunter, D.; Skinner, D.; Ceder, G.; Persson, K. A. APL Mater. 2013, 1 (1), 11002.'},{id:"B49",body:'Cava, R. J.; Murphy, D. W.; Zahurak, S.; Santoro, A.; Roth, R. S. J. Solid State Chem. 1984, 53 (1), 64–75.'},{id:"B50",body:'Johnston, D. C.; Prakash, H.; Zachariasen, W. H.; Viswanathan, R. Mater. Res. Bull. 1973, 8 (7), 777–784.'},{id:"B51",body:'Morosan, E.; Zandbergen, H. W.; Dennis, B. S.; Bos, J. W. G.; Onose, Y.; Klimczuk, T.; Ramirez, A. P.; Ong, N. P.; Cava, R. J. Nat. Phys. 2006, 2 (8), 544–550.'},{id:"B52",body:'Burdett, J. K. Acta Cryst. Sect. B Struct. Sci. 1995, 51 (4), 547–558.'},{id:"B53",body:'Hoffmann, R. Acc. Chem. Res. 1971, 4 (1), 1–9.'},{id:"B54",body:'Murphy, D. W.; Sunshine, S.; van Dover, R. B.; Cava, R. J.; Batlogg, B.; Zahurak, S. M.; Schneemeyer, L. F. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 58 (18), 1888–1890.'},{id:"B55",body:'Nagata, S.; Hagino, T.; Seki, Y.; Bitoh, T. Phys. B Condens. Matter 1994, 194, 1077–1078.'},{id:"B56",body:'Radaelli, P. G.; Horibe, Y.; Gutmann, M. J.; Ishibashi, H.; Chen, C. H.; Ibberson, R. M.; Koyama, Y.; Hor, Y.-S.; Kiryukhin, V.; Cheong, S.-W. Nature 2002, 416 (6877), 155–158.'},{id:"B57",body:'Robbins, M.; Willens, R. H.; Miller, R. C. Solid State Commun. 1967, 5 (12), 933–934.'},{id:"B58",body:'Burdett, J. K. Chem. Soc. Rev. 1994, 23 (5), 299–308.'},{id:"B59",body:'Tachibana, M. Solid State Commun. 2012, 152 (10), 849–851.'},{id:"B60",body:'Okada, H.; Koyama, K.; Watanabe, K. the AIP Conference Proceedings 2006, 850, 1317–1318.'},{id:"B61",body:'Fleming, R. M.; DiSalvo, F. J.; Cava, R. J.; Waszczak, J. V. Phys. Rev. B 1981, 24 (5), 2850–2853.'},{id:"B62",body:'Luo, H.; Klimczuk, T.; Müchler, L.; Schoop, L.; Hirai, D.; Fuccillo, M. K.; Felser, C.; Cava, R. J. Phys. Rev. B 2013, 87 (21), 214510.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Weiwei Xie",address:"weiweix@lsu.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA
Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5514",title:"Magnetic Spinels",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties and Applications",fullTitle:"Magnetic Spinels - Synthesis, Properties and Applications",slug:"magnetic-spinels-synthesis-properties-and-applications",publishedDate:"March 8th 2017",bookSignature:"Mohindar Singh Seehra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5514.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"48086",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohindar",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Seehra",slug:"mohindar-seehra",fullName:"Mohindar Seehra"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"52889",title:"Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles: Correlation of Structure and Magnetism",slug:"spinel-ferrite-nanoparticles-correlation-of-structure-and-magnetism",totalDownloads:2902,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Barbara Pacakova, Simona Kubickova, Alice Reznickova, Daniel\nNiznansky and Jana Vejpravova",authors:[{id:"191237",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Vejpravova",fullName:"Jana Vejpravova",slug:"jana-vejpravova"},{id:"195334",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Niznansky",fullName:"Daniel Niznansky",slug:"daniel-niznansky"},{id:"195336",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Pacakova",fullName:"Barbara Pacakova",slug:"barbara-pacakova"},{id:"195337",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Kubickova",fullName:"Simona Kubickova",slug:"simona-kubickova"},{id:"195338",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Reznickova",fullName:"Alice Reznickova",slug:"alice-reznickova"}]},{id:"53728",title:"Lithium Ferrite: Synthesis, Structural Characterization and Electromagnetic Properties",slug:"lithium-ferrite-synthesis-structural-characterization-and-electromagnetic-properties",totalDownloads:2068,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Sílvia Soreto, Manuel Graça, Manuel Valente and Luís Costa",authors:[{id:"40763",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Graça",fullName:"Manuel Pedro Graça",slug:"manuel-pedro-graca"},{id:"40786",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Valente",fullName:"Manuel Valente",slug:"manuel-valente"},{id:"192569",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sílvia",middleName:null,surname:"Soreto",fullName:"Sílvia Soreto",slug:"silvia-soreto"},{id:"196414",title:"Prof.",name:"Luís",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",fullName:"Luís Costa",slug:"luis-costa"}]},{id:"53689",title:"Optimizing Processing Conditions to Produce Cobalt Ferrite Nanoparticles of Desired Size and Magnetic Properties",slug:"optimizing-processing-conditions-to-produce-cobalt-ferrite-nanoparticles-of-desired-size-and-magneti",totalDownloads:1493,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Oscar Perales-Pérez and Yarilyn Cedeño-Mattei",authors:[{id:"192961",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Perales-Perez",fullName:"Oscar Perales-Perez",slug:"oscar-perales-perez"},{id:"192969",title:"Dr.",name:"Yarilyn",middleName:null,surname:"Cedeño-Mattei",fullName:"Yarilyn Cedeño-Mattei",slug:"yarilyn-cedeno-mattei"}]},{id:"53006",title:"Nature of Magnetic Ordering in Cobalt‐Based Spinels",slug:"nature-of-magnetic-ordering-in-cobalt-based-spinels",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Subhash Thota and Sobhit Singh",authors:[{id:"191837",title:"Prof.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Thota",fullName:"Subhash Thota",slug:"subhash-thota"},{id:"191841",title:"Mr.",name:"Sobhit Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Sobhit Kumar Singh",slug:"sobhit-kumar-singh"}]},{id:"53148",title:"Electronic, Transport and Magnetic Properties of Cr-based Chalcogenide Spinels",slug:"electronic-transport-and-magnetic-properties-of-cr-based-chalcogenide-spinels",totalDownloads:1171,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Chuan-Chuan Gu, Xu-Liang Chen and Zhao-Rong Yang",authors:[{id:"192757",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhaorong",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Zhaorong Yang",slug:"zhaorong-yang"}]},{id:"53314",title:"Structure-Property Correlations and Superconductivity in Spinels",slug:"structure-property-correlations-and-superconductivity-in-spinels",totalDownloads:1492,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Weiwei Xie and Huixia Luo",authors:[{id:"192781",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",fullName:"Weiwei Xie",slug:"weiwei-xie"}]},{id:"53449",title:"Manganese-Zinc Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles and Ferrofluids",slug:"manganese-zinc-spinel-ferrite-nanoparticles-and-ferrofluids",totalDownloads:1735,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Rajender Singh and Gadipelly Thirupathi",authors:[{id:"191746",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajender",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Rajender Singh",slug:"rajender-singh"},{id:"195362",title:"Dr.",name:"Gadipelly",middleName:null,surname:"Thirupathi",fullName:"Gadipelly Thirupathi",slug:"gadipelly-thirupathi"}]},{id:"52769",title:"Mechanochemical Synthesis of Water-Based Magnetite Magnetic Fluids",slug:"mechanochemical-synthesis-of-water-based-magnetite-magnetic-fluids",totalDownloads:990,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Tomohiro Iwasaki",authors:[{id:"82680",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomohiro",middleName:null,surname:"Iwasaki",fullName:"Tomohiro Iwasaki",slug:"tomohiro-iwasaki"}]},{id:"54133",title:"Nanostructured Spinel Ferrites: Synthesis, Functionalization, Nanomagnetism and Environmental Applications",slug:"nanostructured-spinel-ferrites-synthesis-functionalization-nanomagnetism-and-environmental-applicati",totalDownloads:2274,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Oscar F. Odio and Edilso Reguera",authors:[{id:"192032",title:"Prof.",name:"Edilso",middleName:null,surname:"Reguera",fullName:"Edilso Reguera",slug:"edilso-reguera"}]},{id:"53071",title:"CVD‐Made Spinels: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications for Clean Energy",slug:"cvd-made-spinels-synthesis-characterization-and-applications-for-clean-energy",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Patrick Mountapmbeme Kouotou, Guan‐Fu Pan and Zhen‐Yu Tian",authors:[{id:"179391",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhen-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",fullName:"Zhen-Yu Tian",slug:"zhen-yu-tian"},{id:"195660",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Mountapmbeme Kouotou",fullName:"Patrick Mountapmbeme Kouotou",slug:"patrick-mountapmbeme-kouotou"},{id:"195661",title:"Dr.",name:"Guan-Fu",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",fullName:"Guan-Fu Pan",slug:"guan-fu-pan"}]},{id:"53072",title:"Spinel‐Structured Nanoparticles for Magnetic and Mechanical Applications",slug:"spinel-structured-nanoparticles-for-magnetic-and-mechanical-applications",totalDownloads:1567,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Malik Anjelh Baqiya, Ahmad Taufiq, Sunaryono, Khuroti Ayun,\nMochamad Zainuri, Suminar Pratapa, Triwikantoro and Darminto",authors:[{id:"192041",title:"Prof.",name:"D",middleName:null,surname:"Darminto",fullName:"D Darminto",slug:"d-darminto"},{id:"192812",title:"Dr.",name:"Malik",middleName:"Anjelh",surname:"Baqiya",fullName:"Malik Baqiya",slug:"malik-baqiya"},{id:"195348",title:"Dr.",name:"Mochamad",middleName:null,surname:"Zainuri",fullName:"Mochamad Zainuri",slug:"mochamad-zainuri"},{id:"195349",title:"Dr.",name:"T.",middleName:null,surname:"Triwikantoro",fullName:"T. Triwikantoro",slug:"t.-triwikantoro"},{id:"195350",title:"Dr.",name:"Suminar",middleName:null,surname:"Pratapa",fullName:"Suminar Pratapa",slug:"suminar-pratapa"},{id:"195351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Taufiq",fullName:"Ahmad Taufiq",slug:"ahmad-taufiq"},{id:"195353",title:"Dr.",name:"S",middleName:null,surname:"Sunaryono",fullName:"S Sunaryono",slug:"s-sunaryono"},{id:"195366",title:"MSc.",name:"Khuroti",middleName:null,surname:"Ayun",fullName:"Khuroti Ayun",slug:"khuroti-ayun"}]},{id:"53842",title:"Photothermal Conversion Applications of the Transition Metal (Cu, Mn, Co, Cr, and Fe) Oxides with Spinel Structure",slug:"photothermal-conversion-applications-of-the-transition-metal-cu-mn-co-cr-and-fe-oxides-with-spinel-s",totalDownloads:1656,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Pengjun Ma, Qingfen Geng and Gang Liu",authors:[{id:"191817",title:"Prof.",name:"Gang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Gang Liu",slug:"gang-liu"},{id:"195156",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengjun",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Pengjun Ma",slug:"pengjun-ma"},{id:"195157",title:"Dr.",name:"Qingfen",middleName:null,surname:"Geng",fullName:"Qingfen Geng",slug:"qingfen-geng"}]},{id:"52500",title:"Anti‐Corrosive Properties and Physical Resistance of Alkyd Resin–Based Coatings Containing Mg‐Zn‐Fe Spinels",slug:"anti-corrosive-properties-and-physical-resistance-of-alkyd-resin-based-coatings-containing-mg-zn-fe-",totalDownloads:1004,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Kateřina Nechvílová, Andrea Kalendová and Miroslav Kohl",authors:[{id:"175841",title:"Prof.",name:"Andréa",middleName:null,surname:"Kalendová",fullName:"Andréa Kalendová",slug:"andrea-kalendova"},{id:"192705",title:"MSc.",name:"Kateřina",middleName:null,surname:"Nechvílová",fullName:"Kateřina Nechvílová",slug:"katerina-nechvilova"},{id:"192706",title:"MSc.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Kohl",fullName:"Miroslav Kohl",slug:"miroslav-kohl"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6282",title:"Noble and Precious Metals",subtitle:"Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4c28d6be4fd7b5f5b787d4dabbf721b",slug:"noble-and-precious-metals-properties-nanoscale-effects-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mohindar Singh Seehra and Alan D. Bristow",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6282.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"48086",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohindar",surname:"Seehra",slug:"mohindar-seehra",fullName:"Mohindar Seehra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"60006",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview of the Properties and Applications of Noble and Precious Metals",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-of-the-properties-and-applications-of-noble-and-precious-metals",signatures:"Mohindar S. Seehra and Alan D. Bristow",authors:[{id:"48086",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohindar",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Seehra",fullName:"Mohindar Seehra",slug:"mohindar-seehra"},{id:"208444",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",middleName:"D.",surname:"Bristow",fullName:"Alan Bristow",slug:"alan-bristow"}]},{id:"58870",title:"Band Structure, Morphology, Functionality, and Size- Dependent Properties of Metal Nanoparticles",slug:"band-structure-morphology-functionality-and-size-dependent-properties-of-metal-nanoparticles",signatures:"Joseph Adeyemi Adekoya, Kehinde Olurotimi Ogunniran, Tolutope\nOluwasegun Siyanbola, Enock Olugbenga Dare and Neerish\nRevaprasadu",authors:[{id:"196765",title:"Prof.",name:"Enock Olugbenga",middleName:null,surname:"Dare",fullName:"Enock Olugbenga Dare",slug:"enock-olugbenga-dare"},{id:"213394",title:"Dr.",name:"Kehinde",middleName:null,surname:"Ogunniran",fullName:"Kehinde Ogunniran",slug:"kehinde-ogunniran"},{id:"213396",title:"Dr.",name:"Tolutope",middleName:null,surname:"Siyanbola",fullName:"Tolutope Siyanbola",slug:"tolutope-siyanbola"},{id:"213399",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adekoya",fullName:"Joseph Adekoya",slug:"joseph-adekoya"},{id:"213400",title:"Prof.",name:"Neerish",middleName:null,surname:"Revaprasadu",fullName:"Neerish Revaprasadu",slug:"neerish-revaprasadu"}]},{id:"58348",title:"Effect of Size, Shape and Environment on the Optical Response of Metallic Nanoparticles",slug:"effect-of-size-shape-and-environment-on-the-optical-response-of-metallic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Salem Marhaba",authors:[{id:"211194",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Salem",middleName:null,surname:"Marhaba",fullName:"Salem Marhaba",slug:"salem-marhaba"}]},{id:"59555",title:"Origins of the High Reactivity of Au Nanostructures Deduced from the Structure and Properties of Model Surfaces",slug:"origins-of-the-high-reactivity-of-au-nanostructures-deduced-from-the-structure-and-properties-of-mod",signatures:"Sandra Hoppe and Lyudmila V. Moskaleva",authors:[{id:"212786",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Moskaleva",fullName:"Lyudmila Moskaleva",slug:"lyudmila-moskaleva"},{id:"238980",title:"Ms.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Hoppe",fullName:"Sandra Hoppe",slug:"sandra-hoppe"}]},{id:"57439",title:"Exciton-Plasmon Interactions in Quantum Well Structures Near Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"exciton-plasmon-interactions-in-quantum-well-structures-near-silver-nanoparticles",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",authors:[{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui"}]},{id:"57501",title:"Recent Developments on Metal Nanoparticles for SERS Applications",slug:"recent-developments-on-metal-nanoparticles-for-sers-applications",signatures:"Tanujjal Bora",authors:[{id:"213258",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanujjal",middleName:null,surname:"Bora",fullName:"Tanujjal Bora",slug:"tanujjal-bora"}]},{id:"59015",title:"Nano- and Micro-Patterning of Gold Nanoparticles on PEG- Based Hydrogels for Controlling Cell Adhesion",slug:"nano-and-micro-patterning-of-gold-nanoparticles-on-peg-based-hydrogels-for-controlling-cell-adhesion",signatures:"Cigdem Yesildag, Zhenfang Zhang, Fang Ren, Gonzalo de Vicente\nand Marga C. Lensen",authors:[{id:"56428",title:"Prof.",name:"Marga",middleName:null,surname:"Lensen",fullName:"Marga Lensen",slug:"marga-lensen"},{id:"221530",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenfang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhenfang Zhang",slug:"zhenfang-zhang"},{id:"221531",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo",middleName:null,surname:"De Vicente",fullName:"Gonzalo De Vicente",slug:"gonzalo-de-vicente"},{id:"221532",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",fullName:"Fang Ren",slug:"fang-ren"},{id:"221533",title:"MSc.",name:"Cigdem",middleName:null,surname:"Yesildag",fullName:"Cigdem Yesildag",slug:"cigdem-yesildag"}]},{id:"57338",title:"Substrate Effects of Noble Metal Nanostructures Prepared by Sputtering",slug:"substrate-effects-of-noble-metal-nanostructures-prepared-by-sputtering",signatures:"Alena Reznickova, Ondrej Kvitek, Dominik Fajstavr, Nikola Slavikova\nand Vaclav Svorcik",authors:[{id:"212850",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alena",middleName:null,surname:"Reznickova",fullName:"Alena Reznickova",slug:"alena-reznickova"},{id:"212851",title:"Dr.",name:"Ondrej",middleName:null,surname:"Kvitek",fullName:"Ondrej Kvitek",slug:"ondrej-kvitek"},{id:"212854",title:"MSc.",name:"Dominik",middleName:null,surname:"Fajstavr",fullName:"Dominik Fajstavr",slug:"dominik-fajstavr"},{id:"212855",title:"MSc.",name:"Nikola",middleName:null,surname:"Slavikova",fullName:"Nikola Slavikova",slug:"nikola-slavikova"},{id:"212856",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik"}]},{id:"57724",title:"Silver Nanoparticles Fabricated Using Chemical Vapor Deposition and Atomic Layer Deposition Techniques: Properties, Applications and Perspectives: Review",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabricated-using-chemical-vapor-deposition-and-atomic-layer-deposition-techniqu",signatures:"Piotr Piszczek and Aleksandra Radtke",authors:[{id:"202372",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Radtke",fullName:"Aleksandra Radtke",slug:"aleksandra-radtke"},{id:"212896",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Piszczek",fullName:"Piotr Piszczek",slug:"piotr-piszczek"}]},{id:"58180",title:"Copper Metal for Semiconductor Interconnects",slug:"copper-metal-for-semiconductor-interconnects",signatures:"Yi-Lung Cheng, Chih-Yen Lee and Yao-Liang Huang",authors:[{id:"59549",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi-Lung",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Yi-Lung Cheng",slug:"yi-lung-cheng"}]},{id:"58613",title:"Preparation of Highly Dispersed Pd-Supported Catalysts for Hydrogenation Processes by Microemulsion Method",slug:"preparation-of-highly-dispersed-pd-supported-catalysts-for-hydrogenation-processes-by-microemulsion-",signatures:"Jan Patera, Iva Paterová, Jiří Krupka and Květa Jirátová",authors:[{id:"224100",title:"Dr.",name:"Iva",middleName:null,surname:"Paterova",fullName:"Iva Paterova",slug:"iva-paterova"},{id:"229887",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Patera",fullName:"Jan Patera",slug:"jan-patera"},{id:"229888",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Krupka",fullName:"Jiri Krupka",slug:"jiri-krupka"},{id:"229893",title:"Dr.",name:"Kveta",middleName:null,surname:"Jiratova",fullName:"Kveta Jiratova",slug:"kveta-jiratova"}]},{id:"58284",title:"Symbiosis in Plasmonic Nanoparticles",slug:"symbiosis-in-plasmonic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Abhinav Malasi and Ritesh Sachan",authors:[{id:"216967",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhinav",middleName:null,surname:"Malasi",fullName:"Abhinav Malasi",slug:"abhinav-malasi"},{id:"222250",title:"Dr.",name:"Ritesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sachan",fullName:"Ritesh Sachan",slug:"ritesh-sachan"}]},{id:"57037",title:"Applications of Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Imaging and Treatment",slug:"applications-of-gold-nanoparticles-in-cancer-imaging-and-treatment",signatures:"Shouju Wang and Guangming Lu",authors:[{id:"58560",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangming",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Guangming Lu",slug:"guangming-lu"},{id:"210708",title:"Dr.",name:"Shouju",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Shouju Wang",slug:"shouju-wang"}]},{id:"57424",title:"Structure-Dependent Biological Response of Noble Metals: From Nanoparticles, Through Nanowires to Nanolayers",slug:"structure-dependent-biological-response-of-noble-metals-from-nanoparticles-through-nanowires-to-nano",signatures:"Jakub Siegel, Marek Staszek, Markéta Polívková, Michaela Valová,\nPavla Šuláková and Václav Švorčík",authors:[{id:"212856",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik"},{id:"146109",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jakub",middleName:null,surname:"Siegel",fullName:"Jakub Siegel",slug:"jakub-siegel"},{id:"220887",title:"Dr.",name:"Marketa",middleName:null,surname:"Polivkova",fullName:"Marketa Polivkova",slug:"marketa-polivkova"},{id:"220888",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Staszek",fullName:"Marek Staszek",slug:"marek-staszek"},{id:"220889",title:"MSc.",name:"Michaela",middleName:null,surname:"Valova",fullName:"Michaela Valova",slug:"michaela-valova"},{id:"220890",title:"BSc.",name:"Pavla",middleName:null,surname:"Sulakova",fullName:"Pavla Sulakova",slug:"pavla-sulakova"}]},{id:"57468",title:"Structure and Applications of Gold in Nanoporous Form",slug:"structure-and-applications-of-gold-in-nanoporous-form",signatures:"Jay K. Bhattarai, Dharmendra Neupane, Bishal Nepal, Vasilii\nMikhaylov, Alexei V. Demchenko and Keith J. Stine",authors:[{id:"192643",title:"Prof.",name:"Keith",middleName:null,surname:"Stine",fullName:"Keith Stine",slug:"keith-stine"},{id:"213383",title:"Dr.",name:"Jay",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattarai",fullName:"Jay Bhattarai",slug:"jay-bhattarai"},{id:"213384",title:"Mr.",name:"Dharmendra",middleName:null,surname:"Neupane",fullName:"Dharmendra Neupane",slug:"dharmendra-neupane"},{id:"213385",title:"Mr.",name:"Vasily",middleName:null,surname:"Mikhalov",fullName:"Vasily Mikhalov",slug:"vasily-mikhalov"},{id:"213386",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexei",middleName:null,surname:"Demchenko",fullName:"Alexei Demchenko",slug:"alexei-demchenko"}]},{id:"60746",title:"Colorimetric Detection of Copper Ion Based on Click Chemistry",slug:"colorimetric-detection-of-copper-ion-based-on-click-chemistry",signatures:"Lingwen Zeng, Zhiyuan Fang and Yunbo Wang",authors:[{id:"173972",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingwen",middleName:null,surname:"Zeng",fullName:"Lingwen Zeng",slug:"lingwen-zeng"},{id:"228491",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhiyuan",middleName:null,surname:"Fang",fullName:"Zhiyuan Fang",slug:"zhiyuan-fang"}]},{id:"61475",title:"Properties and Applications of Ruthenium",slug:"properties-and-applications-of-ruthenium",signatures:"Anil K. Sahu, Deepak K. Dash, Koushlesh Mishra, Saraswati P.\nMishra, Rajni Yadav and Pankaj Kashyap",authors:[{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Sahu",fullName:"Anil Sahu",slug:"anil-sahu"},{id:"211230",title:"Mr.",name:"Pankaj",middleName:null,surname:"Kashyap",fullName:"Pankaj Kashyap",slug:"pankaj-kashyap"},{id:"211868",title:"Ms.",name:"Rajni",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",fullName:"Rajni Yadav",slug:"rajni-yadav"},{id:"221419",title:"Mr.",name:"Koushlesh",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",fullName:"Koushlesh Mishra",slug:"koushlesh-mishra"},{id:"221420",title:"Mr.",name:"Sarawati Prasad",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",fullName:"Sarawati Prasad Mishra",slug:"sarawati-prasad-mishra"},{id:"250558",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepak Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Dash",fullName:"Deepak Kumar Dash",slug:"deepak-kumar-dash"}]},{id:"58968",title:"Extraction of Platinum Group Metals",slug:"extraction-of-platinum-group-metals",signatures:"Bongephiwe Mpilonhle Thethwayo",authors:[{id:"224083",title:"Dr.",name:"Bongephiwe",middleName:null,surname:"Thethwayo",fullName:"Bongephiwe Thethwayo",slug:"bongephiwe-thethwayo"}]},{id:"57050",title:"Rare Earth Extraction from NdFeB Magnets",slug:"rare-earth-extraction-from-ndfeb-magnets",signatures:"Jiro Kitagawa and Masami Tsubota",authors:[{id:"210570",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kitagawa",fullName:"Jiro Kitagawa",slug:"jiro-kitagawa"},{id:"220323",title:"Dr.",name:"Masami",middleName:null,surname:"Tsubota",fullName:"Masami Tsubota",slug:"masami-tsubota"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"59991",title:"The Regulation of Sperm Cells Delivery to the Embryo Sac",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75359",slug:"the-regulation-of-sperm-cells-delivery-to-the-embryo-sac",body:'\n
\n
1. Male and female gametophytes
\n
Discussing the journey of the pollen tube first requires an introduction to the smallest fertilization units, namely, the male and female gametophytes (Figure 1). The male gametophyte (pollen) comprises two sperm cells and one vegetative cell and is found in the stamen of a flower. The two sperm cells fertilize the egg and central cells inside the female gametophyte via a guided pollen tube journey that is described later. The female gametophyte, which is embedded in an ovule within the pistil, contains seven cells of four different types: an egg cell, a central cell, two synergid cells, and three antipodal cells. The egg and central cells are polarized such that their nuclei lie in very close proximity, a feature facilitating double fertilization of these two sperm nuclei targets [1, 2, 3]. The synergid cells are extremely essential for the attraction of pollen tubes, as discussed below [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
\n
Figure 1.
Male gametophyte and female gametophyte. The male gametophyte, also called the pollen grain or microgametophyte, develops within the anther and consists of two sperm cells encased within a vegetative cell (left). The mature female gametophyte (right) inside the pistil (center). The egg and central cells are polarized such that the nuclei of both cells lie very close to each other. This feature is important for double fertilization because these two nuclei are the targets of the two sperm nuclei. After double fertilization, the egg cell forms embryo and the central cell forms endosperm. The synergid cells have at least two functions associated with the fertilization process. First, the synergid cells secrete pollen tube attractants. In addition, the pollen tube enters the synergid cell, suggesting that the synergid cells are important for pollen tube reception. The black areas represent vacuoles of the cells in the female gametophyte.
\n
\n
\n
2. From the stigma to the funiculus
\n
Once a pollen grain reaches the stigma at the top of a carpel, the pollen tubes elongate toward the funiculus to form a bridge-like structure to an ovule, as shown in Figure 2. This pollen tube growth through the stigma to the funiculus is controlled via multiple signals from both sporophytic and gametophytic maternal tissues in the carpels. The roles of the female tissues in pollen tube guidance have been focused upon.
\n
Figure 2.
Pollen tube guidance from the stigma to the funiculus. Soon after pollination, the male gametophyte becomes hydrated and then germinates a pollen tube. The pollen tube initially penetrates and grows through the intercellular spaces between the papillar cells of the stigma and then grows through the transmitting tract of the carpel’s style and ovary. The pollen tube then emerges from the transmitting tract and grows along the surface of the placenta toward an ovule.
\n
Light and transmission electron microscopy studies of Arabidopsis have led to several observations regarding pollen tube growth in the female tissues of carpels [9, 10, 11, 12]. Although the morphologic features of the pollen tube journey are well understood, the underlying regulatory molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Accordingly, previous studies used sporophytic mutants to elucidate the relationship between pollen tube growth and ovule/female gametophyte development. Particularly, these homozygous mutants mostly produce defective ovules. Although wild-type pollen tubes grow normally during initial phases from pollen hydration to tube emergence from the transmitting tract, they fail to grow toward the mutant ovules, which lack female gametophytes. In other words, although the female gametophyte does not influence early pollen tube growth, it appears to be required for subsequent pollen tube guidance to the ovule [11, 13, 14, 15]. These observations suggest that a molecular approach is essential for understanding pollen tube growth from the stigma to the funiculus.
\n
\n
\n
3. From the funiculus to the female gametophyte
\n
The pollen tube is subsequently guided from the funiculus to the female gametophyte. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying this step have been relatively well elucidated, as shown in Figure 3, a complete understanding requires a discussion of synergid cell biology (Figure 1). Synergid cells within the female gametophyte are essential for reproduction. After the pollen tube grows from the stigma to the funiculus, it enters the female gametophyte by growing into one of the two synergid cells, which typically undergo cell death before or upon pollen tube arrival. Soon after arrival, the pollen tube ceases to grow and subsequently ruptures to release its sperm cells into the receptive synergid’s cytoplasm, thus triggering the completion of degeneration. Finally, one sperm cell each migrates to the egg cell and central cell to complete double fertilization of the female gametophyte [3, 16, 17, 18, 19].
\n
Figure 3.
Pollen tube guidance from the funiculus to the micropyle. Synergid cells are required for pollen tube guidance. Several studies using Arabidopsis thaliana mutants have reported that pollen tubes fail to grow onto ovules containing abnormal female gametophytes, indicating that the embryo sac provides a guidance cue for the pollen tube. AtLURE1 peptides are attractants that guide pollen tubes to the ovular micropyle. These AtLURE1 peptides are particularly expressed in synergid cells and secreted toward the funicular surface through the micropyle. A transcription factor MYB98 is required for AtLURE1 since myb98 mutants do not express AtLURE1 peptides. PRK6 and MDIS1-MIK receptors are AtLURE1 pollen tube attractant counterparts.
\n
Synergid cells are required for pollen tube guidance. Several studies using Arabidopsis thaliana mutants have reported that pollen tubes fail to grow onto ovules containing abnormal female gametophytes, indicating that the embryo sac provides a guidance cue for the pollen tube [11, 20, 21]. Higashiyama et al. used laser ablation in an in vitro Torenia pollen germination system to demonstrate that synergid cells, but not other female gametophyte cells, produce a pollen tube attractant [4]. Early in 2005, the requirement of a small protein, maize EA1, for pollen tube guidance was reported; however, maize EA1 has no homolog in Arabidopsis or other dicots and is unlikely to be a universal attractant [5].
\n
MYB98, which is exclusively expressed in synergid cells (Figure 4), provides the first molecular evidence of pollen tube guidance in Arabidopsis [6]. Laser ablation studies have demonstrated that synergid cells secrete attractants that guide the pollen tube to the female gametophyte [4], suggesting that defects in pollen tube guidance should be observed in the myb98 mutant. Accordingly, Kasahara et al. observed the pollen tubes of myb98 mutant pistils pollinated with wild-type pollen. In the wild-type plant, the pollen tube grew along the funiculus of the ovule and through the micropyle to the female gametophyte; however, the wild-type pollen tubes grew abnormally on ovules containing myb98 female gametophytes, specifically, the pollen tubes grew from the placenta to the funiculus but failed to grow into the micropyle (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
pMYB98::GFP expression and myb98 phenotype. (A) MYB98 is expressed predominantly in the synergid cells (pMYB98::GFP photograph captured by Liyang Xie, HBMC, FAFU). myb98 female gametophytes are defective in pollen tube guidance. (B) In the wild type, the pollen tube grew along the ovule’s funiculus, through the ovule’s micropyle, and into the female gametophyte. (C) By contrast, wild-type pollen tubes grew abnormally on myb98 ovules. Pollen tubes grew from the placenta to the funiculus but then failed to grow into the micropyle. These data suggest that MYB98 functions as a transcription factor within the synergid cells to regulate the expression of genes required for pollen tube guidance. Bars = 30 μm.
\n
MYB98 is expressed during the very early stage of synergid cellularization during female gametocyte development, consistent with the myb98 mutant phenotype, in which pollen tube guidance and filiform apparatus structure are affected. However, several observations indicate that other synergid cell development aspects, including cell specification, remain normal in myb98 mutants. Female gametophyte development and overall synergid cell morphology appear to be unaffected in myb98 mutants. Additionally, the myb98 mutation does not appear to affect the steps of fertilization process subsequent to pollen tube guidance, including the control of pollen tube growth cessation, pollen tube rupture, and sperm cell migration. These data suggest that MYB98 functions as a transcription factor within the synergid cell gene regulatory network, where it particularly controls the expression of downstream genes required for pollen tube guidance and filiform apparatus formation.
\n
The female gametophyte pollen tube attractants LURE1 and LURE2 have also been identified in Torenia [7]. LUREs are cysteine-rich proteins (CRPs) within the defensin-like (DEFL) family. LURE genes are expressed in synergid cells, which secrete the encoded proteins into the filiform apparatus. Accordingly, LURE downregulation reduces pollen tube attraction, and recombinant mature proteins attract pollen tubes in vitro and in a species-specific manner [7]. As discussed above, myb98 mutation affects the filiform apparatus within synergid cells. However, MYB98 is also required for the expression of at least 83 genes encoding CRPs similar to LURE1 and LURE2 [22, 23]. Many of these CRPs exhibit localization and diffusion patterns similar to those of ZmEA1 [5, 24]; particularly, the CRPs are secreted into the filiform apparatus and subsequently diffuse into the micropylar region [22]. In 2012, Takeuchi and Higashiyama [8] finally identified a recently evolved DEFL gene cluster in Arabidopsis and demonstrated that these DEFL [cysteine-rich peptide (CRP810_1)] peptides, or AtLURE1 peptides, are attractants that guide pollen tubes to the ovular micropyle. These AtLURE1 peptides are particularly expressed in synergid cells and secreted toward the funicular surface through the micropyle. Genetic analyses have revealed that gametophytic mutants defective in micropylar guidance myb98 [6], magatama3 [21], and central cell guidance [25] do not express AtLURE1 peptides and that recombinant AtLURE1 peptides were found to preferentially attract A. thaliana pollen tubes vs. A. lyrata pollen tubes, indicating that these peptides act as species-preferential attractants in micropylar guidance [8]. Several female-secreted peptides have been identified as species-specific attractants directly controlling pollen tube growth direction. However, the method by which the pollen tubes precisely and promptly respond to guidance signals from their own species remains unknown. In 2016, two research groups reported AtLURE1 pollen tube attractant counterparts [26, 27]. Takeuchi and Higashiyama [26] reported that the tip-localized pollen-specific receptor-like kinase 6 (PRK6), featuring an extracellular leucine-rich repeat domain, serves as an essential sensor of LURE1 [8] in Arabidopsis under semi-in vivo conditions and is important for ovule targeting in the pistil. PRK6 interacts with pollen-expressed ROPGEFs (Rho of plant guanine nucleotide-exchange factors), which facilitates pollen tube growth by activating the Rho GTPase ROP1 [28, 29]. Particularly, PRK6 acts as a key membrane receptor for external AtLURE1 attractants and recruits core tip-growth machinery, including ROP signaling proteins. Furthermore, Wang et al. [27] identified that a cell-surface receptor heteromer, MDIS1-MIK, perceives the female attractant AtLURE1 on the pollen tube of Arabidopsis. MDIS1, MIK1, and MIK2 are plasma-membrane-localized receptor-like kinases containing extracellular leucine-rich repeats and an intracellular kinase domain. AtLURE1 particularly binds the extracellular domains of MDIS1, MIK1, and MIK2, whereas mdis1 and mik1 mik2 mutant pollen tubes respond less sensitively to AtLURE1.
\n
\n
\n
4. Discharge of sperm cells from the pollen tube tip to fertilization
\n
Immediately after growth cessation, the pollen tube ruptures at or near its tip, leading to release of the pollen tube’s contents, including the two sperm cells. In Arabidopsis and Torenia, rupture occurs within 1 min after entry of the pollen tube into the female gametophyte [16, 17]. Regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying this step, two proteins localized in the sperm cells have been reported (Figure 5): GCS1 [30] and GEX2 [31]. Mori et al. [30] identified a protein, GCS1 (generative cell specific 1), using generative cells isolated from Lilium longiflorum pollen. Homologs of GCS1, possessing a carboxy-terminal transmembrane domain, are present in various species, including non-angiosperms. Immunological assays have indicated that GCS1 accumulates during late gametogenesis and localizes on the plasma membranes of generative cells. Notably, Arabidopsis gcs1 mutants exhibit male sterility because the male gametes fail to fuse with the egg or central cell (Figure 5). Mori et al. [31] identified another important male factor, GEX2 (gamete expressed 2), which encodes a sperm-expressed protein of unknown function that localizes to the sperm membrane and contains extracellular immunoglobulin-like domains, similar to the gamete interaction factors in algae and mammals. Using a novel in vivo assay, Mori et al. demonstrated the requirement of GEX2 for gamete attachment, as double fertilization is compromised in its absence.
\n
Figure 5.
Discharge of sperm cells from the pollen tube tip to double fertilization. (A) Upon reaching an ovule, the pollen tube grows along the surface of the ovule’s funiculus, through the micropyle, and into the female gametophyte. The pollen tube enters the female gametophyte by growing through the synergid cells. The pollen tube then comes in contact with the synergid cells and ceases growth. One of the synergid cells then undergoes cell death. Finally, soon after synergid degeneration is initiated, the pollen tube ruptures and releases two sperm cells into the degenerating synergid cytoplasm. The two sperm cells then move toward and fuse with the egg cell and central cell to complete double fertilization. (B) The male gametes of gcs1 mutant fail to fuse with the egg or central cell. GCS1 accumulates during late gametogenesis and localizes on the plasma membranes of generative cells. The male gametes of gex2 mutant also fail to fuse with the egg or central cell but the frequency of failure is lower than the gcs1 mutant.
\n
\n
\n
5. Fertilization recovery system
\n
In angiosperms, double fertilization within the ovule occurs with the entry of two sperm cells, which are usually delivered by a single pollen tube. In 1904, Wylie [32] observed the insertion of two pollen tubes in an Elodea canadensis ovule and concluded, “It often happens that two pollen tubes pass into one ovule; in such cases both synergids disappear.” Since this discovery, the reception of two pollen tubes in an embryo sac, although rare, has been reported in at least 12 species [33]. Similarly, the reception of two pollen tubes has been reported in several Arabidopsis mutants, including the gcs1 mutant [30]. Although this phenomenon is interesting, it has long been considered anomalous. However, Kasahara et al. [34] investigated the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon in higher plants upon frequently observing ovules that accepted two pollen tubes in the fertilization-defective hap2-1 (allelic to gcs1) mutant [35], as shown in Figure 6. As the hap2-1 mutant pollen tubes were marked by the pollen tube-specific reporter gene LAT52:GUS [36], Kasahara et al. traced the tube behaviors in vivo by staining for GUS activity, followed by aniline blue staining, to trace the behaviors of the first and second pollen tubes. Accordingly, most ovules contained one pollen tube at 10 hours after pollination (HAP), indicating that the reception of a second pollen tube is independent of sperm cell fertility until several hours after the arrival of the first pollen tube. This delay may represent a blocking system by which ovules avoid polysiphonogamy [34, 37]. However, after 10 HAP, ovules that failed to be fertilized by the first hap2-1 pollen tube began to attract a second tube. In this case, the persistent synergid cell, which would degenerate upon successful fertilization, continued to attract pollen tubes, leading to a second pollen tube acceptance rate of ~80% among failed ovules by 28 HAP. Although no particular role has been proposed for synergid cell persistence after the arrival of the first pollen tube, Kasahara et al. demonstrated that the second synergid cell could retain its function and thus attract and accept a second tube to rescue fertilization. This might explain the presence of two synergid cells in many higher plants (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Fertilization recovery system. Upon insertion of a single pollen tube into an ovule, the pollen tube bursts and releases two sperm cells. When the sperm cells complete fertilization, the ovule blocks the entry of the other pollen tubes and develops into a seed by forming an embryo and endosperm. When fertilization fails, the ovule attracts a second pollen tube to rescue fertilization. The rescued ovule develops into a seed, resulting in increased fertility. In the case of failure of fertilization by the second pollen tube, the ovule does not attract a third pollen tube, possibly due to depletion of the pollen tube attractant from synergid cells, since both synergid cells collapse after entry of two pollen tubes.
\n
Previously, several research groups [35, 38, 39] studied why several sperm cell–defective mutants exhibited an enhanced fertility phenotype (60–70% fertility); particularly, the frequency ratio of double pollen tube reception was almost completely consistent with the frequency of enhanced fertility (Figure 6). Additionally, the GUS staining experiment revealed that by 10 HAP, ~50% ovules had accepted a mutant allele, indicating that the mutant and wild-type pollen tubes were similarly competent to enter the embryo sac and release their contents. von Besser et al. [35] suggested that hap2-1 sperm cells affect pollen tube guidance. However, our data led us to conclude that sperm cells are passive pollen tube cargo and do not influence pollen tube guidance in hap2-1 mutants, consistent with the observation that sperm cell–defective mutants (i.e., no transmission via the male germline) exhibit only 30–35% sterility, instead of the expected 50%. Very recently, Zhang et al. [40] demonstrated that in the absence of two bHLH transcription factors, Arabidopsis produces an abnormal, sperm cell-free pollen exhibiting behavior similar to its wild-type counterpart, thus indicating that sperm cells are dispensable for normal pollen tube development. This result reinforced our concept of sperm cells as passive cargo, with no control over pollen tube growth and behavior.
\n
According to previous report by Kasahara et al. [37], all hand pollination experiments were performed using large numbers of pollen grains. Particularly, Arabidopsis pistils, usually containing 50–60 ovules, were pollinated with approximately 20, 40, 80, 120, and 700 grains. Two days after pollination, the insertion of few second pollen tubes into ovules were observed among the pistils pollinated with 20 and 40 grains, indicating that under restricted conditions (ovules > pollen tubes), the pollen tubes selectively inserted into ovules that had not previously accepted any pollen tube. Conversely, when a wild-type pistil was pollinated with 80 (ovules ≤ pollen tubes) and 120 (ovules < pollen tubes) grains, approximately 12 and 25% of the ovules accepted second pollen tubes, respectively, suggesting that ovules accept second pollen tubes while under saturated conditions (ovules < pollen tubes) [37]. In other words, excess pollen is required to saturate the fertilization recovery system, and approximately 80% (not 100%) of the failed ovules can accept a second pollen tube to complete recovery, consistent with a previous report [34] that a substantial period of ~28 h is required for ovules to complete the fertilization recovery system. This delay in secondary guidance may be attributable to the functional synergid cell numbers; a previously penetrated ovule contains only one persistent synergid cell (the other would have been disrupted by a burst pollen tube) to provide guidance. Higashiyama et al. [4] reported that an ovule containing two synergid cells attracts more pollen tubes than does an ovule with one synergid cell, suggesting that the latter produces insufficient levels of attractant. This may explain why only approximately 80% ovules with one synergid cell will attract a second pollen tube.
In angiosperms, the pollen tube releases its contents (including sperm cells) into the embryo sac upon insertion into the ovule, thus completing double fertilization. Recently, Kasahara et al. [41, 42] reported that the expansion and initiation of seed coat formation occurred even in ovules wherein fertilization failed after pollen tube insertion. This phenomenon was designated as pollen tube–dependent ovule enlargement morphology (POEM), which occurs only when the ovule accepts the pollen tube content (PTC). POEM was the first report addressing the paternal functions of PTC in facilitating the ovule’s maternal development without fertilization in plants.
\n
In animals, once semen is discharged into the uterus, the seminal plasma carries the sperm to the egg [43, 44], whereas in plants, PTC, which transports sperm cells to the ovules, has an analogous function. In mice, fertilization requires seminal vesicle secretory protein 2, which localizes only in the seminal plasma [45]. As seminal plasma is essential for fertilization in animals, Kasahara et al. proposed that PTC should also be important for fertilization in plants. To understand the function of PTC, a gcs1 mutant [30] was used, which fails to accomplish fertilization despite releasing PTC to evaluate transcriptional variations after PTC release into the embryo sac and compared the transcriptomes between two ovule RNA types: one after normal fertilization and the other after PTC release without fertilization. At 12 and 24 HAP, the observation of similar expression profiles for both RNAs was unexpected because early events after pollen tube insertion were thought to be fertilization-dependent. However, these events were instead found to depend on PTC. Notably, between 24 and 48 HAP, multiple genes associated with cell expansion, cell division, and seed coat formation were upregulated regardless of fertilization, suggesting that PTC can affect ovule shape. Hence, the ovule phenotype was investigated. Interestingly, ovules that accepted PTC expanded without fertilization because of cell expansion and division and the production of a partial seed coat, consistent with the results of the transcriptome analysis. Using data from the successful transcriptome analysis, Kasahara et al. identified that the novel plant phenomenon POEM occurs only when the ovule accepts PTC, irrespective of fertilization (Figure 7) [41].
\n
Figure 7.
Pollen tube–dependent ovule enlarged morphology (POEM). (A) After the pollen tube is inserted to the female gametophyte, the pollen tube bursts and releases its contents (yellow region) with two sperm cells. Double fertilization is accomplished by these sperm cells fertilizing egg cell and central cell, respectively. gcs1 mutant sperm cells fail to fertilize and the ovule does not produce a seed. It had long been suggested that the ovule will just die if the ovule fails to fertilize. However, if the pollen tube contents are supplied to the ovule, the ovule will be enlarged and initiate seed coat formation without fertilization. (B) A wild-type seed stained by vanillin at 3DAP. Whole seed coat region is stained. (C) Ovules without pollen tubes. Seed coat is not stained by vanillin. (D) A wild-type ovule crossed by gcs1/gcs1 pollen. The ovule is partially stained. (E) An agl62 mutant ovule. The ovule is partially stained even though it has abnormal endosperm. Arrows indicate the stained part by vanillin. Bars = 100 μm.
\n
In angiosperms, pollination is the first step toward fertilization. Once the pollen reaches the stigma, the grains elongate to form pollen tubes and move toward the synergid cells observed within the female gametophyte. Fertilization occurs when the pollen tubes pierce the female gametophyte; this action terminates pollen tube growth and induces bursting, resulting in the deposition of the two sperm cells inside the female gametophyte. The phenomenon represents a new reproductive phase between pollen tube guidance and fertilization because PTC release itself could induce POEM. Roszak and Köhler [46] demonstrated failure of seed coat synthesis in agl62 mutant ovules (Kang et al. [47]), which exhibited early endosperm cellularization, resulting in abnormal endosperm formation. Roszak and Köhler suggested that central cell fertilization and normal endosperm formation was required for the initiation of the seed coat formation. Contrarily, our observation of vanillin staining in agl62 mutant ovules indicated that the central cell fertilization is not required for the initiation of the seed coat formation (Figure 7).
\n
PTC was previously found to initiate central cell/endosperm nuclei division without fertilization when it was released to an autonomous endosperm mutant, mea [48, 49]. The finding that segmentation can be induced in a fertilization-independent manner by physical stimuli, leading to the development of some eggs into normal tadpoles, was first reported in 1910 [50]. In plants, Kasahara et al. [41] showed that PTC could increase central cell/endosperm nuclei division in the absence of fertilization, suggesting a function parallel to the observed fertilization-independent division of animal germ cells in response to external stimuli. By inducing endosperm nuclear division, PTC facilitates apomixes [51] in important crops when the POEM phenomenon is combined with autonomous endosperm and embryo mutants. In plants, seed formation without fertilization, or apomixis, is agriculturally valuable because important genetic traits can be easily fixed in apomictic crops, which then propagate without interference from unfavorable environmental conditions. POEM could therefore be categorized as “pseudogamy,” which is defined as any reproductive process requiring pollination but no inheritance from the male gametophyte [52]. Although Focke [53] first defined pseudogamy as a part of apomixis, the underlying cellular or molecular mechanisms have remained obscure. Given the conceptual similarities, POEM may therefore be a key in understanding pseudogamy, particularly concerning pollen and PTC stimuli.
\n
\n
\n
7. Summary
\n
This chapter discusses the journey of the pollen tube from the stigma to fertilization as well as the POEM phenomenon. Because very few factors related to pollen tube guidance from the stigma to the funiculus of the ovule have been elucidated, additional insights into this step are eagerly awaited. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying pollen tube guidance from the funiculus to the female gametophyte are well known in Arabidopsis because the pollen tube attractants AtLURE1 peptides had previously been identified downstream of the master synergid cell regulator MYB98. During the final step after pollen tube bursting, only two proteins, GCS1 and GEX2, have been identified as direct male-related key fertilization factors in the pollen tube. Accordingly, further molecular evidences are required to understand the final step for plant fertilization. Finally, very few factors related to new plant phenomena, fertilization recovery system, and POEM have been identified. New insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms are anticipated.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
I thank Liyang Xie and Xiaoyan Liu at HBMC, FAFU for technical assistance. These works were supported by the Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (13416724, Kasahara Sakigake Project), Japan Science and Technology Agency. These works were also supported by a grant-in-aid (25840106) from the Japanese Society for the promotion of Science (JSPS). These works were also supported by FAFU-UCR Joint Center and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Haixia Institute of Science and Technology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University.
\n
\n',keywords:"plant fertilization, pollen tube guidance, MYB98, LUREs, fertilization recovery system, POEM",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59991.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59991.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59991",totalDownloads:723,totalViews:439,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"October 31st 2017",dateReviewed:"February 13th 2018",datePrePublished:"March 23rd 2018",datePublished:"June 6th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pollination, or the first contact between male and female gametophytes, is one of the most important steps in plant reproduction. After pollination, the pollen grains, male gametophytes, are hydrated and then germinate pollen tubes. The pollen tube initially penetrates and grows through the intercellular spaces of the stigma and then grows through the transmitting tract to the placenta connected to an ovule. The pollen tube grows along the surface of the ovule’s funiculus, through the micropyle, and into the female gametophyte. After the pollen tube enters the female gametophyte, it ruptures and releases two sperm cells with its contents. The two sperm cells then move toward and fuse with the egg cell and central cell to produce embryo and endosperm, respectively. Multiple sperm cells typically strive to “win the race” and fertilize an egg cell during animal fertilization; however, in flowering plants, each ovule harboring an egg cell generally encounters only one of many pollen tubes conveying plant sperm cells. This chapter mainly addresses reproductive strategies of plants following pollination from the pollen tube extension and the guidance of two sperm cells to the female gametophyte for fertilization in the ovule.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59991",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59991",signatures:"Ryushiro Dora Kasahara",book:{id:"6659",title:"Pollination in Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants",slug:"pollination-in-plants",publishedDate:"June 6th 2018",bookSignature:"Phatlane William Mokwala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6659.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195046",title:"Dr.",name:"Phatlane William",middleName:null,surname:"Mokwala",slug:"phatlane-william-mokwala",fullName:"Phatlane William Mokwala"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"231350",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryushiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kasahara",fullName:"Ryushiro Kasahara",slug:"ryushiro-kasahara",email:"kasahara@bio.nagoya-u.ac.jp",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Male and female gametophytes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. From the stigma to the funiculus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. From the funiculus to the female gametophyte",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discharge of sperm cells from the pollen tube tip to fertilization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Fertilization recovery system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Pollen tube-dependent ovule enlargement morphology (POEM)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gifford EM, Foster AS. Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company; 1989. p. 49\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Drews GN, Koltunow AMG. The female gametophyte. The Arabidopsis Book. 2011;9:e0155\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Hamamura Y, Saito C, Awai C, Kurihara D, Miyawaki A, Nakagawa T, Kanaoka MM, Sasaki N, Nakano A, Berger F, Higashiyama T. Live-cell imaging reveals the dynamics of two sperm cells during double fertilization in Arabidopsis thaliana. Current Biology. 2011;21:497-502\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Higashiyama T, Yabe S, Sasaki N, Nishimura Y, Miyagishima S, Kuroiwa H, Kuroiwa T. Pollen tube attraction by the synergid cell. Science. 2001;293:1480-1483\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Márton ML, Cordts S, Broadhvest J, Dresselhaus T. Micropylar pollen tube guidance by egg apparatus 1 of maize. Science. 2005;307:573-576\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Kasahara RD, Portereiko MF, Sandaklie-Nikolova L, Rabiger DS, Drews GN. MYB98 is required for pollen tube guidance and synergid cell differentiation in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 2005;17:2981-2992\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Okuda S, Tsutsui H, Shiina K, Sprunck S, Takeuchi H, Yui R, Kasahara RD, Hamamura Y, Mizukami A, Susaki D, Kawano N, Sakakibara T, Namiki S, Itoh K, Otsuka K, Matsuzaki M, Nozaki H, Kuroiwa T, Nakano A, Kanaoka MM, Dresselhaus T, Sasaki N, Higashiyama T. Defensin-like polypeptide LUREs are pollen tube attractants secreted from synergid cells. Nature. 2009;458:357-361\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Takeuchi H, Higashiyama T. A species-specific cluster of defensin-like genes encodes diffusible pollen tube attractants in Arabidopsis. PLoS Biology. 2012;10:e1001449\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Pruitt RE, Hulskamp M, Kopczak SD, Plownse SE, Schneitz K. Molecular genetics of cell interactions in Arabidopsis. Development. 1993:77-84\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Kandasamy MK, Nasrallah JB, Nasrallah ME. Pollen pistil interactions and developmental regulation of pollen tube growth in Arabidopsis. Development. 1994;120:3405-3418\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Hulskamp M, Schneitz K, Pruitt RE. Genetic evidence for a long-range activity that directs pollen tube guidance in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 1995;7:57-64\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Lennon KA, Roy S, Hepler PK, Lord EM. The structure of the transmitting tissue of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) and the path of pollen tube growth. Sexual Plant Reproduction. 1998;11:49-59\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Elliott RC, Betzner AS, Huttner E, Oakes MP, Tucker WQ, Gerentes D, Perez P, Smyth DR. AINTEGUMENTA, an APETALA2-like gene of Arabidopsis with pleiotropic roles in ovule development and floral organ growth. Plant Cell. 1996;8:155-168\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Hauser BA, Villanueva JM, Gasser CS. Arabidopsis TSO1 regulates directional processes in cells during floral organogenesis. Genetics. 1998;150:411-423\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Couteau F, Belzile F, Horlow C, Grandjean O, Vezon D, Doutriaux MP. Random chromosome segregation without meiotic arrest in both male and female meiocytes of a dmc1 mutant of Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 1999;11:1623-1634\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Higashiyama T, Kuroiwa H, Kawano S, Kuroiwa T. Explosive discharge of pollen tube contents in Torenia fournieri. Plant Physiology. 2000;122:11-14\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Rotman N, Rozier F, Boavida L, Dumas C, Berger F, Faure JE. Female control of male gamete delivery during fertilization in Arabidopsis thaliana. Current Biology. 2003;13:432-436\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Sandaklie-Nikolova L, Palanivelu R, King EJ, Copenhaver GP, Drews GN. Synergid cell death in Arabidopsis is triggered following direct interaction with the pollen tube. Plant Physiology. 2007;144:1753-1762\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Ingouff M, Jullien PE, Berger F. The female gametophyte and the endosperm control cell proliferation and differentiation of the seed coat in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 2006;18:3491-3501\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Ray A. Three’s company: Regulatory cross-talk during seed development. Plant Cell. 1997;9:665-667\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Shimizu KK, Attractive OK. Repulsive interactions between female and male gametophytes in Arabidopsis pollen tube guidance. Development. 2000;127:4511-4518\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Punwani JA, Rabiger DS, Drews GN. MYB98 positively regulates a battery of Synergid-expressed genes encoding Filiform apparatus localized proteins. Plant Cell. 2007;19:2557-2568\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Punwani JA, Rabiger DS, Lloyd A, Drews GN. The MYB98 subcircuit of the synergid gene regulatory network includes genes directly and indirectly regulated by MYB98. The Plant Journal. 2008;55:406-414\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Márton ML, Fastner A, Uebler S, Dresselhaus T. Overcoming hybridization barriers by the secretion of the maize pollen tube attractant ZmEA1 from Arabidopsis ovules. Current Biology. 2012;22:1194-1198\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Chen YH, Li HJ, Shi DQ, Yuan L, Liu J, Sreenivasan R, Baskar R, Grossniklaus U, Yang WC. The central cell plays a critical role in pollen tube guidance in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 2007;19:3563-3577\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Takeuchi H, Higashiyama T. Tip-localized receptors control pollen tube growth and LURE sensing in Arabidopsis. Nature. 2016;531:245-248\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Wang T, Liang L, Xie Y, Jia PF, Chen W, Zhang MX, Wang YC, Li HJ, Yang WC. A receptor heteromer mediates the male perception of female attractants in plants. Nature. 2016;531:241-244\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Kaothien P, Ok SH, Shuai B, Wengier D, Cotter R, Kelley D, Kiriakopolos S, Muschietti J, McCormick S. Kinase partner protein interacts with the LePRK1 and LePRK2 receptor kinases and plays a role in polarized pollen tube growth. Plant Journal. 2005;42:492-503\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Zhang Y, McCormick S. A distinct mechanism regulating a pollen-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small GTPase Rop in Arabidopsis thaliana. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2007;104:18830-18835\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Mori T, Kuroiwa H, Higashiyama T, Kuroiwa T. Generative cell specific 1 is essential for angiosperm fertilization. Nature Cell Biology. 2006;8:64-71\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Mori T, Igawa T, Tamiya G, Miyagishima SY, Berger F. Gamete attachment requires GEX2 for successful fertilization in Arabidopsis. Current Biology. 2014;24:170-175\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Wylie RB. The morphology of Elodea canadensis. Contributions from the hull botanical laboratory. LII. Botanical Gazette. 1904;37:1-22\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Maheshwari P. An Introduction to the Embryology of Angiosperms. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1950\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Kasahara RD, Maruyama D, Hamamura Y, Sakakibara T, Twell D, Higashiyama T. Fertilization recovery after defective sperm cell release in Arabidopsis. Current Biology. 2012;22:1084-1089\n'},{id:"B35",body:'von Besser K, Frank AC, Johnson MA, Preuss D. Arabidopsis HAP2 (GCS1) is a sperm-specific gene required for pollen tube guidance and fertilization. Development. 2006;133:4761-4769\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Twell D, Wing R, Yamaguchi J, McCormick S. Isolation and expression of an anther-specific gene from tomato. Molecular & General Genetics. 1989;217:240-245\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Kasahara RD, Maruyama D, Higashiyama T. Fertilization recovery system is dependent on the number of pollen grains for efficient reproduction in plants. Plant Signaling & Behavior. 2013;8:e23690\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Rotman N, Durbarry A, Wardle A, Yang WC, Chaboud A, Faure JE, Berger F, Twell D. A novel class of MYB factors controls sperm-cell formation in plants. Current Biology. 2005;15:244-248\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Brownfield L, Hafidh S, Durbarry A, Khatab H, Sidorova A, Doerner P, Twell D. Arabidopsis DUO POLLEN3 is a key regulator of male germline development and embryogenesis. Plant Cell. 2009;21:1940-1956\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Zhang J, Huang Q, Zhong S, Bleckmann A, Huang J, Guo X, Lin Q, Gu H, Dong J, Dresselhaus T, Qu LJ. Sperm cells are passive cargo of the pollen tube in plant fertilization. Nature Plants. 2017;3:17079\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Kasahara RD, Notaguchi M, Nagahara S, Suzuki T, Susaki D, Honma Y, Maruyama D, Higashiyama T. Pollen tube contents initiate ovule enlargement and enhance seed coat development without fertilization. Science Advances. 2016;2:e1600554\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Kasahara RD, Notaguchi M, Honma Y. Discovery of pollen tube-dependent ovule enlargement morphology phenomenon, a new step in plant reproduction. Communicative and Integrative Biology. 2017;10:e1338989\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Sasanami T, Sugiura K, Tokumoto T, Yoshizaki N, Dohra H, Nishio S, Mizushima S, Hiyama G, Matsuda T. Sperm proteasome degrades egg envelope glycoprotein ZP1 during fertilization of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Reproduction. 2012;144:423-431\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Sasanami T, Izumi S, Sakurai N, Hirata NT, Mizushima S, Matsuzaki M, Hiyama G, Yorinaga E, Yoshimura T, Ukena K, Tsutsui K. A unique mechanism of successful fertilization in a domestic bird. Scientific Reports. 2015;9:7700\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Kawano N, Araki N, Yoshida K, Hibino T, Ohnami N, Makino M, Kanai S, Hasuwa H, Yoshida M, Miyado K, Umezawa A. Seminal vesicle protein SVS2 is required for sperm survival in the uterus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014;18:4145-4150\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Roszak P, Köhler C. Polycomb group proteins are required to couple seed coat initiation to fertilization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2011;108:20826-20831\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Kang IH, Steffen JG, Portereiko MF, Lloyd A, Drews GN. The AGL62 MADS domain protein regulates cellularization during endosperm development in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 2008;20:635-647\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Grossniklaus U, Vielle-Calzada JP, Hoeppner MA, Gagliano WB. Maternal control of embryogenesis by MEDEA, a polycomb group gene in Arabidopsis. Science. 1998;280:446-450\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Luo M, Bilodeau P, Koltunow A, Dennis ES, Peacock WJ, Chaudhury AM. Genes controlling fertilization-independent seed development in Arabidopsis thaliana. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1999;96:296-301\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Bataillon E. L’embryogénèse complète provoquèe chez les Amphibiens par figure de l′œuf vierge, larves parthénogénétiques de Rana fusca. Comptes Rendus. Académie des Sciences; 1910. p. 150\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Koltunow AM, Grossniklaus U. Apomixis: A developmental perspective. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 2003;54:547-574\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Nogler GA. Gametophytic apomixis. In: Embryology of Angiosperms. 1984. pp. 475-518\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Focke WO. Die Pflanzen–mischlinge, ein Beitrag zur Biologie der Gewächse. Berlin: Borntraeger; 1881\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ryushiro Dora Kasahara",address:"kasahara@fafu.edu.cn",affiliation:'
FAFU-UCR Joint Center and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Haixia Institute of Science and Technology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6659",title:"Pollination in Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants",slug:"pollination-in-plants",publishedDate:"June 6th 2018",bookSignature:"Phatlane William Mokwala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6659.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195046",title:"Dr.",name:"Phatlane William",middleName:null,surname:"Mokwala",slug:"phatlane-william-mokwala",fullName:"Phatlane William Mokwala"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"175370",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Mavrič",email:"jasmina.mavric@krs.net",fullName:"Jasmina Mavrič",slug:"jasmina-mavric",position:null,biography:"Jasmina Mavrič, Ph.D. is a project manager at the Economic Institute Maribor, she actively participates in international projects, including REGIOLAB, SME CONNECT, REUSE (Slovenia-Austria), BIOREGIO, IR-OVE (IPA; Slovenia-Croatia), BESST (Leonardo da Vinci; mobility program) and PROGRESS (Greenet) . Her thematic research also includes socio-economic analyses of the Podravje region, client-oriented market analyses (competition, customers, market trends, future prospects), and consulting services for potential entrepreneurs (medium and small enterprises).",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175370/images/4343_n.png",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Measuring Urban Development and City Performance",slug:"measuring-urban-development-and-city-performance",abstract:"Cities represent the driving force of development in economic, social, and cultural life, reflecting also the spatial organization of human society. Taking into account the fact that cities are becoming generators of economic development and a source of growth for the national economy, there is an increasing urge to identify the stages of development and to establish a system for the ranking and positioning of cities and regions in this process (the level of categorization). This will allow the preparation of appropriate strategic and development guidelines for cities and urban regions to take place. In order to be able to compare the level of their efficiency in fostering development, there is an intensifying need to develop indicators that measure the performance of cities, are representative and comparable between countries, and allow verification to others. At present, there are many different urban indicators and institutions that compile and analyze them. Performance measurement systems, developed for internal use in some cities, already show a degree of measurement feasibility. The fundamental problem is that this variety of indicators lacks consistency and comparability (over time and between compared cities). Therefore, their use cannot be approved in a wider context (benchmark) of comparative situations. Upon the case of medium-sized cities, we consequently have to question the applicability of the methodology and indicators, used mostly in cases of large, global cities by internationally recognized institutions. With the established set of indicators and assistance of computer programs for multiparameter decision-making processes (analytic hierarchical process [AHP]), this paper also seeks to investigate comparisons between performance of selected European cities (on a qualitative basis).",signatures:"Jasmina Mavrič and Vito Bobek",authors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",email:"vito.bobek@fh-joanneum.at"},{id:"175370",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",surname:"Mavrič",fullName:"Jasmina Mavrič",slug:"jasmina-mavric",email:"jasmina.mavric@krs.net"}],book:{title:"Perspectives on Business and Management",slug:"perspectives-on-business-and-management",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"104513",title:"Ms.",name:"Min-Hooi",surname:"Chuah",slug:"min-hooi-chuah",fullName:"Min-Hooi Chuah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpeg",biography:"Vito Bobek works as Professor of International Management at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum (Graz, Austria). During the course of his academic career, he has published more than 400 units and visited twenty-two universities worldwide in the capacity of a visiting professor. He is a member of the editorial board of five international journals and an open access publishing company. He has a long history of being involved in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. In 2008, he founded a consulting company, “Palemid,” whereby he managed twelve major projects. He is also co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia. Over the last 17 years, he has also been a member of the supervisory board at KBM Infond Management Company Ltd.",institutionString:"University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"142587",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",surname:"Maček",slug:"anita-macek",fullName:"Anita Maček",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142587/images/system/142587.jpg",biography:"Professor Anita Maček is currently a lecturer of Economics at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria, and the Doba Business School Maribor, Slovenia. She is also a member of the Management Board at the Union of Economists of Slovenia, editor-in-chief of the Journal of Innovative Business and Management, deputy editor of the IBS Newsletter, and a member of the editorial board of Bančni Vestnik (The Journal for Money and Banking). The focus of her research, which has been published in numerous national and international journals, is related to international capital flows, foreign direct investments, international business, cross-cultural management, smart cities, and management of cities and regions.",institutionString:"DOBA Business School",institution:null},{id:"175450",title:"Dr.",name:"Schapour",surname:"Zafarpour",slug:"schapour-zafarpour",fullName:"Schapour Zafarpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"175483",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Štefka",surname:"Gorenak",slug:"stefka-gorenak",fullName:"Štefka Gorenak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Faculty of Commercial and Business Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"175485",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"175615",title:"Prof.",name:"Rasto",surname:"Ovin",slug:"rasto-ovin",fullName:"Rasto Ovin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"175759",title:"Dr.",name:"Kee-Luen",surname:"Wong",slug:"kee-luen-wong",fullName:"Kee-Luen Wong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"176277",title:"MSc.",name:"Jelena",surname:"Zvezdanović Lobanova",slug:"jelena-zvezdanovic-lobanova",fullName:"Jelena Zvezdanović Lobanova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5763},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10365},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15784}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118187},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"16"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9796",title:"Cancers of Childhood and Adolescence - Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prognosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7c90c97b84629336aa5af2e9797f4cf2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Dariusz Borys",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9796.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91258",title:"Prof.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Borys",slug:"dariusz-borys",fullName:"Dariusz Borys"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. S Firstenberg and Dr. Vikas Yellapu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10324",title:"Asthma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"555c180ed3eefc77d38259cc57bd8dfe",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Svetlana P. Chapoval",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10324.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"70021",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana P.",surname:"Chapoval",slug:"svetlana-p.-chapoval",fullName:"Svetlana P. Chapoval"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10703",title:"Cardiovascular Risk Factors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"74951b49bbb62ec0de58ef39b777256b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10703.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10704",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias - Translational Approach from Pathophysiology to Advanced Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0e5d67464d929fda6d8c83ec20c4138a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Endre Zima",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10704.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"201263",title:"Dr.",name:"Endre",surname:"Zima",slug:"endre-zima",fullName:"Endre Zima"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10705",title:"Healthcare Access",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8e9561a91e5f7771932aa5d49c3b687",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Amit Agrawal and Dr. Srinivas Kosgi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10705.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"100142",title:"Prof.",name:"Amit",surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amit-agrawal",fullName:"Amit Agrawal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10706",title:"Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1a5246f0b6ba4f0e9ad1fbfa4134c598",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Manal Mohammad Baddour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10706.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174598",title:"Dr.",name:"Manal Mohammad",surname:"Baddour",slug:"manal-mohammad-baddour",fullName:"Manal Mohammad Baddour"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10707",title:"Primary Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bdb1aeb61b1eb116c1bdb09d25593686",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10707.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:55},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5221},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"433",title:"Decision Making",slug:"decision-making",parent:{title:"Business Administration",slug:"business-management-and-economics-business-administration"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:66,numberOfWosCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"decision-making",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9332",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72ccbc5aab28621bad2e810c4bd5bd53",slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5142",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",subtitle:"Decision Making for Strategic Decisions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7696be005ef87456c3b444052af3a857",slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",bookSignature:"Fabio De Felice, Thomas L. Saaty and Antonella Petrillo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5142.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1854",title:"Time Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a1635f5b500ab9fc005d3ed088b0c5a",slug:"time-management",bookSignature:"Todor Stoilov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1854.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51706",title:"Prof.",name:"Todor",middleName:null,surname:"Stoilov",slug:"todor-stoilov",fullName:"Todor Stoilov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"33752",doi:"10.5772/35957",title:"Academic Advising, Time Management and the African American Male Scholar-Athlete",slug:"time-management-academic-advising-and-the-african-american-male-student-athlete",totalDownloads:4159,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"time-management",title:"Time Management",fullTitle:"Time Management"},signatures:"C. Keith Harrison and Brandon Martin",authors:[{id:"106505",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Keith",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",slug:"c.-keith-harrison",fullName:"C. Keith Harrison"},{id:"106509",title:"Dr.",name:"Brandon",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",slug:"brandon-martin",fullName:"Brandon Martin"}]},{id:"51007",doi:"10.5772/63686",title:"AHP‐Aided Evaluation of Logistic and Transport Solutions in a Seaport",slug:"ahp-aided-evaluation-of-logistic-and-transport-solutions-in-a-seaport",totalDownloads:1282,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Cristian Giacomini, Giovanni Longo, Alice Lunardi and Elio Padoano",authors:[{id:"181593",title:"Prof.",name:"Elio",middleName:null,surname:"Padoano",slug:"elio-padoano",fullName:"Elio Padoano"},{id:"182135",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Longo",slug:"giovanni-longo",fullName:"Giovanni Longo"},{id:"185623",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Giacomini",slug:"cristian-giacomini",fullName:"Cristian Giacomini"},{id:"185625",title:"BSc.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Lunardi",slug:"alice-lunardi",fullName:"Alice Lunardi"}]},{id:"33747",doi:"10.5772/37248",title:"What Do We Know About Time Management? A Review of the Literature and a Psychometric Critique of Instruments Assessing Time Management",slug:"what-do-we-know-about-time-management-a-review-of-the-literature-and-a-psychometric-critique-of-inst",totalDownloads:34569,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"time-management",title:"Time Management",fullTitle:"Time Management"},signatures:"Laurie-Ann M. Hellsten",authors:[{id:"111970",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurie-Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hellsten",slug:"laurie-ann-hellsten",fullName:"Laurie-Ann Hellsten"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50912",title:"Analytic Hierarchy Process Applied to Supply Chain Management",slug:"analytic-hierarchy-process-applied-to-supply-chain-management",totalDownloads:1746,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Valerio Antonio Pamplona Salomon, Claudemir Leif Tramarico and\nFernando Augusto Silva Marins",authors:[{id:"137460",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Marins",slug:"fernando-marins",fullName:"Fernando Marins"},{id:"179921",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerio",middleName:"A. P.",surname:"Salomon",slug:"valerio-salomon",fullName:"Valerio Salomon"},{id:"179926",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudemir",middleName:null,surname:"Tramarico",slug:"claudemir-tramarico",fullName:"Claudemir Tramarico"}]},{id:"51701",title:"Prioritizing Human Factors in Emergency Conditions Using AHP Model and FMEA",slug:"prioritizing-human-factors-in-emergency-conditions-using-ahp-model-and-fmea",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Fabio De Felice, Antonella Petrillo and Domenico Falcone",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"171487",title:"Prof.",name:"Domenico",middleName:null,surname:"Falcone",slug:"domenico-falcone",fullName:"Domenico Falcone"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}]},{id:"67302",title:"The Role of Wealth in Gain and Loss Perception: An Empirical Analysis",slug:"the-role-of-wealth-in-gain-and-loss-perception-an-empirical-analysis",totalDownloads:235,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",fullTitle:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management"},signatures:"Andrea Lippi",authors:[{id:"302287",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Lippi",slug:"andrea-lippi",fullName:"Andrea Lippi"}]},{id:"69034",title:"Business and Information System Alignment Theories Built on eGovernment Service Practice: An Holistic Literature Review",slug:"business-and-information-system-alignment-theories-built-on-egovernment-service-practice-an-holistic",totalDownloads:406,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",fullTitle:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management"},signatures:"Sulaiman Abdulaziz Alfadhel, Shaofeng Liu and Festus O. Oderanti",authors:[{id:"6479",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaofeng",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"shaofeng-liu",fullName:"Shaofeng Liu"},{id:"295962",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sulaiman",middleName:null,surname:"Alfadhel",slug:"sulaiman-alfadhel",fullName:"Sulaiman Alfadhel"},{id:"308256",title:"Dr.",name:"Festus",middleName:null,surname:"Oderanti",slug:"festus-oderanti",fullName:"Festus Oderanti"}]},{id:"33747",title:"What Do We Know About Time Management? A Review of the Literature and a Psychometric Critique of Instruments Assessing Time Management",slug:"what-do-we-know-about-time-management-a-review-of-the-literature-and-a-psychometric-critique-of-inst",totalDownloads:34568,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"time-management",title:"Time Management",fullTitle:"Time Management"},signatures:"Laurie-Ann M. Hellsten",authors:[{id:"111970",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurie-Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hellsten",slug:"laurie-ann-hellsten",fullName:"Laurie-Ann Hellsten"}]},{id:"68774",title:"Decision Rule Induction Based on the Graph Theory",slug:"decision-rule-induction-based-on-the-graph-theory",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",fullTitle:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]},{id:"51007",title:"AHP‐Aided Evaluation of Logistic and Transport Solutions in a Seaport",slug:"ahp-aided-evaluation-of-logistic-and-transport-solutions-in-a-seaport",totalDownloads:1280,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Cristian Giacomini, Giovanni Longo, Alice Lunardi and Elio Padoano",authors:[{id:"181593",title:"Prof.",name:"Elio",middleName:null,surname:"Padoano",slug:"elio-padoano",fullName:"Elio Padoano"},{id:"182135",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Longo",slug:"giovanni-longo",fullName:"Giovanni Longo"},{id:"185623",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Giacomini",slug:"cristian-giacomini",fullName:"Cristian Giacomini"},{id:"185625",title:"BSc.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Lunardi",slug:"alice-lunardi",fullName:"Alice Lunardi"}]},{id:"51061",title:"Disaster Risk Assessment Developing a Perceived Comprehensive Disaster Risk Index: The Cases of Three Chilean Cities",slug:"disaster-risk-assessment-developing-a-perceived-comprehensive-disaster-risk-index-the-cases-of-three",totalDownloads:1108,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Carmen Paz Castro, Juan Pablo Sarmiento and Claudio Garuti",authors:[{id:"179811",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Garuti",slug:"claudio-garuti",fullName:"Claudio Garuti"}]},{id:"68601",title:"How Does Socio-Technical Approach Influence Sustainability? Considering the Roles of Decision Making Environment",slug:"how-does-socio-technical-approach-influence-sustainability-considering-the-roles-of-decision-making-",totalDownloads:237,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",fullTitle:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management"},signatures:"Hadi AL-Abrrow, Alhamzah Alnoor, Hasan Abdullah and Bilal Eneizan",authors:[{id:"303565",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Abrrow",slug:"hadi-al-abrrow",fullName:"Hadi Al-Abrrow"},{id:"303609",title:"Mr.",name:"Alhamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Alnoor",slug:"alhamzah-alnoor",fullName:"Alhamzah Alnoor"},{id:"303612",title:"Mr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"hasan-abdullah",fullName:"Hasan Abdullah"},{id:"307559",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Eneizan",slug:"bilal-eneizan",fullName:"Bilal Eneizan"}]},{id:"69492",title:"A Global Method for a Two-Dimensional Cutting Stock Problem in the Manufacturing Industry",slug:"a-global-method-for-a-two-dimensional-cutting-stock-problem-in-the-manufacturing-industry",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",fullTitle:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management"},signatures:"Yao-Huei Huang, Hao-Chun Lu, Yun-Cheng Wang, Yu-Fang Chang and Chun-Kai Gao",authors:[{id:"303950",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao-Huei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"yao-huei-huang",fullName:"Yao-Huei Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"decision-making",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/175370/jasmina-mavric",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"175370",slug:"jasmina-mavric"},fullPath:"/profiles/175370/jasmina-mavric",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()