Floor/ceiling assembly weight.
\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-945-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-944-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-946-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0b1e679fcacdec2448603a66df71ccc7",bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan and Dr. Sevcan Aydin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg",keywords:"PCR Based Methods, Protein Based Methods, Sequencing, Conservation of Genetic Resources, Natural Variation, Molecular Markers, Genetic Manipulation in Animals, Resistance to Disease, Genetic Manipulation in Plants, Use of Microorganisms in Biotechnology, Genetic Differentiation, Gene Therapy and Gene Editing",numberOfDownloads:17,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of genetics and molecular biology and Head of Biotechnology division at İstanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include plant molecular genetics, microbial biotechnology and characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaeal strains.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include genetics, environmental biotechnology and bioengineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"462767",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevcan",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"sevcan-aydin",fullName:"Sevcan Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003QRfRpQAL/Profile_Picture_2022-03-24T08:49:06.jpg",biography:"Sevcan Aydın is an Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Türkiye. She obtained her bachelor's degree from Biology Department of Ege University. She obtained her Ph.D. in Biotechnology Programme of Istanbul Technical University. Her main research areas include genetics, environmental biotechnology and bioengineering.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"82862",title:"Assessment of Genetic Variability of Three Types of Sorghum Cultivated in Burkina Faso Using Morphoagronomic Quantitative Traits and Brix",slug:"assessment-of-genetic-variability-of-three-types-of-sorghum-cultivated-in-burkina-faso-using-morphoa",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429343",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Ivancic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429343/images/19998_n.jpg",email:"martina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2252",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2540f35e6516d6946f6953469c61ff3",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalişkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2252.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2253",title:"Genetic Diversity in Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"209e2075adb4614d4061ea69f1cb3c99",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-microorganisms",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2253.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2251",title:"The Molecular Basis of Plant Genetic Diversity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f095bc4b74c32e0e266755bb77f00171",slug:"the-molecular-basis-of-plant-genetic-diversity",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1610",title:"Analysis of Genetic Variation in Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2dbc70699ec1ca38dc2175c6aeebe710",slug:"analysis-of-genetic-variation-in-animals",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5508",title:"Carbohydrate",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e594b777fe1d4981c5b1adbe5a40f19c",slug:"carbohydrate",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, I. Halil Kavakli and Gul Cevahir Oz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5508.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4534",title:"Molecular Approaches to Genetic Diversity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"47e298294c997622c48b72b4f6d06f41",slug:"molecular-approaches-to-genetic-diversity",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, Guul Cevahir Oz, I. Halil Kavakli and Birguul Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7947",title:"The Recent Topics in Genetic Polymorphisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d77e0df1c9ae7d3721747744650bfcd3",slug:"the-recent-topics-in-genetic-polymorphisms",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalışkan, Osman Erol and Gül Cevahir Öz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7947.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10886",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms",subtitle:"New Insights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a71558dd7dfd16ad140168409f887f7e",slug:"genetic-polymorphisms-new-insights",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalışkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10886.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67068",title:"Structural Design of a Typical American Wood-Framed Single-Family Home",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85929",slug:"structural-design-of-a-typical-american-wood-framed-single-family-home",body:'\nThe prevailing system used for the construction of single-family homes in the USA is platform framing using light wooden dimensional lumber. Structural assemblies such as the roof, floors, and walls are generally constructed with nominal 50.8 mm (2 inch) lumber members ranging in nominal depths from 101.6 to 304.8 mm (4–12 inches) and sheathed with structural wood panels for stability and security, such as oriented strand board (OSB) or plywood.
\nWood structural materials are preferred by US homebuilders largely because (1) the US home building industry is mostly familiar with wood framing method, (2) the units of construction (i.e., studs, joists, panels, etc.) are small and easily transportable, and (3) wood-framed structures can be erected without the need for specialized tools or large equipment.
\nIn this chapter, the complete process of designing a typical US residential dwelling using wood-frame systems will be illustrated. The typical US design methodology and basis will be used to accomplish the designs. The International Residential Code (IRC) [1] is the design basis used by most authorities to regulate the design and construction of single-family residences. The following major aspects are discussed in this chapter:
Provide introductory material such as the description of the home to be designed, applicable design codes, and external loading assessment for residential structures.
Design the home using a wood-framed platform system. The load path will be discussed as well as specific design codes relating to wood-framed structures. The result of specifying and detailing typical structural elements of the home will be specified and details provided.
The scope is limited to the structural design and performance of one single-family residential dwelling. The load-bearing wall systems are the primary components of the building enclosure, and the structural properties of the wall system are only one of many considerations that must be taken into account. While cladding compatibility, thermal performance or the hygrothermal characteristics of a wall system are very important, such aspects are not the focus of this study and will not be discussed.
\nThe home design considered in this study is a two-story regular-shaped home with a basement and attached two-car garage. The floor plan was provided by S&A Homes, which is a midsized homebuilder that builds homes and provides architectural design services to customers in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The floor plans and drawings for one of their standard home packages are provided in the Appendix. Clients of S&A Homes can select this floor plan from an array of floor plans and make slight variations to it if desired. S&A Homes will then design, detail, and construct the home for the client on the chosen lot, typically one of S&A’s own residential developments.
\nThe home plan/style shown in the Appendix is a popular model in S&A’s territory and is representative of the size and style of homes desired by the average homebuyer of this decade. The home consists of nearly 214 m2 (2300 ft2) of finished floor area with the basement available for finishing if so desired by the prospective homeowner. The floor plan has features typically seen in modern homes. The first floor contains a large kitchen open to the family room with access to both the dining room and the attached two-car garage. The second floor has four bedrooms with the master suite containing its own large bathroom as well as a sitting area and walk-in closet (WIC).
\nThe IRC is the prevailing design code used for the construction of one- or two-family dwellings in the USA. The 2015 IRC [1] is the current adopted code in the State College, PA area, and will be used as the governing design code for this study. In order to construct a single-family dwelling, the homebuilder must first apply to the local code office for a building permit. It is necessary to provide a complete architectural plan set detailing how the builder intends to comply with the requirements of the IRC, along with several other items such as the manual J [2] heat loss-gain calculations for the structure and selection of energy compliance path. The IRC largely provides a prescriptive basis for home design and in many instances is adequate for single-family home design. The envelope and structural components are typically selected by the architect, builder, or homeowner from design tables within the code. If prefabricated engineered components such as I-joists, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) components, or roof trusses are used in design, a structural engineer is required to review their specification and application.
\nThis is typically the extent of a structural engineer’s involvement in residential design other than specialized situations not covered by the IRC and occasionally foundation design. If engineered design is necessary in conjunction with the prescriptive standards, then compliance with the 2015 International Building Code (IBC) [3] requirements for those portions of the design is required. Engineers will conduct their analysis based on requirement set forth in the IRC, IBC if necessary, and ASCE 7-10 minimum design loads for buildings and other structures (ASCE 7) [4] [ASCE stands for American Society of Civil Engineers]. The IRC and IBC also permit designers to refer to the 2015 AWC
This study will focus on the appropriate residential structural building loads for the State College, PA area, for an example design case. The designs will include only the effects of dead loading, floor live loading, roof live loading, snow loading, and wind loading. Residential structures in ordinary situations are designed to resist both gravity loads and lateral loads. External loading for homes is prescribed in either Chapter 3 of the 2015 IRC or in ASCE 7. ASCE 7 is the standard referenced in the 2015 IRC, and therefore this version will be referenced in this study. Both the IRC and the ASCE 7 will be used to develop the external loads for this study. In addition to the external loads, the serviceability criteria must also be considered. For this design, only live load deflection limits will be considered.
\nThe gravity loads are those loads that act in the direction of gravity. The gravity loads of importance for residential structures are dead load (DL), floor live load (LL), roof live load (RL), and snow load (SL).
\nDead load is the load that is permanently and continuously applied to a structure. Typically, dead load refers to the self-weight of the material used in construction or a load that is applied in a permanent nature such as a known location of a piece of heavy equipment or a large island in the kitchen. Unless noted otherwise, the S&A Homes dead load criteria will be used for the wood-framed design of this home. These loads are typical for residential design and were largely derived from ASCE 7 Table C3-1. Dead loads are listed in Tables 1, 2, 3.
\nSub-component | \nWeight N/m2 (lbf/ft2) | \n
---|---|
Carpet/vinyl | \n47.9 (1.0)a | \n
19.1 mm (¾ in) plywood | \n114.9 (2.4) | \n
301.6 mm (11 7/8 in) I-joistsb | \n91.0 (1.9) | \n
Mechanical allowance | \n95.8 (2.0) | \n
12.7 mm (½ in) gypsum ceiling | \n105.3 (2.2) | \n
Total | \n≈454.9 (10) | \n
Floor/ceiling assembly weight.
For floor areas known to have ceramic tile floor covering, increase load to 0.96 kN/m2 (20 lbf/ft2).
Weight is derived from Weyerhaeuser publication #TJ-4000 for 230 or 360 series joists.
Sub-component | \nWeight | \n
---|---|
Exterior wall assemblya | \n526.7 N/m2 (11.0 lbf/ft2) | \n
Interior wall assemblyb | \n383.0 N/m2 (8.0 lbf/ft2) | \n
Plain concrete | \n22.8 kN/m3 (145 lbf/ft3) | \n
Reinforced concrete | \n23.6 kN/m3 (150 lbf/ft3) | \n
Miscellaneous materials.
2 × 6 wood studs at 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C. with 12.7 mm (½ inch) gypsum wallboard and vinyl siding.
Wood or steel studs with 12.7 mm (½ inch) gypsum wallboard on each side.
Live loading is a gravity loading that is temporary or intermittent in nature. The three live loads considered for the design of this home are floor live (LL), roof live (RL), and snow load (SL). The IRC prescribes the minimum uniformly distributed loads that must be used by designers for residential structures. Such minimum loads listed in Table 4 will be used for this study.
\nLoad description | \nWeight kN/m2 (lbf/ft2) | \n
---|---|
LL (sleeping rooms) | \n1.44 (30.0) | \n
LL (other) | \n1.92 (40.0) | \n
LL (habitable attics) | \n1.44 (30.0) | \n
LL (attics w/limited storage)a,b | \n0.96 (20.0) | \n
LL (Attics w/o limited storage)c | \n0.48 (10.0) | \n
Roof live load | \n0.77 (16.0) | \n
Design roof snow loadd | \n1.44 (30.0) | \n
Minimum uniformly distributed live loads.
Attics defined as the unfinished area between the roof and the ceiling of the floor below.
Limited storage refers to non-habitable attic space greater than or equal to 1.07 m (42 inch).
Add to attic space less than 1.07 m (42 inch).
Based on State College area prescriptive requirements. Applied on the horizontal projection rather than along the slope.
The only lateral load being considered for this study is the wind loading. In the State College area, seismic loading does not typically control the design of structural components. The procedures in ASCE 7 will be used to determine wind loading, e.g., Chapter 28 Envelope Procedure Part 2 can be used for this structure. Chapter 28 requires that the structure meets the definition of a low-rise, enclosed simple diaphragm building that is regular-shaped in accordance with Section 26.2.
\nThe wind loads calculated in Table 6 are based on the parameters listed in Table 5 and in accordance with Figure 1. The simplified design wind pressure magnitudes in Tables 6 and 7 include both windward and leeward pressures. The combined pressure will be applied to only the windward side of the structure. For this design, two load cases must be evaluated because the roof pitch is between 25 and 30 degrees. Additionally, these two cases must be compared to the minimum load case described in ASCE 7 Section 28.6.4. The case that produces the larger load effect will be used for design of structural members.
\nParameter | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
Risk category | \nII | \n
Basic wind speed (V) | \n51 m/s 115 mph | \n
Exposure category | \nB | \n
Topographic factor (Kzt) | \n1.0 | \n
Mean roof height | \n7.0 m (23 ft) | \n
Adjustment factor (λ) | \n1.0 | \n
Roof pitch | \n30 degrees | \n
Wind load parameters.
ASCE 7-10 Chapter 28 wind loading designation (with permission from the ASCE).
Zones | \nCase 1 | \nCase 2 | \nMinimum | \n
---|---|---|---|
A | \n1.13 (23.6) | \n1.13 (23.6) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
B | \n0.77 (16.1) | \n0.77 (16.1) | \n0.38 (8) | \n
C | \n0.90 (18.8) | \n0.90 (18.8) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
D | \n0.62 (12.9) | \n0.62 (12.9) | \n0.38 (8) | \n
E | \n0.09 (1.8) | \n0.44 (9.1) | \n0 | \n
F | \n−0.68 (−14.3) | \n−0.34 (−7.1) | \n0 | \n
G | \n0.03 (0.6) | \n0.38 (7.9) | \n0 | \n
H | \n−0.59 (−12.3) | \n−0.24 (−5.0) | \n0 | \n
EOH | \n−0.40 (−8.3) | \n−0.40 (−8.3) | \n0 | \n
GOH | \n−0.45 (−9.5) | \n−0.45 (−9.5) | \n0 | \n
Simplified design wind pressure (Ps) case A θ = 30.
Values in kN/m2 (lbf/ft2).
Zones | \nCase 1 | \nMinimum | \n
---|---|---|
A | \n1.01 (21.0) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
C | \n0.67 (13.9) | \n0.77 (16) | \n
E | \n−1.21 (−25.2) | \n0 | \n
F | \n−0.68 (−14.3) | \n0 | \n
G | \n−0.68 (−14.3) | \n0 | \n
H | \n−0.53 (−11.1) | \n0 | \n
Simplified design wind pressure (Ps) case B θ = 0.
Values in kN/m2 (lbf/ft2).
The main serviceability criterion considered in the design of residential homes is deflection. The IRC prescribes the maximum allowable deflection of structural members and assemblies. Excessive deflections can cause problems for the occupants and potentially damage to nonstructural components such as cladding or fenestration. Excessive interior floor deflections are generally noticed in the form of floor vibration or “spongy” floors. Excessive deflection of roof members can lead to ponding and ultimately moisture issues or overloading of structural members. A portion of Table R301.7 from the IRC that prescribes residential deflection limits is reproduced below in Table 8.
\nSub-component | \nSpan ratio | \n
---|---|
Interior walls and partitions | \nHeight/180 | \n
Floors and plaster ceilingsa,b | \nLength/360 | \n
All other structural members | \nLength/240 | \n
Exterior walls—brittle finish | \nLength/240 | \n
Live load maximum deflection limits.
Limit floor beam deflection to 12.7 mm (½ inch).
Limit I-joist deflection ratio to length/480.
Both allowable stress design (ASD) and load resistance and factor design (LRFD) load combinations will be utilized for different aspects of the home structural design. For example, the ASD approach will be used for wood design, whereas the LRFD approach will be used for concrete foundation design. Approaches for the designs will be discussed as appropriate. The load combinations that will be used for design are listed below and are reproduced from ASCE 7.
\n\n
D
D + L
D + (Lr or S or R)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
0.6D + 0.6W
\n
1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W)
1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
0.9D + 1.0W
In the above load combination, the notation is defined as follows: D for dead load, L for live load, Lr for roof live load, S for snow load, R for rain load, and W for wind load.
\nWood is the most popular material used in the USA for the construction of single-family dwellings. An example of residential framing can be seen below in Figure 2 [6]. Framing lumber is easily obtained in most locations. The units of construction can be easily transported by contractors or homeowners without the need for specialized equipment. Additionally, the erection of a wood-framed structural system is familiar to most and does not require excessive amounts of specialized knowledge or tools. Lastly, wood-framed construction has been well documented in the USA, and many design aids are available.
\nSection view of typical residential wood-framed home. Note: in this figure, a small rectangle with x inside indicates the cross section of wood member, and DBL stands for double.
As noted before, much of the wood-framed structural design can be accomplished using design aids. The design professional will typically use these design aids to the greatest extent possible and then perform structural analysis and design for any item that is beyond the scope of the design aids. This is the approach that will be used for this study. The design drawings are shown in the Appendix. The associated detailed calculation is not provided due to space limitation; only the necessary results will be mentioned.
\nExternal loads must be transmitted to ground through the structural system of the building. Two main systems are needed to accomplish this transfer properly: gravity system and the main wind force resisting system (MWFRS). The gravity system transmits the vertical loads through a system of trusses, joists, and beams to foundation, which in turn transmits the load to ground, while the MWFRS transfers lateral wind load to foundation through a system of shear walls and flexible diaphragms. It is important to recognize that the ground must be properly prepared and evaluated to ensure good load transfer. Typically, foundations are placed on virgin soil or engineered (compacted) fill. All organic materials should be removed along with excessive amounts of water.
\nThe gravity system in this home starts at the roof and ends in the soil. Vertical loads must have a continuous path to the ground. Generally, the gravity system in this example consists of OSB sheathing, engineered roof trusses, load-bearing stud walls, dimensional lumber headers, engineered I-joist floor system, engineered wood beams, structural steel girders, and a concrete foundation.
\nThe OSB roof sheathing, as illustrated in Figure 3, serves to transfer gravity load (i.e., dead, live, and snow loads) and wind suction to roof framing members. The roof sheathing also transfers the lateral wind loading through diaphragm action to the structure. Attachment requirements of the sheathing to roof trusses are governed by the greater of the wind uplift force or the shear transfer requirement of the connection.
\nRoof sheathing illustration.
According to IRC Table R503.2.1.1(1), 11.1 mm (7/16 inch) roof sheathing (24/16 span rating) is acceptable for this example. The sheathing can be used with or without edge support at 609.6 mm (24 inch) spans with an allowable live load of 1.92 kN/m2 (40 lbf/ft2), and a total allowable load of 2.39 kN/m2 (50 lbf/ft2), which is less than the 1.44 kN/m2 (30 lbf/ft2) snow loading plus 0.57 kN/m2 (12 lbf/ft2) roof dead load. It may be possible to use 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) sheathing, but 11.1 mm (7/16 inch) thickness is more readily available and common in the locale. In this example, the sheathing will be specified with panel edge clip support. According to IRC Table R602.3(1), the sheathing is required to be attached to the truss framing with 63.5 mm (2½ inch) 8D common nails spaced at 152.4 mm (6 inch) on center (O.C.) around the edges of the panel and 304.8 mm (12 inch) O.C. at intermediate supports (field). Note that the gable end sheathing connections must be spaced at 152.4 mm (6 inch) O.C. at both the perimeter and intermediate locations.
\nPrefabricated trusses are intended to be used on this residence and required engineering design by the manufacturer. Wood roof trusses must be designed in accordance with IRC Section R802.10. A designer or architect will typically draw the shape of the roof system, and then the truss designer will design the truss system to fit the concept. Typically, it is the responsibility of the home designer to ensure that the gravity and lateral loads from the trusses are properly transferred to the wall below. This involves specifying the connection to wall system below. When the truss drawings are received by the home designer, the loads to the structure, based on the analysis conducted by the truss designer, are typically listed on the engineered truss plans. The designer would use these loads for design. For the example case presented here, however, a set of detailed truss drawings are not available. The assumed loadings described earlier will be used for design. This is typical of an initial home design. A designer will use their assumptions and then verify such assumptions when the final truss plans are received.
\nThe gravity load-bearing elements of the wall system presented here are the 2 × 6 dimensional lumber studs and the top and bottom plates (or sole plate). See Figure 2 for the location of the top and bottom plates. The 2 × 6 designation refers to a wood framing member with a nominal 50.8 mm (2 inch) width and a 152.4 mm (6 inch) depth. The actual measurements of the member are approximately 38.1 mm (1½ inch) wide and 139.7 mm (5½ inch) deep. The top and bottom plates serve to transfer both gravity and lateral loads between floors. The top plate serves three purposes: (1) a chord for the MWFRS, (2) a strut between shear panels in a wall line, and (3) a means to transfer gravity loads to the stud from the joists and trusses.
\nAccording to IRC Table 602.3(5), 2 × 6 studs can be used at 609.6 mm (24 inch) O.C.; however, it is more typical for the studs to be spaced at 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C. The advantage of this is that when using a double 2 × 6 top plate, the joists or trusses that bear on the wall do not have to bear directly on the stud. If using a single top plate or studs spaced at 609.6 mm (24 inch) O.C., then the joists or trusses must either be directly above the stud or within 25.4 mm (1 inch) of the stud according to IRC Section R602.3.2. It is possible to use 2 × 4 studs spaced at 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C., but this is not common because of the popularity of using fiberglass batts to meet the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) [7] envelope insulation requirements. The connections between the studs and the plates are according to IRC Table 603.2(1). The connections are typically nails, and the nail sizes vary between 8D and 16D based on the detail.
\nStructural header members are used to create openings in a load-bearing wall assembly for fenestration (windows and doors) as shown in Figure 2. Dimensional lumber headers are preferred by designers when loading is low. Often times when point loading is present on a header or spans are large, an engineered lumber header, such as an LVL, may become cost-effective. An example of a typical LVL is shown in Figure 4. LVLs are also often used in wall systems when smaller depth members are required due to space constraints.
\nTypical I-joist and LVL (courtesy Timber Rock Homes).
When specifying headers, the designer may choose to specify larger headers in some locations for consistency sake. By minimizing the amount of different beam sizes on the plan, the designer reduces the risk of misplacement of headers. As in the case of the roof sheathing, it may also turn out that some beam sizes may be more readily available, and therefore larger sections may be more economical. For example, a two-ply 2 × 8 beam, with a demand capacity ratio of 0.944 controlled by bearing, is adequate for BM3, but because the entire back wall on the first floor is composed of two-ply 2 × 10 headers and all the other headers in the building are 2 × 6’s, it makes sense just to specify a two-ply 2 × 10 beam for this location as well. This eliminates the need to have another beam size on site and provides for the opportunity to use trim pieces from a different header cut to make up this short beam.
\nIn this home design, an engineered floor system will be used. As shown in Figure 4, I-joists have become popular and cost-effective in the residential home construction market. I-joists have several advantages over dimensional lumber joists, one of which is a greater span-to-depth ratio. This allows for shallower floor assemblies, longer spans, and higher ceilings. I-joists are generally more stable than dimensional lumber. This almost eliminates the need for bridging in a floor system and ensures consistency of engineering properties.
\nAn I-joist floor system is an engineered product. Typically, a designer will send their floor plan along with preliminary input from the designer to the I-joist manufacturer. The manufacturer will then design the floor system according to the requests of the homeowner and designer. Live load deflections are often limited to L/480 (beam span/480). Because longer spans can be achieved by using an I-joist product, the chances of floor vibration occurring increase, but can be controlled, as designers will often restrict deflection to L/480.
\nIt is common for designers to use span tables to select an initial floor joist size. This will provide a fairly accurate estimate and allow the designer to select a floor assembly depth. The improved stability and increased stiffness of I-joists allow designers to consider larger spacing for the floor joists. It is common to specify I-joists at 487.7 mm (19.2 inch) O.C., whereas it was generally common in the past to specify dimensional lumber joists at 406.4 mm (16 inch). Additionally, lumber joists are only available in certain lengths. This made the need for a splice at an internal bearing wall or beam a very common occurrence. The length of I-joists is generally only limited by transportation and site restrictions. An I-joist package will typically arrive at the site precut and ready to be installed with minimal modification.
\nAs in the case of roof sheathing, floor sheathing serves two purposes. First, it acts in the gravity system to distribute floor loads to the joists. Secondly, it is the primary shear resisting component in the floor diaphragm, which will be discussed subsequently. Typically, the gravity loads govern the thickness choice of subflooring, and the shear requirements dictate connection to joists [8].
\nOnce again IRC Table R503.2.1.1(1) will be used to size the sheathing. In this case, the sheathing will serve as both the underlayment and the subflooring. From the table, either 18.3 mm (23/32 inch) or 19.1 mm (3/4 inch) tongue and groove oriented strand board (OSB) sheathing would be appropriate, whichever is more cost-effective and readily available. It is possible that 15.1 mm (19/32 inch) or 15.9 mm (5/8 inch) sheathing could be used, but spans are restricted to 508 mm (20 inch). Although the joists will be specified at 487.7 mm (19.2 inch), which is less than the limit, it is likely that at least a few joists within the floor system will need to be spaced greater than 508 mm (20 inch). An example is when joist bays are used for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) ductwork, the joists are often spread in those locations to 609.6 mm (24 inch). In this instance, the thinner sheathing would be inadequate. IRC Table 602.3(1) specifies attachment of the sheathing to joists with a 50.8 mm (2 inch) 6D deformed nail or a 63.5 mm (2½ inch) 8D common nails spaced at 152.4 mm (6 inch) O.C. around sheathing edges and 304.8 mm (12 inch) O.C. for intermediate field spacing.
\nJoists for this project are selected from the Trus Joist #TJ4000 specifier’s guide [9]. From the span tables within the guide, TJI110 301.6 mm (11 7/8 inch) joists are adequate for both the first and second floors of this residence. The maximum span in the home is approximately 4.70 m (15 foot–5 inch). The TJI110 301.6 mm (11 7/8 inch) joist can span a maximum of 4.90 m (16 foot–1 inch) considering L/480 deflection limit, 1.92 kN/m2 (40 lbf/ft2) live load, and a 0.96 kN/m2 (20 lbf/ft2) dead load. The TJI 28.6 mm (1 1/8 inch) engineered rim board will be used for the perimeter of the floor system. The rim board serves to transfer compressive and shear loads from the exterior walls above to foundation below. It also acts to enclose the perimeter of the floor system. Typically, joists are toenailed to sill plates at ends and nailing plates at intermediate points. Metal hardware such as that made by USP [10] or Simpson Strong Tie [11] is used to make any flush beam-to-beam or joist-to-beam connections within the floor system. An example would be the stair trimmer detail shown in Figure 5.
\nStair trimmer detail.
A double joist or LVL product can be used to function as stair trimmers in an engineered floor system. When loads are low, double joists are economical, but as loading and span increase, an LVL is sometimes needed. LVLs are sometimes used because the installation is cleaner looking and easier to finish than double joists. Double joists often require padding at connections and sometimes bearing, which is usually OSB, to compensate for the space between the web and flanges. LVLs are conveniently made in the same depths as I-joists, which makes it easy to use within the floor systems.
\nA benefit of using I-joists over dimensional lumber is that it is easier to put holes through the joists for mechanical runs. Most I-joist manufacturers will have predetermined locations or precut holes in the joists where mechanical penetrations are anticipated. Some guidance is typically specified in the manufacturer literature. Holes in dimensional lumber typically require structural analysis and stress evaluation as they become large relative to the depth of the joist or beam.
\nFor this example home design, a central steel girder will be used to collect the floor loads and transfer to pad footings in the center of the basement. It is common for designers to use either steel girders or manufactured lumber girders in homes today. These types of girders are much stronger than dimensional lumber beams and are necessary in many instances because of the longer allowable engineered I-joist spans and homeowner request for open basement floor plans. Both manufactured lumber girders and steel girders must be either specified or the design reviewed by a professional engineer.
\nSteel girders are often chosen over manufactured lumber girders when girder spans are long, head room in the basement is a premium, or steel is readily available. For this particular builder, the head room in the basement is important because they like to advertise their homes with basements that can be finished in the future. A W8x18 girder works well for them because it’s a shallow beam and the flange width is small enough that the beam can fit in a 2 × 6 wall making the girder unnoticeable if the basement is ever finished.
\nA W8x18 steel girder, with a design moment capacity of 86.5 kN-m (63.8 kip-ft), is more than adequate to resist the internal moment of 31.5 kN-m (23.2 kip-ft) for the controlling load case. It is possible that a smaller girder could have been used, but W8x18 is the minimum size the builder will use. Small sizes tend to have stability issues and can be susceptible to local buckling problems caused by larger point loads. In addition, this is a readily available steel section from the builder’s steel supplier.
\nThe design of residential girders involves assumptions regarding the bracing of the beam. The American Institute of Steel Construction (
Steel girders in most residential cases are usually ordered in a single length if possible to avoid splices and therefore are continuous over their intermediate supports. Negative moment occurs at the intermediate supports, which puts the bottom flanges in compression in those regions.
\nIf it is assumed that the columns do not provide adequate bottom flange support, then these negative moment regions would be destabilizing, and since inflection points are not typically recognized as a brace point (SCM Appendix 6.3), the unbraced length would have to be taken as the entire beam length of 11.0 m (36 feet), which would require a very large section. Additionally, if no compression flange bracing is assumed at the supports, then the beam fails the concentrated load check in SCM J10.4 for web sidesway buckling. Section J10.4 requires the supports to be adequately braced under these circumstances.
\nIf it is assumed that the column is braced against rotation at the supports by either assuming the column connection is adequate or providing additional bottom flange support, then the unbraced length reduces to the distance between the columns, which in this case is 9′-0″ and the beam passes both strength and concentrated load checks.
\nAlso restraint against rotation should be provided at the ends of the beams, which are seated in the beam pockets. Typically, beam pockets in the concrete wall are oversized to facilitate easy installation of the beams. This creates the opportunity for twisting. SCM Section J10.7 requires all unframed girder ends to have a pair of transverse stiffeners if unrestrained. In this case, a better idea would be to grout the pocket as shown in Figure 6, or provide some type of shim, after installation to restrain the end against rotation. It should be noted that the required moisture management and thermal envelope components are not shown for clarity in the figure.
\nSteel girder beam pocket detailing.
Another consideration for girder sizing is live load pattern loading. Since the girder is a continuous beam having multiple spans, ASCE 7 Section 4.3.3 requires the consideration of pattern loading. In this case, it turns out that applying live loading to spans 1, 2, and 4 only produced the largest internal moment of 31.5 kN-m (23.3 kip-ft) in the beam. Figure 7 shows the moment diagram for the controlling load combination and the spans that were loaded to produce it.
\nMoment diagram showing maximum internal moment over support 2.
Pattern loads are considered in the structural analysis software package Enercalc that was used for beam design. Enercalc runs all permutations of live load application and reports the worst-case scenario in envelope format. Data for individual permutations is not able to be extracted. For this example, a separate check was made using Computers and Structures, Inc. (CSI) SAP2000 finite element modeling software to verify the results of Enercalc and determine the controlling permutation. Results were within 1% of each other between the two analysis packages.
\nPattern loading was significant in this example. If only the full intensity live load application was to be considered, then the design moment would have been underestimated by approximately 5%, and the support reactions would have been underestimated by approximately 5% at supports 2, 4, and 12% at support 3. If ignored, this could have led to the undersizing of both adjustable column and pad footing.
\nAdjustable columns are generally used in residential construction as intermediate supports for basement girders. Adjustable columns are readily available at almost any hardware stores and can be adjusted in height to match site conditions by the contractor. Figure 8 shows an example of typical adjustable columns. The maximum loading, as reported by the manufacturer, is a factored allowable ASD load capacity (Ra). Reactions determined by ASD load combination can be used to directly size the column from the manufacturers testing data. For this particular home design case, the maximum ASD girder reaction is 80.5 kN (18.1 kip). According to the manufacturers data, an 88.9-mm (3½ inch) and 2.31-mm-thick (11 gauge) column with a height between 2.21 m (7 foot–3 inch) and 2.31 m (7 foot–7 inch) has an allowable load of 95.6 kN (21.5 kip), which is greater than the maximum column axial demand of 80.5 kN (18.1 kip). All three columns will be specified for this maximum loading. This will decrease the chances of misplacing columns.
\nTypical adjustable column.
A combination of components are used to transfer load from the above-grade portion of the home to the ground. In this home, concrete walls supported by concrete strip footings are used to support the exterior walls and resist lateral earth pressure. Interior loads are transferred by the intermediate girder through columns to concrete pad footings. It is common practice in residential design to specify the foundation walls prescriptively but design the footings. This is the approach that is taken for this study. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) 332-08 [13] and ACI 318-14 [14] are used as references for this design. These documents are adopted by the 2015 IRC and often lead to more economical designs when compared to the requirements of the IRC.
\nBased on soil categorization, the ACI provides prescriptive foundation sizing tables in Appendix A of ACI 332, which are usually appropriate for most situations. For most residential designs, geotechnical exploration and lab testing are cost prohibitive, and therefore soil pressures must be assumed. ASCE 7 provides design lateral soil load that can be used in the absence of site-specific geotechnical information.
\nFor this design, the equivalent soil pressure will be estimated at 2.15 kn/m2 per linear meter (45 lbf/ft2 per linear foot). According to ASCE 7 Table 3.2.1, this is representative of a type GC soil (unified soil classification), which is described as a clayey gravel, poorly graded, gravel, and sand mix. Assuming horizontal backfill and a vertical foundation wall, this is roughly equivalent to 19.6 kN/m3 (125 lbf/ft3) soil with an internal friction angle of 28 degrees [15].
\nAccording to ACI 332 Table 9, 21 MPa (3000 psi) is the minimum required compressive strength for foundation walls in the severe weather probability category. Because the concrete will be exposed to weathering, it must be air entrained, having an air content of 6% plus or minus 1.5%.
\nWalls | \nLength required | \nLength provided | \nMethod | \n
---|---|---|---|
First floor | \n|||
N | \n4.24 (167) | \n8.23 (324) | \nCS-WSP | \n
S | \n3.40 (134) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
E | \n3.20 (126) | \n3.66 (144)a | \nWSP | \n
W | \n3.20 (126) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
Second floor | \n|||
N | \n1.83 (72) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
S | \n1.83 (72) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
E | \n1.52 (60) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
W | \n1.52 (60) | \n3.66 (144) | \nWSP | \n
Garageb | \n\n | \n | \n |
N | \n1.27 (50) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
E | \n1.32 (52) | \n1.37 (54) | \nWSP | \n
W | \n1.32 (52) | \n2.44 (96) | \nWSP | \n
Wall bracing. Values in meters (inches).
For WSP methods panel lengths between 0.914 and 1.22 m (36 and 48 inches) are allowed but must be adjusted per IRC Table 602.10.3.
The required bracing for the garage/main house common wall will be added directly to the first floor north wall.
The concrete foundation wall for the main structure in this example has an unsupported height of 2.44 m (8 foot) and will be subjected to approximately 2.13 m (7 foot) of unsupported backfill when in service (Figure 9a). For this situation, considering reinforcing bars with a yield strength of 420 MPa (60,000 psi), ACI 332 Table A.4 allows for the use of a plain concrete (no vertical reinforcing needed) 203.2 mm (8-inch)-thick foundation wall. To minimize shrinkage cracking, however, ACI 332 requires the use of three continuous horizontal bars in the wall. One must be placed within 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the top, one within 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the bottom, and the last one in between the other two. ACI 332 also prescribes 12.7 mm diameter (½ inch) dowel rods at a maximum of 609.6 mm (24 inch) O.C. or a keyway to be provided in this instance since unbalanced backfill height exceeds 1.22 m (4 foot).
\n(a) Typical basement wall and (b) typical garage frost wall.
The garage wall foundation walls are all 0.91 m (3 feet) in height and have no unbalanced backfill. According to ACI 332, 203.2 mm (8 inch) plain concrete walls are adequate. No vertical reinforcing is necessary, but horizontal reinforcing is still required (Figure 9b). The wall height is less than 1.83 m (6 feet), which requires only two 12.7 mm diameter (½ inch) reinforcing bars, one within the top 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the wall height and the other within the bottom 609.6 mm (24 inch) of the wall height. Because the unbalanced backfill is less than 1.22 m (4 feet), Section 6.3.4 allows for the use of a clean construction joint versus dowel rods.
\nContinuous strip footings will be used to support the exterior foundation walls. The wall footings will be designed (as opposed to prescriptive). No soil testing data is available, so the IRC minimum of 71.8 kN/m2 (1500 lbf/ft2) prescribed in Table R401.4.1 will be used for design. The assumption will be made that the footings are not exposed to weathering; therefore, ACI 332 prescribes 17 MPa (2500 psi) minimum compressive strength for the concrete.
\nFor this example, it will be assumed that the load from the exterior wall will act concentrically on the footing. In other words, the footings will be designed for uniform pressure only, and no imbalanced soil pressure due to the presence of a moment will be considered. This is a reasonable assumption because basement walls are typically restrained from translation at the top and bottom by the first floor assembly and the basement slab, respectively. The presence of this restraint allows walls to be designed as a vertical beam with pinned ends (no moment transfer). In addition, the opposing soil exterior lateral loading tends to offset the small amounts of eccentricity created by above-grade wall offsets, so in practice the effects of above-grade wall offsets are generally ignored for wall footing design. Figure 10 shows an illustration of the analytical model for a typical residential basement wall.
\nFree body diagram of a basement wall. Note: the arrows show loads, and small rectangle with x inside indicates the cross section of wood member.
Residential wall footings are typically specified in depths of 152.4 mm (6 inch), 203.2 mm (8 inch), or 254 mm (10 inch), and widths are generally varied in 50.8 mm (2 inch), 76.2 mm (3 inch), or 152.4 mm (6 inch) increments. Both the IRC and ACI 332 allow for the use of 152.4 mm (6-inch)-thick footings (assuming adequate strength), but the developer in this case prefers to use 203.2 mm (8-inch)-thick footings. This allows for some additional safety precaution when plain concrete footings are used. When specifying footing widths, this particular developer prefers to use even dimensions in 50.8 mm (2 inch) increments.
\nIn this example, the wall footing design is split into three segments, the main load-bearing walls of the east and west (perpendicular to joist and truss spans), the gable end walls, and the garage walls. Wall footings were designed as plain concrete strip footings according to the requirements of ACI 318, considering the increased modulus of rupture allowed by ACI 332 Chapter 7. Soil bearing pressure controlled all designs. With a soil bearing pressure of approximately 67 kN/m2 (1400 lbf/ft2), the bearing walls required 203.2 × 457.2 mm (8 inch by 18 inch) footings. The gable end wall footings and garage footing were able to be reduced to 203.2 × 406.4 mm (8 inch by 16 inch). The wall region beneath the supporting columns for the garage door header controlled the design. Considering ASD load combination 4 and a point load distribution angle of 45 degrees within the concrete wall, the soil pressure beneath the column would be approximately 67 kN/m2 (1400 lbf/ft2) as well.
\nThe footings were designed as plain concrete footings. Plain concrete footings are the most economical because of the absence of the steel reinforcing cost. Some developers are comfortable relying on the unreinforced concrete footing to maintain its integrity over the service life of the building, but some prefer to add light reinforcing to help prevent cracking due to unexpected soil discontinuities. ACI 332 Section 6.2.4.1 prescribes the use of two 12.7 mm diameter (½ inch) bars for locations with discontinuities less than 914.4 mm (36 inch) in length.
\nIsolated pad footings are typically used to transfer vertical gravity load from interior columns in the basement. In this case, there are three pad footings required to support the interior central steel girder. Interior pad footings are not subjected to weathering, so 17 MPa (2500 psi) concrete compressive strength is adequate. The default value of 71.8 kN/m2 (1500 lbf/ft2) is used for the soil bearing capacity, as in the strip footing design.
\nReinforced square concrete footings were selected as appropriate for this application. Plain concrete pad footings are sometimes adequate for smaller footings with plan dimension of 609.6 mm (24 inch) or 762 mm (30 inch) square but typically require reinforcement as the plan dimensions of the footing increases. In this case, three 1219.2 mm (4 foot) square footings using four 15.9 mm (5/8 inch) diameter bars in each directions were required. Considering LRFD combination 2, two-way shear (punching shear) with a demand/capacity ratio of 1.30 was the controlling failure mechanism for the concrete footing and required an increase in footing depth from 203.2 mm (8 inch) to 254 mm (10 inch). This reduced the demand/capacity ratio to the acceptable level of 0.698.
\nThe typical residential MWFRS system is composed of a system of flexible diaphragms and shear walls. As shown in Figure 11a, wind load is transferred from exterior walls perpendicular to the wind direction to structural wood panels, typically OSB or plywood, attached to roof or floor framing. The flexible roof or floor diaphragms, as shown in Figure 11b, act similar to a deep beam and distribute the wind load as reactions to the exterior walls parallel to the wind loading (Figure 11c) and distribute to the stiff structural shear panels within those walls by direct diaphragm connection or strutting.
\n(a) Wind pressure distributed through external walls to flexible diaphragm. (b) Flexible diaphragm distributes load to parallel walls. (c) An example of a segmental shear wall load distribution approach. (d) Shear wall segment resolution of overturning forces. Note: in this figure, the following notation is used: V for shear force, T for tension force, C for compression force, l and L for Span length, h and H for height, σ for wind pressure, ω for wind load per unit length, and Vw for shear per unit length.
The structural wall panels, as shown in Figure 11d, provide the necessary shear resistance and transmit the loads vertically (overturning tension and compression loads at the corners of each structural panel) to the foundation though a system of hold-downs and connections.
\nTypically, the panels are specified by design aids such as the IRC or the Wood Frame Construction Manual (WFCM). When using the IRC approach, the prescribed nailed connections are assumed to be adequate to transfer the overturning shear forces shown in Figure 11 to the foundation. If an engineered design or the WFCM prescriptive approach is used to specify shear wall panels, then structural connectors must be specified to transfer these overturning forces. The connection system must have an identifiable load path to the foundation. For this reason, most residential designers use the IRC to specify shear panels and their fastening system. When using a wood truss system as part of the roof diaphragm, such as the one in this home design example, structural connectors are typically specified to transfer the horizontal shear loads and uplift loads resulting from the roof wind loading.
\nThe loads from the shear wall panels and floor diaphragm are transferred to the sole plate by nailed connections and sometimes structural connectors if necessary. The sole plate is attached to the foundation wall with cast-in-place anchors such as J-bolts or post-installed anchorage that must be drilled after the concrete has had time to cure, such as expansion anchors, epoxy anchorage, or screw type. With a prescriptive approach, the prescribed anchor bolts are assumed to adequately transfer both the overturning actions and horizontal actions generated by the wind.
\nIt’s generally good practice to review the whole structure for stability under wind loading and then design the individual components of the lateral force resisting system as required. An overturning and sliding analysis is conducted to determine the required strength of the connections between main assemblies such as the roof-to-wall connections, floor-to-wall connections, and the above-grade building-to-foundation connections.
\nMany times, homes have attached garages where the garage is not integral to the main living space, such as the one in this example. The garage and the main building can be somewhat treated as separate buildings for the purposes of MWFRS design. The garage can sometimes help resist main building wind loading as long as the wall offsets are not too large; otherwise they must be treated completely separately as far as wall bracing goes. In the east-west direction, the common north wall between the garage and the main structure is generally treated as an exterior wall, and bracing will be prescriptively specified as such, which will act to transfer load from both the garage and the main building.
\nASCE 7 Figure 28.6.1 cases A and B were used to determine the magnitude of wind forces applied to the building. The magnitudes of the loads were reported previously in Tables 6 and 7. The load effects created by the external wind forces were used to specify the hold-downs and shear connectors necessary to maintain continuity of MWFRS load path. The garage was not analyzed, but the procedure would be the same. To simplify the analysis, the end zone loads for case A were applied on both ends to simplify the analysis. To maintain a uniform balanced load in case B (wind applied to the gable end), a weighted average of 0.69 kN/m2 (14.4 lbf/ft2) was taken for zones A and C and applied horizontally. An average of zones E and F that was calculated to be −0.95 kN/m2 (−19.8 lbf/ft2) was applied vertically to the windward side of the roof, and an average of zones G and H that was calculated to be 0.61 kN/m2 (12.7 lbf/ft2) was applied vertically on the leeward side of the roof.
\nAnalysis showed that structural connectors were needed for the roof, but not for the floor-to-floor connections and the foundation connection. Connectors for the truss ends must be able to simultaneously transfer uplift and north-south shear loading as well as shear loading alone in the east-west direction. Simpson Strong Tie (SST) H2.5A hurricane connectors were considered for the truss end-to-top plate connection. This connection resists both shear and uplift. The H2.5A has a shear capacity of 0.58 kN (130 lbf) and uplift capacity of 1.62 kN (365 lbf). The truss end loads are, respectively, 0.18 kN (40 lbf) and 0.27 kN (60 lbf). Applying a unity equation, the demand/capacity ratio is 0.18 kN/0.58 kN + 0.27 kN/1.62 kN = 0.477 < 1.0; therefore, the connector is adequate. An example of a typical truss connector is shown in Figure 12. SST A21 angles were considered for the gable end truss-to-top plate connection. This connection is subject to a total shear load of 10.7 kN (2400 lbf) when the wind is applied perpendicular to the gable end. SST A21 has a design capacity of 1.09 kN (245 lbf) per connector; therefore, the required number of connectors will be 10.7 kN/1.09 kN, which gives approximately 10 connectors.
\nTypical truss-to-top plate structural connector.
The structure was checked for overturning at the second floor and at the first floor. The weight of the structure was adequate to resist the overturning moment in both locations. Sliding was only checked on the roof to specify the structural connectors. Sliding on the second floor is resisted by the nailed connection between the bottom plate and the floor assembly. Typically, there are sufficient nails engaged to resist the shear force. As for the building-to-foundation connection, there is no reason to expect an extraordinary loading at this junction, so anchor bolts are specified according to IRC Chapter R403.1.6. The I-joist to soleplate toenail connection was not checked in this analysis but should be checked in an actual design.
\nWall bracing for residential construction typically involves designating sections along the exterior wall length as shear panels. Structural wood panels are used on the exterior side of the wood framing, and gypsum wallboard on the interior provides the shear resistance and load transfer capability. Plywood or OSB is typically used for the wood structural panels. IRC Table 602.3(3) prescribes a 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) minimum structural panel thickness for 406.4 mm (16 inch) O.C. stud spacing; however, the builder prefers a 11.1 mm (7/16-inch)-thick OSB panel, which is required to be fastened to framing using 8D common nails at 152.4 (6 inch) O.C. around the perimeter and 304.8 mm (12 inch) O.C. in the field.
\nIRC Section R602.10 will be used to specify shear panel length and location along the wall line. Section R602.10 has provisions for various wall bracing methods. The bracing in this home will follow the requirements for the intermittent wood structural panel (WSP) method or one of the continuous sheathing methods. Because this home is categorized in seismic design category A, Section 602.10.1 allows for different methods to be used along different wall lines. Different intermittent methods could even be used along the same wall line in this category, but if using any of the continuous sheathing methods, the whole wall line must be continuously sheathed.
\nFor the design of this home, it was more economical to use the WSP method for the majority of the shear panels. Section R602.10 requires 609.6 mm (24 inch) corner returns or braced panels at the end of each wall. At least one of the corners does not meet this criterion. When this occurs and the designer is using the continuously sheathed wood structural panel (CS-WSP) method, Section 602.10.4.4 requires the use of 3.56 kN (800 lbf) hold-down devices in lieu of a 2 foot corner return. This is often costlier than the extra amount of sheathing required for the WSP method. Another issue to consider when specifying wall bracing is the stud spacing. In this home, the studs are spaced at 406.4 mm (16 inch O.C.); therefore, it is prudent to specify shear panels 406.4 mm (16 inch) increments, even though the requirements may be less. The location of the shear panels is specified in the drawing set located in Appendix A.
\nThe floor assembly is treated as a flexible diaphragm when transferring lateral loading. Wind is transferred from a tributary area of the exterior wall to the rim board of the floor assembly and then into the structural sheathing. The floor sheathing then transfers that load to the exterior shear walls (structural panels within the wall system) parallel to the wind direction below the floor assembly. The diaphragm is treated like a deep beam for the purposes of analysis. The reactions are the connections with wall below. The floor assembly deflects, which causes tension and compression forces called chord forces in the walls below, which are perpendicular to the wind loading. The sheathing layout and the attachment of the sheathing to the I-joists have the greatest effect on the strength of the diaphragm. In this case, the floor sheathing and the required nailing were specified from the IRC in the floor assembly section of this report.
\nMost connections in wood-framed homes are made up of nailed connections. The majority of the connections in a typical home can be found in IRC Table R602.3. The items specified from the IRC in this wood-framed section are based on compliance with this table. In this study, only a few of the typical critical connections for the structural system were specified.
\nThis chapter presented a complete design of a typical US single-family home made of conventional wood-frame system. Initially, the applicable building and material codes were introduced and relevant provisions discussed. A typical home plan by a PA builder was discussed and explained for detailed design. The process of load selection and load path and load combination was discussed. Then based on application of the resultant loads on typical structural elements, detailed designs for roof sheathing, roof trusses, exterior walls, main wind force resisting system, floor system, girders, columns, and foundation walls and footings were presented and discussed. Where appropriate, tips and guidelines for typical design were offered so that the procedure presented can be followed by designers as appropriate. While other structural systems are becoming increasingly available, the wood-frame system is still the dominating system as in the USA lumber is readily available at highly competitive process. This makes structural systems other than conventional wood-frame less competitive, unless there are special conditions where cost may not be the main determining factor.
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Expeditious expansion and industrial development near the rivers have led to more stress on the river, and with increased stress, the water becomes polluted, and worsening environmental health is observed [1]. The water-soil interface and the water-atmosphere interface are the medium through which the heavy metals travel [2, 3]. Both anthropogenic activities and geochemical processes are responsible for heavy metal contamination in ecosystems [4]. Elements that have high density and are less noxious are known as heavy metals. Examples of heavy metals are lead, iron, mercury, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, copper, and chromium and the actual volume of these heavy metals is more than 6 g/m3 [5]. Heavy metals have the property of environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, and these heavy metals enter the aquatic system through various routes. These heavy metals not only impair the quality of the aquatic ecosystem but also human health [6, 7]. These heavy metals can be found on the layer of earth in their regular form. These heavy metals are so dangerous that they cannot be degraded or decomposed and they have the arability to bioaccumulate [8]. These heavy metals once get into the ecosystem through the air, via drinkable water, or multiple chemicals and products that are manmade. The route of administration of these heavy metals is via inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption. These heavy metals get into the biosphere via human activities, which include industrial production, mining, agriculture, and transportation [9]. Some methods are fossil fuel burning, smelting of different, waste from the municipality, fertilizers, pesticides, and sewage these all are considered to be the primary sources of metal pollution [10, 11, 12, 13]. The toxicity of these heavy metals in the human body reduces energy levels; disrupts brain functioning; disturbs the functioning of various other organs such as the brain, lungs, liver, and kidney; and also hinders blood composition. If the contact with heavy metals continues, then it can hinder the physical, neurological, and muscular functioning. And due to these diseases like multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and muscular dystrophy, and Alzheimer’s disease. Chronic exposure to some of the heavy metals and their compounds may even cause cancer [14]. Pollution of these heavy metals into the river may cause distressing effects on the ecological balance of the aquatic environment, and with the extent of contamination, the diversity of aquatic organisms becomes limited [15]. The fish in the aquatic ecosystem can be used for examining the well-being of biota. Due to pollutants in the food chain of organisms, harmful effects can be seen and the aquaculture can become dead [16]. These heavy metals are neurotoxins for the fish living in the aquatic environment. When these heavy metals enter the fish body, they interact with them to generate biochemical reaction inside the fish, which makes it difficult for fish to communicate with their surroundings [17]. The presence of these heavy metals leads to diseases like Minamata, which is organic mercury poisoning. When these heavy metals get bioaccumulated, they become a threat to both the human population and animals who uses that water [18]. Modeling of risk assessment is divided into four stages, i.e., exposure assessment, toxicity (dose-response) assessment, hazard identification, and risk characterization. There are three pathways through which humans get exposed to traced metals, which include directly ingesting, inhaling through the mouth or nose, and via skin absorption when it gets exposed. From the water, the heavy metals usually enter through ingestion and dermal absorption. To assess exposure, the average daily dose is measured for pollutants through different identified paths. In a dose-response assessment for no carcinogens, reference doses (RfD) are calculated, and for carcinogens, slope factors (SF) are obtained by the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database. With the help of the facts which are discussed above, there was a study done with an aim to evaluate the water quality of the Subarnarekha River relating to metals, their temporal classification, source of identification, and assessment of human health risk when that water was ingested or the contaminate when absorbed through the skin. Through this, it is possible to know the contamination level and accordingly, the strategies were planned (Table 1) [19, 20].
Heavy metal ions | WHO’s permissible limit (mg L−1) |
---|---|
Se | 0.02 |
Hg | 0.001 |
Mn | 0.02 |
Ag | 0.1 |
Cd | 0.05 |
Cr | 0.003 |
Pb | 0.01 |
Zn | 3.00 |
Fe | 0.30 |
Cu | 0.02 |
As | 0.01 |
Permissible limit of heavy metal ions in water [21].
The presence of these heavy metals on the surface of the water can be due to natural or anthropogenic activities. In natural activities, weathering of rocks that contain metals, an eruption from volcanos, fires in the forest, and naturally occurring processes of weathering can be included. From these activities, metal enters the different sections of the environment. Heavy metals can be found in the forms of sulfates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and silicates [12, 22]. A huge amount of accumulation of heavy metals into the water is mainly due to anthropogenic and natural activities. Some more examples of natural source through which heavy metals contaminates water are, wet and dry deposition of atmospheric salts, water-rock interaction, or water interaction with the soil. While the sudden increase in urbanization and industrialization are an example of anthropogenic sources through which water get contaminated (Table 2; Figure 1) [23].
Heavy metal ion | Common sources |
---|---|
Copper (Cu) | Fertilizers, tanning, and photovoltaic cells |
Zinc (Zn) | Soldering, cosmetics, and pigments |
Silver (Ag) | Refining of copper, gold, nickel, zinc, jewelry, and electroplating industries |
Chromium (Cr) | Leather industry, tanning, and chrome plating industries |
Arsenic (As) | Wooden electricity poles that are treated with arsenic-based preservatives, pesticides, fertilizers, the release of untreated effluents, oxidation of pyrite (FeS) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS) |
Mercury (Hg) | Combustion of coal, municipal solid waste incineration, and volcanic emissions |
Cadmium (Cd) | Paints, pigments, electroplated parts, batteries, plastics, synthetic rubber, photographic and engraving process, photoconductors, and photovoltaic cells |
Lead (Pb) | PVC pipes in sanitation, agriculture, recycled PVC lead paints, jewelry, lead batteries, lunch boxes, etc. |
Major sources of some heavy metal ions in water [24].
Contamination of water through different sources.
Trace metals are found in excess levels in the environment, they are formed by geographical processes such as volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, and leaching into rivers, lakes, and oceans due to the action of water [25]. The presence of heavy metals in water depends on the local geology, hydrogeology, and geochemical characteristics of the aquifer [26]. One of the main sources of pollution is weathering. The weathering of the sedimentary rocks such as limestone or dolomite or shale makes the water contaminated or polluted. When there is an interaction of water with rock element, it also leads addition of these elements into the water; thus, contamination occurs. Examples of such elements are granite, syenite, basalt, gabbro, nepheline, and andesite. Due to the particular ore or the minerals, the element level increases. Elements examples are magnetite, hematite, goethite, siderite, calcite, cuprite, malachite, azurite, chromite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, arsenic trioxide, orpiment, arsenopyrite, calamine, smithsonite, pyrolusite, and rhodochrosite [27, 28, 29, 30]. The sulfide deposition also increases as it is associated with the mineralization of the gold and hydrous iron oxide ores [31].
Anthropogenic events, in which human settlement replaced the natural forest and agricultural activities have increased the environmental impacts. Such activities have contaminated the aquatic ecosystems, which include spring waters from the river like the Amala and Nyangores, tributaries of Mara River, Indonesia in Mau Complex. The maximum of forest land is converted into human settlement and agriculture. People who live near the Mara River Basin use that spring water for the purpose of animal and agricultural purposes [21]. The water carrying capacity has decreased with the rapid increase in industrialization and urbanization. Hg concentration in water has increased with agriculture activities and human activities. Activities like domestic sewage into the water, solid waste burning, coal and oil combustions, and pyrometallurgical processes and mining are the main reason for this. Water, by either snow or rain, brings the contaminated soil with Hg into the adjacent water areas [32, 33]. The source of Ni is the corroded metal pipes and containers [34]. The major source of lead in water majorly comes from additives of paints and petrol and aerosol precipitation, which is formed due to the high temperature used in industrial processes for the purpose of coal combustion, smelting, and cement production [35], and chloralkali, batteries, fluorescent lamps, thermometers, and electronic switches production. Chemical industries are some industrial activities through which Hg pollutes the water system and these activities are the largest contributor to Hg contamination in the environment [36].
Huge amount of untreated sewage from domestic is thrown into the river. This untreated waste from domestic has the presence of toxins. These toxins are due to the presence of solid waste or from the litter of plastic, or the contamination of bacteria due to the presence of these the water can get polluted. Domestic untreated water is thrown directly into the water resource and this majorly causes pollution inside the water and harms the ecosystem [37]. These pollutants majorly depend upon what kind of industry has thrown those pollutants. When these toxic metals get inside the water, they decrease the quality of the water [38]. Around 25% of pollution inside the water is caused only by these industries [39]. When the water gets contaminated, the water gets enriched by the nitrogen and phosphorous elements. With the presence of these nutrients, the growth rate of algae gets multiplied, and then it competed with the surrounding aquatic biota for the dissolved oxygen in water [40]. The presence of nitrite and nitrate anions leads to a major threat to the exposed organisms; examples of such threats are methemoglobinemia. It is more common in small children, and the symptoms caused by this are cyanotic color in the skin due to blood alterations [41]. Water sources that get deposited by this sewage also become anions rich, due to the presence of chlorine in urine, and NaCl is used in the human diet. On the side of the sea, there is the presence of chloride in high concentrations due to the leakage of salt into the sewerage system. It also may be increased by industrial processes [42].
Contamination of heavy metals in the aquatic environment is very harmful since these elements cannot be degraded and they get accumulated inside the living organisms [43]. Residue from the industry is the major source through which these heavy metals get into the aquatic ecosystems, and their accumulation in water varies with the type of wastewater treatment used [44]. Effects known as deleterious can be observed when the metal particles are introduced into the water system [45, 46]. Different metals from the Amazon River (Brazil) and the Yukon River (Alaska) were analyzed in the solid-state only. Plants have the presence of these metals in water. In tissue, the concentration of several metals is slow, and their concentration should be kept in less range only as more concentration can be harmful to the biological development of the pant [47]. Through the food chain, fish contaminants can reach man [48]. Effluent from industries, water tank leakages, dumping beside marines, and due to radioactive waste and atmospheric deposition, are some sources of water contamination. Disposed of heavy metals and waste from industries they get accumulated in rivers and lakes thus causing harmful impacts on animals and humans. For suppression of the immune, reproductive failure and acute poisoning toxins are responsible [49]. Then there is direct damage to plant or animal nutrition at that time human health is affected. The pollutants that are polluting the water are killing marine organisms such as mollusks, marine birds, fishes, and other organisms that live in the sea [50].
With an increase in the population has created many issues and one of the issues is the pollution of water [38]. An increase in the population leads automatically leads to more generations of solid waste [51]. Both solid waste and liquid waste are deposited into the water without any treatment. Human excreta also contaminate the water. Thus, contaminated water leads to a generation of a large number of bacteria, which is a threat to human well-being [39]. Government is unable to supply vital requirements to the People because of the increase in the number of people. Facility for sanitization is more in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Plastic bag and waste are a major contribution to pollution. People throw the waste in plastic bags into water sources [24]. From the research, it was found that around three crore people of the population defecate in the open, while 77% population use flush and around 8% use the pit latrines. Urbanization can cause many infectious diseases. Overpopulation, unhealthy conditions, and dangerous drinkable water are these major health problems in urban areas. One-third of urban people are vulnerable to disease [37].
The population in rural areas is less but the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and eroded soil contaminates the water. When it rains the water from the surface runoff and that rainwater enters the nearby water resource and thus pollutes the existing water [52]. Agricultural runoff cases freshwater bodies’ eutrophication. Half of the lakes in the US are eutrophic. Phosphate has one of the major contributions to eutrophication. And the high concentration of phosphates promotes cyanobacteria and algae growth, which leads to the excessive use of the biologically dissolved oxygen inside the water [53]. Fertilizers that are too enriched with nitrogen decrease the dissolved oxygen in rivers and coastal zones thus bringing hazardous effects to the biota. Since 2006, the nitrogen in fertilizers is being controlled in America and Northwest Europe [54]. Like pesticides, which are used as pest control, these pesticides leach into groundwater, thus polluting groundwater. The pesticides that are water-soluble leach more and the sandy soil favors the process of leaching [55].
Small pollutants particles which are present in the air, get into the water stream through the rain, when it rains these particles come down and then with the flow of water enters into the sea, thus polluting the water there. These pollutants that are present in the air usually get from the burning of fossil fuels e.g. is CO2, which combines with water and produces sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide, which is formed via volcanic eruption and from industries, also gets attached to a water molecule to form the sulfuric acid. When coal is combusted then also sulfuric dioxide is produced and it is also produced from petroleum products. Just like this nitrogen dioxide also combines with the water and forms the nitric acid. And with the help of rainwater, they enter the water resources (Figure 2) [52, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Circulation of contaminants between environmental sources under the effect of atmospheric sources.
Heavy metals are present on the earth and thus they can enter the water system through various pathways and one of them is through mining sources. When it rains or through flowing water, it leaches heavy metals out from their geological formation. These processes get disturbed when manmade economic activities such as mining are done. Through these processes, the area that is already mined out gets exposed to water and air and this leads to the acid mine drainage (AMD). The low pH conditions associated with AMD mobilize heavy metals, including radionuclides where these are present [60].
Soil gets polluted with the presence of heavy metal on surface and underground water and the pollution rises when mined ores are discarded on the ground surface for manual dressing [61]. Due to the dumping over the surface, the metals get exposed to air and rain thereby generating huge AMD. If soil is polluted at that time, it gets into the plant tissue and gets accumulated there. And when those plants are grazed by animals and water is used for the drink from polluted waters, through there these heavy metals enter the body. Also, marine lives, which reproduce in contaminated water, also have the presence of heavy metals inside their body tissues, if they are lactating then inside their milk. As an overview, all organisms within a given ecosystem are contaminated via these pollutants through their food chains [62]. When nutrition from these contaminated vegetables is taken, the presence of heavy metals in those vegetables can lead to different chronic diseases. Toxic effects due to these heavy metals usually depend on the amount of concentration and the oxidative state of the particular heavy metals [63]. Heavy metals have a very dangerous impact as they are non-biodegradable in nature, have long biological half-lives, and have the potential to accumulate inside the body. Also, there are some heavy metals that are extremely toxic only because of their solubility. Fewer concentrations of heavy metals inside the food chain also show severe effects as there is no particular procedure through which these heavy metals pollutants can be extracted from the body of an organism. Nowadays presence of these toxic heavy metals is everywhere because of their extreme use in industries. In case of the wastewater, it contains a huge concentration of heavy metals, which create various health-related problems [64, 65].
Water from estuaries and freshwater is not polluted till now to some extent, but that water is also at threat of being polluted in the long term due to metal deposition because of human past activities [66]. The water in the river and lakes can be highly polluted depending on the volume of flow and proximity to the point sources. Due to the human civilization, the element content in water is raised. Such elements are cadmium, lead, mercury, zinc, and chromium. Unlike organic chemicals, there are some metals that cannot be converted into compounds with lesser toxicity, and one of its characteristics is the loss of biodegradability. Once the heavy metals enter the water system it gets redistributed throughout the column and gets accumulated in the sediments [67]. The sediments constitute a partial contribution to polluting the natural phenomena due to their activity and metal remobilization processes. Metal residues that are present in the contaminated surroundings have the flexibility to get bioaccumulated into the aquatic environment [68]. Growth in fish larvae and juveniles is rapid. But when these heavy metals enter they might inhibit the growth rate. The fish grows in length and bulk when given the right conditions, such as a specific temperature and an acceptable amount of food. Fish growth, on the other hand, may be impeded in water contaminated with toxicants, such as heavy metals. One of the most noticeable signs of metal toxicity in fish larvae is growth inhibition. As a result, the length and bulk of fish are indications of environmental conditions [69]. Heavy metals are introduced in liquid form and surface water constituents (carbonate, sulfate, organic substances humic, fulvic, and amino acids) cause the formation of non-soluble salts or complexes. Aquatic species are not expected to be harmed by these salts and compounds. Some of them sink and collect in the sediments at the bottom. A decrease in pH of water either due to acid rain or any other acidic incidents, due to the heavy metal’s deposition into the water column, causes aquatic biota to become poisonous. Low levels of heavy metals can also make chronic stress, through fish might not get dead but can cause them to lose weight and become smaller, reducing their capacity to compete for food and habitat [70]. Pollution poses a hazard to both freshwater and marine habitats. Heavy metal poisoning of water is a significant environmental hazard that has detrimental consequences for organisms who are exposed to it be that plant-animal or humans. Fish from freshwater are majorly exposed to various heavy metals, which are added into the water bodies through the different-different sources. Contamination of these heavy metals into aquaculture has intensified global issues because it shows a risk to fish and has harmful impacts on fish buyers [71]. There are three different modes through which heavy metals enter the fish. These methods are either through the gills of fish, by the body of the fish, or by the digestive tract of the fish. Heavy metals immediately enter the fish body through the gills, while the body surface takes time for uptaking of these heavy metals through this mode [72]. Mostly the metals get accumulated in the liver, kidney, and gills. In fishes, the muscles have most of the metals present there as compared to the other body parts of the fish. Too much accumulation of these heavy metals inside the fish organ can cause lesions and operative disturbances [73]. These heavy metals also interfered with the embryo’s shape and the metabolic processes of the fishes. Structural and functional defects throughout the development of the embryo resulted in fewer larvae hatching. Several freshly born larvae die shortly after hatching owing to lead and copper absorption [74, 75]. Heavy metals get into the fish through three routes: the first is via the fish gills, the second is through the digestive tract of the fish and the last one is through the body of the fish. The gills of fish are the area that is known for the primary metal intake from the contaminated water. On the fish gills, zinc accumulates. It suggests a depressing influence on tissue respiration, which leads to hypoxia and mortality. Zinc pollution also causes alterations in the structure of the lungs and heart [76]. Humans and fish are both affected by mercury. Brain damage, with postnatal and fetal problems, leads to abortions, congenital deformity, and development differences in young fry due to Monomethyl. Minamata illness and Hg poisoning (via methyl Hg) both showed considerable neurotoxicity [77]. Nickel is necessary for tiny amounts for the formation of RBC, but when its concentration gets increased, at that time, it becomes harmful or poisonous. Cd has been linked to an increase in blood pressure and cardiac illness in fish. Blood vessels damage, hemorrhages, and depletion of blood cell count of a fish are induced by Hg, from previous research. Anemia, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, bronchial, and renal injuries can affect chromium levels in the blood [18]. Malformations in fish are caused by cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, lead, and arsenic. The accumulation of these heavy metals in excessive amounts causes a variety of physiological effects. Fin loss, gill underdevelopment, liver dysfunction, and fin function in fingerlings were all prevalent findings in the studies [78]. The harmful effects of heavy metals have the greatest impact on the death rate, reproduction, individual development rates, and physiological capacity of fish. There have been effects on physical functioning and chemical parameters in the tissues and blood of fish living in water that is polluted via metals. It has been reported that fish exposed to metals developed immune system defects, making them more susceptible to infectious infections and increasing their chances of dying (Figure 3) [79].
Harmful effects on the aquatic environment.
For the growth of plants, few HMs like As, Cd, Hg, Pb, and Se are not important as they do not perform any known physiological function in them. Others, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn, are key elements that are required for regular plant development and metabolism, but their amounts can quickly exceed the appropriate levels, resulting in poisoning [80, 81]. Heavy metal concentrations in plants vary by plant species, and the efficiency with which various plants absorb metals is measured by plant absorption or metal transfer factors from soil to plant. An increased amount of Pb in agricultural soil decreases the productivity rate of the soil, and a less lead amount may hinder some important processes of plant, dark green leaves, withering of older leaves, stunted foliage, and brown short roots are poisonous indicators of photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption [82]. Heavy metals are poisonous and phytotoxic to plants, resulting in diseases such as chlorosis, poor plant development, and yield depression, as well as decreased nutrient absorption, plant metabolic problems, and a reduced capacity to fix molecular nitrogen in leguminous plants. Seed germination was gradually reduced in the presence of increasing levels of lead, it may be due to exposure to lead for a longer duration, some methods, such as leaching, chelation, metal binding, or microbe accumulation, have resulted in the neutralization of lead’s harmful effects [83]. Heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, and Ni even their small concentration in plants can be hazardous to them. Poisoning due to this heavy metal will result in the complex interplay between the primary unpleasant ions and additional necessary or non-essential ions. Metals affect the activity of enzymes by swapping metal ions from metal enzymes, as well as preventing plant growth [84]. Some exceptional metals are vital for plants, as they reveal their roles in the catabolism of plants and biosynthesis, together as cofactors for enzymes and as metabolic yields. For example, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Co are the important nutrients but when their amounts are increased, they become toxic. Comparatively, Pb and Cd have no effect, which is favorable to the plant and is solely lethal [85]. The most abundant hazardous elements in the soil are lead. Pb poisoning in the soil is caused by municipal sewage sludge discharge, mining and smelting operations, Pb-containing paints, paper and pulp, gasoline, and explosives. They do not have any role in the shape of the plant or their growth and photosynthetic process of the plant. Pb poisoning also inhibits enzyme action, creates an imbalance of the water, alters membrane permeability, and disrupts mineral feeding [86].
One of the main sources of contamination of the water is heavy metals, as it overwhelms the important species indirectly through biological chains or directly via chemical modifications in water. Three potential ways are there, through which heavy metals get into the fish body: though fish gills, through the body of the fish, and through the fish digestive tract. Gills are responsible for the immediate absorption of metals from the water, whereas the body surface is thought to have a smaller role in the intake of these elements in fish [87]. By altering the normal activities of numerous enzymes and metabolites, the accumulation of these heavy metals in the tissues causes significant biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in fish and other freshwater fauna. Fish are one of the most widely dispersed creatures in the aquatic ecosystem, and their susceptibility to metal poisoning may indicate the extent of metal pollution’s biological impact [88]. Heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Zn, and tin (Sn), are major contaminants that cause serious toxicity in fish. Due to the heavy metals, the physiological and biochemical functions both in tissues and in blood Carpi can be altered. The compounds of As and inorganic As, Cd, Ni, silica in its crystal form, beryllium, and its compounds are considered to be chemical carcinogens, which results in the development of cancer inside the fishes. The drop in hematological parameters indicated that the exposed fishes had become anemic as a result of Cr exposure. This dangerous heavy metal was released into the aquatic ecosystem via trash, causing severe anemia and changes in hematological parameters in the
Water pollution is a global problem, and the world’s population is suffering the consequences of tainted water. Living organisms are also affected by the polluted water very much and it is very harmful to the environment. Acute and choric illnesses are caused by heavy metal concentrations in drinking water that exceed the permissible limits set by several national and international organizations. These can range from nonfatal, such as muscle and physical weakness, to fatal, such as brain, nervous system, and even cancer. Water quality testing is necessary for the protection of human health and the environment.
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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Consequently, knowledge of exoplanets is considerably more limited than Solar System planets. This chapter reviews the essential characteristics of Solar System planets and associated data derived from a variety of observational approaches. Exoplanet characteristics and their comparison to Solar System planets are provided as well as general detection methods and planned probes to gather additional data.",book:{id:"10210",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets"},signatures:"Joseph Bevelacqua",authors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"John",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua"}]},{id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",totalDownloads:1032,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"Petrovich",surname:"Kondratyev",slug:"boris-kondratyev",fullName:"Boris Kondratyev"}]},{id:"68357",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: System Analyses, Vehicles, and Moon Bases for Saturn Exploration",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-system-analyses-vehicles-and-moon",totalDownloads:861,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human and robotic missions to Saturn are presented and analyzed with a range of propulsion options. Historical studies of space exploration, planetary spacecraft and astronomy, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), and industrialization all point to the vastness of natural resources in the solar system. Advanced propulsion is benefitted from these resources in many ways. While advanced propulsion systems were proposed in these historical studies, further investigation of nuclear options using high-power nuclear electric and nuclear pulse propulsion as well as advanced chemical propulsion can significantly enhance these scenarios. Updated analyses based on these historical visions are presented. At Saturn, nuclear pulse propulsion with alternate propellant feed systems and Saturn moon exploration with chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion options are discussed. Issues with using in situ resource utilization on Saturn’s moons are discussed. At Saturn, the best locations for exploration and the use of the moons as central locations for Saturn moon exploration are assessed. Environmental issues on Titan’s surface may present extreme challenges for some ISRU processes. In-space bases for moon-orbiting propellant processing and ground-based processing will be assessed.",book:{id:"7338",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Creating a presence and an industrial capability on the Moon is essential for the development of humankind. There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32533",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2791,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1617",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"98",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82332",title:"Access to Space, Access to the Moon – Two Sides of the Same Coin?",slug:"access-to-space-access-to-the-moon-two-sides-of-the-same-coin-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105175",abstract:"The dynamics of human expansion towards space are going through Earth external layers, orbital space and the Moon. With its low gravity, slingshot effect relative to Earth, on-site resources and relative proximity to Earth in the solar system, the renewed space race is effectively returning first to the Moon. A psychological bridge to enlarge our civilization with a permanent bridge to our natural satellite. The development of this Earth-Moon system, requires enormous amount of finances, energy, science, technology, but over all, opportunities. This chapter deals with the efforts and the mental changes that may eventually result from all of these changes.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:91,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:131,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. It also considers other key properties such as structural robustness, thermal insulation, and micrometeoroid protection that all have to be considered in parallel when proposing regolith-based solutions. The biological hazards of radiation exposure on the Moon are presented and put in the context of lunar exploration-type missions and current astronaut career dose limits. These factors guide the research in radiation protection done with lunar regolith simulants, which are used in research and development activities on Earth due to the reduced accessibility of returned lunar samples. The ways in which regolith can be used in construction influence its protective properties. Areal density, which plays a key role in the radiation shielding capacity of a given material, can be optimized through different regolith processing techniques. At the same time, density will also affect other important properties of the construction, e.g. thermal insulation. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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