Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The term “cosmetic” has its origin from the Greek term “kosme’tikos,” a noun to denote the art of beautifying the body [1]. Since ancient times, humans have searched for materials and developed many products to mainly enhance female beauty. Over the centuries, cosmetics have been developed and influenced by different ethnic traditions, from the times of the Pharaohs to the modern times [2]. Since then, physical appearance has been an inseparable part of daily human existence, improving their self-image and self-esteem. However, the esthetic concept of beauty has changed overtime, and beauty standards have been modified according to many factors such as social, ethnic, and religious belief influences [2]. Personal hygiene has been also part of human life since the ancient times. Traditionally related to hygiene habits during religious activities, the preparation of food, or the prevention of diseases, hygiene practices have also greatly changed through the cultures and eras, from bathing facilities in the Roman period to modern synthetic products such as body lotions or hair tonics [3].
\n
In the last years, the variety of cosmetics and personal care products (PCPs) have greatly increased (Table 1), in parallel to their manufacturing and consumption volumes in developed and developing countries. For example, the consumption of cosmetics and perfumery in Spain has consecutively increased in the last years, reaching a total of 1280 million units sold of these products and 770 million units exported during 2018. To date, the USA is the leader in the consumption of cosmetics and perfumery, with an amount of 78.6 billion euros, followed by China (52 billion euros), Japan (32 billion euros), and Brazil (28 billion euros) [4]. Despite the current beauty standards are not similar along cultures and ethnicities, it is acknowledged that women have a greater use of cosmetics and personal care products (PCPs) when compared with men [5], and therefore, potential adverse effect may affect predominantly to this population.
\n
Table 1.
Most used cosmetics and personal care products.
\n
\nTable 1 summarizes the main types of cosmetics and PCPs commonly used worldwide.
\n
\n
\n
2. Endocrine disruptors in cosmetics and PCPs
\n
\n
2.1 What is an endocrine disruptor?
\n
The World Health Organization defines an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) as an exogenous substance or mixture of substances that alter one or more functions of the endocrine system and consequently cause adverse effects on the health of an intact organism or its progeny [6].
\n
The main characteristics of exposure to EDCs are as follows [7, 8, 9, 10]:
There is no safe dose of EDCs. They act at low concentrations and in combination with endogenous hormones, making it difficult to establish a threshold level of no effect.
Exposure to EDCs during periods of special vulnerability of the individual’s development—pregnancy, lactation, puberty—causes damage with adverse effects throughout their lives and descendants.
The curves that relate the exposure doses to EDCs with the adverse effect are not linear. The response does not always increase in the same proportion as the exposure dose.
In general terms, individuals are not exposed to a single type of EDC but to a mixture of EDCs. Therefore, the effects are difficult to predict given the possible synergistic, additive, or antagonistic actions between chemical residues (the cocktail effect).
As a result of exposure to EDCs in a certain individual, consequences can be observed in subsequent generations, due to either genomic involvement or epigenetic mechanisms. There is great difficulty in establishing a causal association because the effects observed after exposure can occur after long latency periods.
\n\n
\n
\n
2.2 Sources and routes of exposure to EDCs
\n
EDCs are distributed in the environment due to their widespread use. Depending on their resistance to physical, chemical, and biological degradation as well as their degree of liposolubility, EDCs can be divided into “persistent EDCs” and “non-persistent EDCs.” In the case of persistent EDCs, low biodegradability, volatility, bioaccumulation in the trophic chain, and biomagnification are its most outstanding characteristics [11]. Furthermore, they can be transmitted to the offspring through the mother during pregnancy and lactation [12]. Since the 1970s, most countries have banned or severely restricted the production, handling, and disposal of the majority of them due to consistent evidence of their adverse effects at doses traditionally considered safe [13, 14]. Despite this, global population is suspected to be primarily exposed to these pollutants through diet, given the bioaccumulation pattern of these chemicals in the food chain [14].
\n
On the other hand, non-persistent EDCs are less liposoluble, and therefore, they are prone to be metabolized and excreted rapidly [15, 16]. In addition to a variety of pesticides such as glyphosate or permethrins, this group includes bisphenol-A (BPA) and its analogues, parabens (PBs) [methyl- (MeP), ethyl- (EtP), propyl- (PrP), and butyl-paraben (BuP)], phthalates, and benzophenones (BPs). Currently, there is diverse evidence showing the presence of numerous EDC families (mainly phthalates, bisphenols, parabens, and benzophenones) in cosmetic products and PCPs [17, 18, 19, 20]. However, contrary to most persistent EDCs, international regulation of their production, handling, and disposal is limited to a reduction in the concentrations of some specific compounds for those cosmetics in the EU market (EU 1004/2014). Table 2 summarized the trade name, CAS number, and hormonal activity attributed to some of the most frequently used EDCs in cosmetics and PCPs.
\n
Table 2.
Most common endocrine disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and personal care products.
Trade name, CAS number and demonstrated hormonal activities.
\n
Phthalates are used as a plasticizer in cosmetics and PCPs. The study carried out by Gao and Kannan [17] recently revealed that phthalates were found in >90% of the 77 feminine hygiene products analyzed. Mainly, they were found in all the tested pads, panty liners, tampons, and wipes. Furthermore, phthalates were also found in bactericidal creams and solutions, deodorant sprays, and powders. In another study, Guo and Kannan [18] showed that phthalates were also present in leave-on products, such as skin lotions, hair care products, perfumes, skin toners, deodorants, and creams. In this regard, detectable levels of phthalates were found in face creams, eyeliner creams, hand creams, sunscreens, lipsticks, and nail polish. These EDCs were also detected in products for dental hygiene and rinse-off products (including body wash, shampoos, hair conditioners, face cleaners, and shaving gels).
\n
In the case of the PB family, its main use in cosmetic products and PCPs is due to their antimicrobial properties [21]. It has been shown that the use of mixtures of paraben congeners allows the increase of their preservative capacity with the use of lower levels of each compounds [19]. Average daily application rates per women for face creams, hand or body lotions, facial cleansers, shampoos, and bath gel were 2.1, 8.7, 4.1, 12.8, and 14.5 g, respectively [22]. Yazar and Johnsson [20] carried out a study where they verified the composition of a series of 204 cosmetic products, which included shampoos, hair conditioners, liquid soap, wipes from different brands, and stores. The results showed that at least 44% of the analyzed cosmetics contained at least one PB congener. The PB that was found in the highest proportion was MeP (41% of the products), followed by PrP (25%). In the study carried out by Gao and Kannan [17], it was found that all feminine hygiene products contained at least one PB, and both MeP and EtP were found in >80% of these compounds, mainly in wipes, creams, bactericide solutions, deodorant sprays, and powders. Moreover, it has been reported that PBs were detected in 40% of the dental hygiene products analyzed and 60% in other types of daily hygiene products. MeP and PrP were the most detected compounds (40% of the analyzed samples), followed by BuP (∼20%). The highest concentrations of MeP, EtP, PrP, and BuP ranged between 1040 and 8200 μg/g, which represent approximately 0.1–0.8% per product by weight [18]. Another study carried out in China [19] found PBs in all the categories of PCPs analyzed. Almost all creams, lotions, and face cleaners contained MeP and PrP, with concentrations of MeP slightly higher than PrP (2830 and 1560 μg/g, respectively). Their presence was greater in creams and lotions than in shampoos and body soaps.
\n
BPs are used as ultraviolet (UV) filters. As shown in the study carried out by Rastogi [23], 75 sunscreen products from Europe and the USA tested contained levels of up to three UV filters. A recent study [24] verified the presence of BP-1 and BP-3 in 19.1% of their analyzed products (283 samples analyzed), especially in makeup products, which represented 45.2% of the products with the presence of BPs.
\n
In addition to these three families, the chemical composition of cosmetics and PCPs also contains many other compounds, although with a lower percentage of the presence in these products. Among them, bisphenols, camphenes, dimethicones, and oxycinnamates can be found. Within these minority families, bisphenols are the one that are usually found in the greatest presence in cosmetic products. The main use of BPA is the manufacture of epoxy resins, obtaining polycarbonate plastics, which have great mechanical and thermal stability, as well as very good transparency [25], while the main use of the families of camphenes, dimethicones, and oxycinnamates is that they are used as preservatives in the manufacture of PCPs [26, 27]. Nevertheless, the concentrations of these substances in cosmetics and PCPs have been poorly addressed.
\n
Contrary to persistent EDCs that mainly reach body internal compartments through diet, the main route of human exposure to non-persistent EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs is mainly the dermal route [28]. Therefore, these EDCs avoid the first-pass metabolism, enhancing the bioavailability and therefore the biological effect of the parent compounds [15]. In this regard, several studies have related to the use of cosmetics and PCPs and internal levels of PB and BPs. For example, it has been recently found that levels of some PB and BPs in menstrual blood are related to the use of cosmetics [29]. Moreover, urinary concentrations of PBs were related to the use of hair products, deodorants, face, and hand creams [30]. Similarly, Larsson et al. [31] found higher levels of PBs and phthalates among those women with higher use of hygiene products.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Mechanisms of action of EDCs
\n
EDCs act at very different levels of complexity, interfering a variety of hormone-signaling pathways. For instance, they can modify the circulating levels of hormones by acting on their synthesis, metabolism, or degradation. They can also reduce, increase, or interfere with the specific receptors for hormonal action and therefore affect the ability to respond to natural hormones [32]. In the particular case of EDCs that interfere in steroid hormone-related signaling pathways, the observed effects seem to be linked to the activation/blocking of nuclear receptors, which are the most common modes of action responsible for dose curves with nonmonotonic response in experimental studies [33]. In fact, many EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs have been evidenced to exert estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities in both in vivo and in vitro studies [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40] (see Table 2).
\n
An increasing number of studies have also linked exposure to EDCs with epigenetic changes in humans [41, 42]. An unexposed individual may show epigenetic changes due to (1) altered ovum or sperm after EDC exposure or (2) in utero exposure to EDCs. In this regard, it has been evidenced that fetal exposure to environmental pollutants with endocrine disrupting properties such as mirex, chlordane, or p,p´-DDE can cause epigenetic changes with transgenerational effects [43, 44]. This is also the case of bisphenol-A (BPA), and PBs, with epigenetic changes after prenatal and adolescence exposures to these chemicals [45, 46].
\n
Furthermore, inflammation and oxidative stress have also been recently postulated as possible mechanisms of action of EDCs [47, 48, 49, 50]. In this regard, oxidative stress, that is, the imbalance between the production of free radicals and the antioxidant capacity, has been shown to be enhanced after exposure to a variety of EDCs, including PBs and BPs [47, 49, 50]. For instance, human exposure to PB and BP has been linked to higher levels of lipid peroxidation [50, 51]. Moreover, local disruption of the antioxidant capacity has also been reported [47]. Although the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood, it has been suggested that, at least in part, EDCs might induce oxidative stress via estrogen receptor-α signaling pathways [52]. Moreover, EDC exposure has also been evidenced to trigger an inflammatory microenvironment [50, 53]. With an intimate relationship, both oxidative and inflammatory responses have also been suggested as crucial mechanisms beyond a variety of chronic diseases, as well as some gynecological conditions such as endometriosis [54, 55].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Potential adverse effects of EDC exposure
\n
The consequences of exposure to EDCs seem to be different depending on age and gender (Table 3). In the case of men, EDC exposure is suspected to cause alterations in the development of the genitourinary system including cryptorchidism, testicular cancer, and infertility [56, 57]. Among women, the increase in hormone-dependent cancers (either breast or ovarian) [56] as well as uterine fibroids and endometriosis might also be related to inadvertent exposure to EDCs. Moreover, chronic conditions such as metabolic syndrome and its components (obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, or dyslipidemia), neurobehavioral development disorders, and poor thyroid function are also on the list of possible effects of EDC exposure. In particular, in utero exposure to EDCs is believed to have consequences of such magnitude that they would hardly be suspected in studies of adult individuals. For example, in utero exposure to some EDCs has been linked to increased risk for breast cancer or endometriosis [58, 59]. This association gives maternal exposure some very particular peculiarities and places women of childbearing age in the limelight of most studies on endocrine disruption.
\n
\n
3.1 Use of cosmetics and PCPs and feminine diseases
\n
Over the years and in parallel with the change in people’s habits and lifestyle, numerous evidence has revealed that cosmetics could cause a variety of disease conditions in humans. For instance, women are suspected to have a greater risk for some chronic conditions such as obesity and metabolic syndrome than men [60], and in addition to physiological differences between genders, the greater female consumption of cosmetics and PCPs might also underlie this enhanced risk. Moreover, the consumption of cosmetics and PCPs might also be beyond the development of female-specific diseases such as breast or ovarian cancer. In this regard, Darbre [61] first alarmed scientific community about the potential effect of PCPs in breast cancer, suggesting that underarm cosmetic use might increase breast cancer. In fact, they detected a variety of EDCs including PBs in breast tumors, with higher concentrations in those samples from the axilla region, suggesting that their concentrations might be related to the application of deodorant products, body lotions, sprays, moisturizers, and sunscreen products in areas close to the human breast. However, current evidence on the relationship between cosmetic/PCP use and risk of cancer is not very conclusive. In this regard, in a case-control study comprised by 209 cases of breast cancer and 209 healthy controls, Linhart and Talasz [62] reported that the greater use of underarm cosmetic products was associated with increased risk of breast cancer. Contrary, a cohort study did not found any association between use of skincare products and risk of cancer of the breast and endometrium [63]. Another study carried out by McGrath [64] reported that those women with a higher use of antiperspirant products were diagnosed with breast cancer at an earlier age. Furthermore, it has been observed that long-term exposure to body care creams containing ethinyl estradiol may increase the risk of abnormal genital bleeding and breast cancer [65]. Interestingly, a case-report study found that synthetic hormones found in lotions used by the mother were present in very high concentrations in the hair of the girl [66].
\n
However, the variety of products and differences in dosage, patterns of use, and individual susceptibility to specific product formulations pose great difficulties to detect a potential effect of cosmetic and PCP habits on human adverse effects [36, 61, 67, 68, 69]. Thus, the use of internal burden of EDCs seems to better reflect the magnitude of cosmetic and PCP use, independently of the type of product used or the dose applied. In this regard, urinary levels of PBs have been related to greater risk for breast cancer [70]. Some studies have also addressed the potential association between exposure to PCP-released EDCs and the origin and development of other female diseases. In this regard, the presence of trace levels of PBs was found in endometrial tissue samples suspected of being related to an increased risk of endometrial carcinoma [71]. Levels of PrP were also related to diminished ovarian reserve in a prospective cohort study of the US women seeking fertility treatment [72]. Regarding the development of sex characteristics during puberty, a recent study observed associations between levels of PBs and earlier development of the breasts and the pubic hair in girls. Moreover, earlier menarche was also related to higher levels of PBs [73].
\n
Regarding BPs, in vitro studies have shown that exposure to BPs in rats and mice has been related to feminized sexual behavior and increased uterine weight [39, 74]. Two in vivo studies have also demonstrated the disturbance caused by BP in ovarian tissue [75, 76]. Santamaría and Abud [75] found that exposure to BP-1 and BP-3 disrupted early events in ovarian cells, such as germ cell development and disruption of crucial gene expression related to follicular assembly. Similarly, Shin and Go [76] reported the induction of BP-dependent metastasis in an in vivo model for ovarian cancer. Moreover, an epidemiological study has reported that urinary BP levels might be associated with blood pressure during pregnancy [77]. Similarly, higher BP levels were related to thyroid hormones and growth factors in pregnant women, as well as to reduced fetal growth [74].
\n
Other hormonally active chemicals widely used in cosmetics are phthalates. Exposure to various congeners has been associated with the appearance of various female diseases. Exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate has been linked to an increased risk of preterm delivery [78, 79, 80] and intrauterine growth restriction [81]. Furthermore, it has also been associated with reduced total oocyte yield and a reduced probability of achieving pregnancy and live birth [82]. Other phthalate congeners, such as monoethyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate, have also been linked to decreased fertility in women [79, 83].
\n
Several investigations have also suggested the potential association between BPA exposure and adverse outcomes in women. For instance, it has been shown that elevated serum or urine BPA levels are associated with anovulation [84], lower antral follicle counts [85, 86], preterm birth [87], and infertility [88]. Moreover, increasing urinary BPA levels were associated with delayed menarche in adolescent girls [89, 90]. Furthermore, higher BPA levels have been associated with an increased risk of developing polycystic ovary syndrome [84, 91, 92, 93], ovarian failure [94], infertility [95], and fibroids [96, 97]. Triclosan, widely present in soaps, detergents, and toothpaste, has also been related to decreased fertility [98], although the currently available evidence is scarce.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Associations between PCP- and cosmetic-released EDCs and endometriosis
\n
As mentioned above, detectable levels of PBs and BPs have been detected in endometrial tissue and menstrual blood [29, 71]. Trace levels of intact PBs were predominantly detected in endometrial carcinoma tissues (23%) in contrast to normal endometrium samples (2%), and thus, authors suggested that they might be related to an increased risk of endometrial carcinoma [71]. On the other hand, several PBs and BPs have been detected in menstrual blood samples, a biological sample in intimate contact with the endometrium [29]. Moreover, these menstrual blood concentrations of PBs and BPs were related to the magnitude of use of creams and cosmetics, evidencing that these EDCs from cosmetics and PCPs are capable of reaching a wide variety of biological matrices and thus might orchestrate, or at least contribute, to the development and progression of multiple gynecological diseases such as endometrial cancer and endometriosis.
\n
Concerning endometriosis, the origin of endometriosis still remains unclear. To date, although various theories have been postulated to give a possible explanation for the origin of endometriosis [99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105], none of them consistently explains the onset and progression of the disease in deeper stages. Currently, it is known that it is a multifactorial disease in which genetic, epigenetic, immunological, hormonal, and environmental factors are involved [106]. Due to the suspected increase in the number of cases in the last decades [107], it is suspected that, in addition to the increased awareness among doctors and patients, environmental risk factors are suspected to also contribute to the onset and progression of this disease. This environmental hypothesis of the origin of the disease is also reinforced due to the estrogen-dependent nature of this pathology [53, 108].
\n
Despite the growing public concern about human risks derived from the use of PCPs and cosmetics, there is little evidence on their influence on endometriosis (Table 4). To our knowledge, only one study has investigated the relationship between EDCs released from sunscreens and endometriosis. Concentrations of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone, 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone, 2,2′-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone, 2,2′,4,4′-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, and 4-hydroxi-benzophenone were analyzed in urine samples collected from 600 women. The results obtained suggest that exposure to elevated levels of 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-3) may be associated with a higher probability of a diagnosis of endometriosis [109]. As authors mentioned, these findings denoted an approximate 65% increase in the odds of an endometriosis diagnosis in women with the highest BP-3 concentration compared to women with lower concentrations.
\n\n
Table 3.
Some adverse effects of EDCs in humans.
\n
Table 4.
Studies exploring associations between exposure to cosmetics- and PCPs-released EDCs and endometriosis.
\n
Regarding BPA exposure, a recent meta-analysis revealed limited and contradictory epidemiological evidence regarding the contribution of BPA in the risk for endometriosis [110]. Thus, despite few studies have reported an absence of association between urinary levels of BPA and disease [111, 112], others reported increased risk for endometriosis [53, 113, 114, 115]. Even more, it has been recently suggested that levels of oxidative stress might act as a mediation effect on the association between exposure to bisphenols and endometriosis risk [53]. Furthermore, exposure to BPA has not only been related to the onset of endometriosis, but it might be also involved in the progression of the disease [112, 114]. Moreover, these findings are supported by different experimental studies. In this sense, recent in vivo studies have evidenced in mouse models that exposure to bisphenols in adulthood was related to an increase in the growth of endometrial lesions and the number of atretic oocytes, the interruption of the ovarian steroidogenic pathway, an increase in periglandular fibrosis, and the upregulation of matrix remodeling enzymes [108, 116]. Another in vivo study revealed that prenatal exposure to BPA and other bisphenols caused a phenotype similar to endometriosis [117]. These experimental studies suggest that exposure to BPA could be related to the development and progression of endometriosis.
\n
Other EDCs found in cosmetics and PCPs are phthalates. Several studies have explored the existing associations between exposure to these chemicals and endometriosis, showing conflicting results. One of the very first investigations reported higher concentrations of phthalates in women with a confirmed diagnosis of endometriosis [118]. Similarly, two studies evidenced an increased risk of endometriosis in women with higher levels of mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate [111, 119]. Conversely, few studies did not found any association between levels of urinary levels of any phthalate congener and enhanced risk for endometriosis [112, 120, 121, 122].
\n
Currently, there are no studies that have explored the possible contribution of other EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs (such as parabens, oxycinnamates, camphenes, and dimethicones) and the risk of endometriosis. Moreover, the combined effect of EDCs released from these products on endometriosis has not been addressed yet.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
To date, there is still very limited evidence on the potential role of EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs on the origin and development of endometriosis. In general terms, in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological evidence is consistent with the endocrine-disrupting hypothesis set out in this chapter, indicating that EDCs might be in the causal pathway that leads to endometriosis. Nevertheless, in all published studies, the particular effect of specific EDCs was measured, without taking into account the possible synergistic or antagonistic effect that these chemicals can exert when they are present in a mixture. Thus, because its diagnosis is difficult and its treatment is mainly symptomatic, it is vitally necessary to establish preventive measures to avoid as far as possible the origin of this disease. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out well-conducted studies, with appropriate sample size and in which the “gold-standard” diagnosis serves to distinguish between cases and controls. Moreover, the combined effect of multiple EDCs on endometriosis should be addressed. These studies are needed to fully elucidate the potential disrupting properties of these PCP-released EDCs in the gynecological tissues. In this way, preventive measures could be established, the chemical composition of PCPs could be modified by other substances that are not endocrine disruptors, or the use of these cosmetics could be reduced as far as possible.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was supported by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Health-FEDER (FIS PI17/01743) and the Research Chair “Antonio Chamorro/Alejandro Otero.” It was also partly supported by the European Union Commission (the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative H2020-EJP-HBM4EU) and the Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP). The authors are also grateful to the Carlos III Institute of Health (ISCIII) for the predoctoral research contracts (IFI18/00052 and FI17/00316) granted to F.M. Peinado and L.M. Iribarne-Durán, respectively, and the José María Segovia de Arana contract granted to N. Olea (INT18/00060).
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"cosmetics, personal care products, endometriosis, endocrine disruptors",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72654.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72654.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72654",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72654",totalDownloads:317,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"June 1st 2020",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2020",datePublished:"January 14th 2021",dateFinished:"June 29th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In the last years, the variety and consumption of cosmetics and personal care products (PCPs) have greatly increased, although the long-term adverse effects to low doses of chemicals used in their production and with proven hormone-mimicking properties have been still poorly addressed. Among these endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), parabens, benzophenones, bisphenols, and phthalates are the most widely found in these products. Given the estrogenic-dependent nature of the endometrium, it has been hypothesized the potential contribution of these EDCs contained in cosmetics and PCPs in the risk of endometriosis. In this book chapter, we have summarized the current evidence supporting this hypothesis, highlighting epidemiological, in vivo, and in vitro studies that have addressed the potential influence of parabens, benzophenones, bisphenols, and phthalates in the origin and progression of this chronic feminine disease.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72654",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72654",book:{slug:"endometriosis"},signatures:"Francisco M. Peinado, Luz M. Iribarne-Durán, Olga Ocón-Hernández, Nicolás Olea and Francisco Artacho-Cordón",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Endocrine disruptors in cosmetics and PCPs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 What is an endocrine disruptor?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Sources and routes of exposure to EDCs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Mechanisms of action of EDCs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Potential adverse effects of EDC exposure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Use of cosmetics and PCPs and feminine diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Associations between PCP- and cosmetic-released EDCs and endometriosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nMerriam-Webster M. Merriam-Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Vol. 294. Spring Field; 1991\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nOumeish O. The cultural and philosophical concepts of cosmetics in beauty and art through the medical history of mankind. 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Andrologia. 2012;44(Suppl 1):187-193\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nArtacho-Cordón F, Ríos-Arrabal S, León J, Frederiksen H, Sáenz JM, Martín-Olmedo P, et al. Adipose tissue concentrations of non-persistent environmental phenols and local redox balance in adults from Southern Spain. Environment International. 2019;133(Pt A):105118\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nMustafa M, Garg N, Banerjee BD, Sharma T, Tyagi V, Dar SA, et al. Inflammatory-mediated pathway in association with organochlorine pesticides levels in the etiology of idiopathic preterm birth. Reproductive Toxicology. 2015;57:111-120\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nThompson PA, Khatami M, Baglole CJ, Sun J, Harris SA, Moon EY, et al. Environmental immune disruptors, inflammation and cancer risk. Carcinogenesis. 2015;36(Suppl 1):S232-S253\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nWatkins DJ, Ferguson KK, Anzalota Del Toro LV, Alshawabkeh AN, Cordero JF, Meeker JD. Associations between urinary phenol and paraben concentrations and markers of oxidative stress and inflammation among pregnant women in Puerto Rico. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2015;218(2):212-219\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nKang S, Kim S, Park J, Kim HJ, Lee J, Choi G, et al. Urinary paraben concentrations among pregnant women and their matching newborn infants of Korea, and the association with oxidative stress biomarkers. The Science of the Total Environment. 2013;461-462:214-221\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nCho YJ, Park SB, Park JW, Oh SR, Han M. Bisphenol A modulates inflammation and proliferation pathway in human endometrial stromal cells by inducing oxidative stress. Reproductive Toxicology. 2018;81:41-49\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nPeinado FM, Lendínez I, Sotelo R, Iribarne-Durán LM, Fernández-Parra J, Vela-Soria F, et al. Association of urinary levels of bisphenols A, F, and S with endometriosis risk: Preliminary results of the EndEA study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(4):e1194\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nGupta S, Agarwal A, Krajcir N, Alvarez JG. Role of oxidative stress in endometriosis. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2006;13(1):126-134\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nLambrinoudaki IV, Augoulea A, Christodoulakos GE, Economou EV, Kaparos G, Kontoravdis A, et al. Measurable serum markers of oxidative stress response in women with endometriosis. Fertility and Sterility. 2009;91(1):46-50\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nIbarluzea Jm J, Fernández MF, Santa-Marina L, Olea-Serrano MF, Rivas AM, Aurrekoetxea JJ, et al. Breast cancer risk and the combined effect of environmental estrogens. Cancer Causes & Control. 2004;15(6):591-600\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nOlea N, Fernandez MF. Chemicals in the environment and human male fertility. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2007;64(7):430-431\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nBenagiano G, Brosens I. In utero exposure and endometriosis. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine. 2014;27(3):303-308\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nCohn BA, La Merrill M, Krigbaum NY, Yeh G, Park JS, Zimmermann L, et al. DDT exposure in utero and breast cancer. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2015;100(8):2865-2872\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nPucci G, Alcidi R, Tap L, Battista F, Mattace-Raso F, Schillaci G. Sex- and gender-related prevalence, cardiovascular risk and therapeutic approach in metabolic syndrome: A review of the literature. Pharmacological Research. 2017;120:34-42\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nDarbre PD. Underarm cosmetics are a cause of breast cancer. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2001;10(5):389-393\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nLinhart C, Talasz H, Morandi EM, Exley C, Lindner HH, Taucher S, et al. Use of underarm cosmetic products in relation to risk of breast cancer: A case-control study. eBioMedicine. 2017;21:79-85\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nRylander C, Veierød MB, Weiderpass E, Lund E, Sandanger TM. Use of skincare products and risk of cancer of the breast and endometrium: A prospective cohort study. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source. 2019;18(1):105\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nMcGrath KG. An earlier age of breast cancer diagnosis related to more frequent use of antiperspirants/deodorants and underarm shaving. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2003;12(6):479-485\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nKomori S, Ito Y, Nakamura Y, Aoki M, Takashi T, Kinuta T, et al. A long-term user of cosmetic cream containing estrogen developed breast cancer and endometrial hyperplasia. Menopause (New York, NY). 2008;15(6):1191-1192\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nGuarneri MP, Brambilla G, Loizzo A, Colombo I, Chiumello G. Estrogen exposure in a child from hair lotion used by her mother: Clinical and hair analysis data. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, PA). 2008;46(8):762-764\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nDarbre PD. Underarm cosmetics and breast cancer. Journal of Applied Toxicology: JAT. 2003;23(2):89-95\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nDarbre PD. Environmental oestrogens, cosmetics and breast cancer. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2006;20(1):121-143\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nHarvey PW, Darbre P. Endocrine disrupters and human health: Could oestrogenic chemicals in body care cosmetics adversely affect breast cancer incidence in women? Journal of Applied Toxicology: JAT. 2004;24(3):167-176\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nParada H Jr, Gammon MD, Ettore HL, Chen J, Calafat AM, Neugut AI, et al. Urinary concentrations of environmental phenols and their associations with breast cancer incidence and mortality following breast cancer. Environment International. 2019;130:104890\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nDogan S, Tongur T, Erkaymaz T, Erdogan G, Unal B, Sik B, et al. Traces of intact paraben molecules in endometrial carcinoma. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 2019;26(30):31158-31165\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nSmith KW, Souter I, Dimitriadis I, Ehrlich S, Williams PL, Calafat AM, et al. Urinary paraben concentrations and ovarian aging among women from a fertility center. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2013;121(11-s12):1299-1305\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nHarley KG, Berger KP, Kogut K, Parra K, Lustig RH, Greenspan LC, et al. Association of phthalates, parabens and phenols found in personal care products with pubertal timing in girls and boys. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England). 2019;34(1):109-117\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nKrause M, Klit A, Blomberg Jensen M, Søeborg T, Frederiksen H, Schlumpf M, et al. Sunscreens: Are they beneficial for health? An overview of endocrine disrupting properties of UV-filters. International Journal of Andrology. 2012;35(3):424-436\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nSantamaría CG, Abud JE, Porporato MM, Meyer N, Zenclussen AC, Kass L, et al. The UV filter benzophenone 3, alters early follicular assembly in rat whole ovary cultures. Toxicology Letters. 2019;303:48-54\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nShin S, Go RE, Kim CW, Hwang KA, Nam KH, Choi KC. Effect of benzophenone-1 and octylphenol on the regulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition via an estrogen receptor-dependent pathway in estrogen receptor expressing ovarian cancer cells. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2016;93:58-65\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nLiu H, Li J, Xia W, Zhang B, Peng Y, Li Y, et al. Blood pressure changes during pregnancy in relation to urinary paraben, triclosan and benzophenone concentrations: A repeated measures study. Environment International. 2019;122:185-192\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nFerguson KK, McElrath TF, Ko YA, Mukherjee B, Meeker JD. Variability in urinary phthalate metabolite levels across pregnancy and sensitive windows of exposure for the risk of preterm birth. Environment International. 2014;70:118-124\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nFerguson KK, McElrath TF, Meeker JD. Environmental phthalate exposure and preterm birth. JAMA Pediatrics. 2014;168(1):61-67\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nFerguson KK, O’Neill MS, Meeker JD. Environmental contaminant exposures and preterm birth: A comprehensive review. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B: Critical Reviews. 2013;16(2):69-113\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nZhao Y, Chen L, Li LX, Xie CM, Li D, Shi HJ, et al. Gender-specific relationship between prenatal exposure to phthalates and intrauterine growth restriction. Pediatric Research. 2014;76(4):401-408\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nHauser R, Gaskins AJ, Souter I, Smith KW, Dodge LE, Ehrlich S, et al. Urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations and reproductive outcomes among women undergoing in vitro fertilization: Results from the EARTH study. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2016;124(6):831-839\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nKay VR, Chambers C, Foster WG. Reproductive and developmental effects of phthalate diesters in females. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 2013;43(3):200-219\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nCosta EM, Spritzer PM, Hohl A, Bachega TA. Effects of endocrine disruptors in the development of the female reproductive tract. Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia e Metabologia. 2014;58(2):153-161\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nZiv-Gal A, Flaws JA. Evidence for bisphenol A-induced female infertility: A review (2007-2016). Fertility and Sterility. 2016;106(4):827-856\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nSouter I, Smith KW, Dimitriadis I, Ehrlich S, Williams PL, Calafat AM, et al. The association of bisphenol-A urinary concentrations with antral follicle counts and other measures of ovarian reserve in women undergoing infertility treatments. Reproductive Toxicology. 2013;42:224-231\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nPeretz J, Vrooman L, Ricke WA, Hunt PA, Ehrlich S, Hauser R, et al. Bisphenol A and reproductive health: Update of experimental and human evidence, 2007-2013. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2014;122(8):775-786\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nWeinberger B, Vetrano AM, Archer FE, Marcella SW, Buckley B, Wartenberg D, et al. Effects of maternal exposure to phthalates and bisphenol A during pregnancy on gestational age. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine. 2014;27(4):323-327\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nMcGuinn LA, Ghazarian AA, Joseph Su L, Ellison GL. Urinary bisphenol A and age at menarche among adolescent girls: Evidence from NHANES 2003-2010. Environmental Research. 2015;136:381-386\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nBerger K, Eskenazi B, Kogut K, Parra K, Lustig RH, Greenspan LC, et al. Association of prenatal urinary concentrations of phthalates and bisphenol A and pubertal timing in boys and girls. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2018;126(9):97004\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nPalioura E, Diamanti-Kandarakis E. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders. 2015;16(4):365-371\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nRutkowska AZ, Diamanti-Kandarakis E. Polycystic ovary syndrome and environmental toxins. Fertility and Sterility. 2016;106(4):948-958\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nWang Y, Zhu Q , Dang X, He Y, Li X, Sun Y. Local effect of bisphenol A on the estradiol synthesis of ovarian granulosa cells from PCOS. Gynecological Endocrinology. 2017;33(1):21-25\n'},{id:"B94",body:'\nÖzel Ş, Tokmak A, Aykut O, Aktulay A, Hançerlioğulları N, Engin UY. Serum levels of phthalates and bisphenol-Ain patients with primary ovarian insufficiency. Gynecological Endocrinology. 2019;35(4):364-367\n'},{id:"B95",body:'\nWang B, Zhou W, Zhu W, Chen L, Wang W, Tian Y, et al. Associations of female exposure to bisphenol a with fecundability: Evidence from a preconception cohort study. Environment International. 2018;117:139-145\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nPollack AZ, Buck Louis GM, Chen Z, Sun L, Trabert B, Guo Y, et al. Bisphenol A, benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters, and phthalates in relation to uterine leiomyoma. Environmental Research. 2015;137:101-107\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nShen Y, Xu Q , Ren M, Feng X, Cai Y, Gao Y. Measurement of phenolic environmental estrogens in women with uterine leiomyoma. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e79838\n'},{id:"B98",body:'\nVélez MP, Arbuckle TE, Fraser WD. Female exposure to phenols and phthalates and time to pregnancy: the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) Study. Fertility and Sterility. 2015;103(4):1011-20.e2\n'},{id:"B99",body:'\nStarzinski-Powitz A, Zeitvogel A, Schreiner A, Baumann R. Endometriosis--a stem cell disease? Zentralblatt für Gynäkologie. 2003;125(7-8):235-238\n'},{id:"B100",body:'\nSampson JA. Peritoneal endometriosis due to the menstrual dissemination of endometrial tissue into the peritoneal cavity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1927;14:422-469\n'},{id:"B101",body:'\nMechsner S, Weichbrodt M, Riedlinger WFJ, Bartley J, Kaufmann AM, Schneider A, et al. Estrogen and progestogen receptor positive endometriotic lesions and disseminated cells in pelvic sentinel lymph nodes of patients with deep infiltrating rectovaginal endometriosis: A pilot study. Human Reproduction. 2008;23(10):2202-2209\n'},{id:"B102",body:'\nLevander G, Normann P. The pathogenesis of endometriosis; an experimental study. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 1955;34(4):366-398\n'},{id:"B103",body:'\nKoninckx PR, Barlow D, Kennedy S. Implantation versus infiltration: The Sampson versus the endometriotic disease theory. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation. 1999;47:3-9\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nGargett CE. Stem cells in gynaecology. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2004;44(5):380-386\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nFerguson BR, Bennington JL, Haber SL. Histochemistry of mucosubstances and histology of mixed müllerian pelvic lymph node glandular inclusions. Evidence for histogenesis by müllerian metaplasia of coelomic epithelium. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1969;33(5):617-625\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nVercellini P, Viganò P, Somigliana E, Fedele L. Endometriosis: Pathogenesis and treatment. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology. 2014;10(5):261-275\n'},{id:"B107",body:'\nEisenberg VH, Weil C, Chodick G, Shalev V. Epidemiology of endometriosis: A large population-based database study from a healthcare provider with 2 million members. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2018;125(1):55-62\n'},{id:"B108",body:'\nJones RL, Lang SA, Kendziorski JA, Greene AD, Burns KA. Use of a mouse model of experimentally induced endometriosis to evaluate and compare the effects of bisphenol A and bisphenol AF exposure. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2018;126(12):127004\n'},{id:"B109",body:'\nKunisue T, Chen Z, Buck Louis GM, Sundaram R, Hediger ML, Sun L, et al. Urinary concentrations of benzophenone-type UV filters in U.S. women and their association with endometriosis. Environmental Science & Technology. 2012;46(8):4624-4632\n'},{id:"B110",body:'\nWen X, Xiong Y, Qu X, Jin L, Zhou C, Zhang M, et al. The risk of endometriosis after exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals: A meta-analysis of 30 epidemiology studies. Gynecological Endocrinology. 2019;35(8):645-650\n'},{id:"B111",body:'\nBuck Louis GM, Peterson CM, Chen Z, Croughan M, Sundaram R, Stanford J, et al. Bisphenol A and phthalates and endometriosis: the endometriosis: Natural History, Diagnosis and Outcomes Study. Fertility and Sterility. 2013;100(1):162-9.e1-162-9.e2\n'},{id:"B112",body:'\nItoh H, Iwasaki M, Hanaoka T, Sasaki H, Tanaka T, Tsugane S. Urinary bisphenol-A concentration in infertile Japanese women and its association with endometriosis: A cross-sectional study. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine. 2007;12(6):258-264\n'},{id:"B113",body:'\nSimonelli A, Guadagni R, De Franciscis P, Colacurci N, Pieri M, Basilicata P, et al. Environmental and occupational exposure to bisphenol A and endometriosis: Urinary and peritoneal fluid concentration levels. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2017;90(1):49-61\n'},{id:"B114",body:'\nUpson K, Sathyanarayana S, De Roos AJ, Koch HM, Scholes D, Holt VL. A population-based case-control study of urinary bisphenol A concentrations and risk of endometriosis. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England). 2014;29(11):2457-2464\n'},{id:"B115",body:'\nRashidi BH, Amanlou M, Lak TB, Ghazizadeh M, Eslami B. A case-control study of bisphenol A and endometrioma among subgroup of Iranian women. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences: The Official Journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. 2017;22:7\n'},{id:"B116",body:'\nKendziorski JA, Belcher SM. Strain-specific induction of endometrial periglandular fibrosis in mice exposed during adulthood to the endocrine disrupting chemical bisphenol A. Reproductive Toxicology. 2015;58:119-130\n'},{id:"B117",body:'\nSignorile PG, Spugnini EP, Mita L, Mellone P, D\'Avino A, Bianco M, et al. Pre-natal exposure of mice to bisphenol a elicits an endometriosis-like phenotype in female offspring. General and Comparative Endocrinology. 2010;168(3):318-325\n'},{id:"B118",body:'\nReddy BS, Rozati R, Reddy S, Kodampur S, Reddy P, Reddy R. High plasma concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and phthalate esters in women with endometriosis: A prospective case control study. Fertility and Sterility. 2006;85(3):775-779\n'},{id:"B119",body:'\nKim SH, Cho S, Ihm HJ, Oh YS, Heo SH, Chun S, et al. Possible role of phthalate in the pathogenesis of endometriosis: In vitro, animal, and human data. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2015;100(12):E1502-E1511\n'},{id:"B120",body:'\nWeuve J, Hauser R, Calafat AM, Missmer SA, Wise LA. Association of exposure to phthalates with endometriosis and uterine leiomyomata: Findings from NHANES, 1999-2004. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2010;118(6):825-832\n'},{id:"B121",body:'\nUpson K, Sathyanarayana S, De Roos AJ, Thompson ML, Scholes D, Dills R, et al. Phthalates and risk of endometriosis. Environmental Research. 2013;126:91-97\n'},{id:"B122",body:'\nMoreira Fernandez MA, Cardeal ZL, Carneiro MM, André LC. Study of possible association between endometriosis and phthalate and bisphenol A by biomarkers analysis. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2019;172:238-242\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Francisco M. Peinado",address:null,affiliation:'
Biohealth Research Institute in Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Spain
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Luz M. Iribarne-Durán",address:null,affiliation:'
Biohealth Research Institute in Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Spain
Biohealth Research Institute in Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Spain
Radiology and Physical Medicine Department, University of Granada, Spain
CIBER Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Spain
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
In recent decades, scientists have spent a lot of time and effort in researching new materials and physical phenomena in order to cater to modern life. There are many new artificial materials that have been found to replace the earlier natural materials, which have brought significant benefits in various areas of life. Metamaterials are among those new materials that are made up of the arrangement of metal structures on the surface of dielectric substrates. Therefore, the physical properties of metamaterials depend on their structures more than the component that makes up them. In fact, materials with negative permittivity and permeability were first studied in 1968 by Veselago, who termed this material such as media left-hand (LH) which is formed by triad’s of vectors: electric field, magnetic field, and phase propagation [1]. However, these properties are not available in natural materials but only in artificial materials called metamaterials. The effects created by the metamaterials can be observed during the transmission of electromagnetic waves such as wave propagation. This phenomenon occurs due to an antiparallel group and the phase velocity leads to the inversion of the wave fronts, while its energy is moving away from the source. Metamaterial can be used for microwave and terahertz fields in devices such as antennas, filters, integrated network sensors, or new superlayers that can improve some of the parameters of equipment in the different field of science and technology. The knowledge of metamaterials provides us with a great deal of possibilities for applying and translating the physical concepts of metamaterials from laboratories to innovative antenna designs in practical engineering applications.
\n
A metamaterial is a word derived from the Greek word, it is a combination of the words “meta” and “material,” in which “meta” means something beyond normal, altered, changed, or something advance. It is an artificial material designed to obtain the physical properties that do not exist in natural materials. The term of metamaterial was given by Rodger M. Walser, University of Texas at Austin, in 1999 [2, 3]. He defined metamaterials as- “Macroscopic composites having a synthetic, three-dimensional, periodic cellular architecture designed to produce an optimized combination, not available in nature, of two or more responses” [3]. Many definitions are suggested about electromagnetic metamaterials, all of which can give us an understanding of electromagnetic metamaterial as follows:
Electromagnetic metamaterials (MTMs) are artificial material that is created by arranging homogeneous metal structures and having unusual properties that natural materials are not available.
The size of an effective homogeneous structure to form a unit cell of metamaterials must be much smaller than the guided wavelength [3].
Metamaterials are generated by arranging microstructures that are called “atoms” or cells.
These “atoms” can be made from electrical, nonelectrical, or dielectric materials.
These structures may be symmetric or asymmetric, isotropic, or anisotropic.
The arrangement of atoms can be in an orderly or chaotic manner, the purpose of which is to create the desired macrocharacteristics for the metamaterial.
\n
On the other hand, different structures give different types of metamaterials and applications, which are classified based on the material permittivity and permeability values created by those structures [4].
\n
\n
1.1. The properties of metamaterials
\n
The electromagnetic property of these metamaterials can be described by the Maxwell’s equations. The transformation of this equation serves to highlight the properties of metamaterials. They are given in the set of equations:
\n\n∇\n×\n\nE\n→\n\n=\n−\njωμ\n\nH\n→\n\n;\n\nE1
\n
\n\n∇\n×\n\nH\n→\n\n=\njω\n\nε\n\nE\n→\n\n\nE2
\n
where \n\n\nE\n→\n\n\n and \n\n\nH\n→\n\n\n are the vectors of electric and magnetic fields strengths, respectively; \n\nε\n\n and \n\nμ\n\n\nare the material permittivity and permeability; ω is an angular frequency; and \n\nj\n=\n\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n is an imaginary number.
\n
In the case of the plane wave propagation, the electric and magnetic fields are represented as:
In addition, to evaluate the properties of materials, a general definition of the Poynting power density vector \n\n\nS\n→\n\n\n is mentioned, which is subdivided into the time e+jωt and the space e−jkr components. The real part of the Poynting vector \n\n\nS\n→\n\n\n, which determines the energy flow, is represented by the following formula:
In the isotropic and homogeneous medium, the values of ε and μ are simultaneously positive. In this medium, the electric field \n\n\nE\n→\n\n\n, magnetic field \n\n\nH\n→\n\n,\n\n and propagation vector \n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n form the right circulate triad of orthogonal vectors. Therefore, it is also defined as the right-handed medium (RHM), where the \n\n\nS\n→\n\n\n, \n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n have the same directions and electromagnetic waves can propagate in them [5].
\n
In that case, the values of ε and μ are negative simultaneously; so, Eqs. (6) and (7) can be rewritten as:
In this case, the electric field \n\n\nE\n→\n\n\n, the magnetic field \n\n\nH\n→\n\n,\n\n and the propagation vector \n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n form left-hand circulate triad of orthogonal vectors, which also is defined as the left-hand medium (LHM). In this medium, the Poynting vector \n\n\nS\n→\n\n\n has the opposite direction to the propagation vector \n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n, so that it can support backward waves, i.e., the energy and wave fronts travel in opposite directions. Figure 1 depicts triplet models for RHM (a) and LHM (b) materials.
\n
Figure 1.
The vectors E, H, k form the trio for right-handed (a) and left-handed media (b).
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\n
\n
1.2. Metamaterials classification based on their properties
\n
The metamaterial classification was first proposed by Veselago scientists by considering the permittivity, ε, and the permeability, μ of a homogeneous material. As a result, when ε and μ are simultaneously negative, some abnormal physical phenomena occur such as the reversal of the Snell Law, the reversal of Cerenkov Effect, the reversal of the Doppler Shift. The relationship between the refractive index and the constituent parameters ε and μ is given by the formula:
\n\nn\n=\n±\n\n\n\nε\nr\n\n\nμ\nr\n\n\n\n\nE10
\n
where εr and μr are the relative permittivity and permeability of the material, related to the free space permittivity and permeability by ε0 = ε/εr = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m and μ0 = μ/μr = 4π × 10−7 H/m, respectively.
\n
From Eq. (10), sign ± of n can get 1 in the four cases, which depends on the pairs of sign of εr and μr. The electromagnetic metamaterials are classified based on each case of the pair sign ε and μ, they are shown in Figure 2. With each region corresponding to the structure created different metamaterials.
\n
Figure 2.
The classification of electromagnetic MTMs based on signs of the ε and μ.
\n
In the quadrant I, both parameters ε and μ are positive, and are called Double Positive (DPS) or right-handed medium (RHM). These materials can be found in nature, such as dielectric materials, in which the electromagnetic waves can propagate. In the quadrant II, the parameters are ε < 0—negative, and μ > 0—positive, and such material is called as epsilon negative (ENG) medium, and is represented by a plasma. In the quadrant III, parameters ε < 0—negative, and μ < 0—negative, this region is called double-negative (DNG) or left-handed medium (LHM), and such material could not be find in nature. The quadrant IV ε > 0—positive, and μ < 0—negative, and such material is called μ—negative (MNG), represented by ferrite materials. Such medium has below plasma frequency. Most waves can propagate in two mediums, namely: at region I and III. Non-propagating evanescent waves are found in regions II and IV [6, 7, 8, 9].
\n
Currently, two basic types of structures are being used for designing the most metamaterials: a dense array of thin wires (the electrical dipoles) and an array of split-ring resonators (SRRs) (the magnetic loops).
\n
\n
1.2.1. The epsilon-negative (ENG) metamaterial
\n
The ENG metamaterial uses the metallic mesh of thin wires, for obtaining negative value of ε. These parallel metal wires, which exhibit high-pass behavior for an incoming plane wave, whose electric field is parallel to the wires [10]. The cylindrical array displays the negative permittivity below the plasma frequency, the wire can be made of copper, aluminum, silver, or gold, they are arranged periodically as shown in Figure 3a. The effective permittivity is given by the equation [11]:
where ω is the frequency of the propagating electromagnetic wave and ωp is the plasma frequency.
\n
Figure 3.
An array of thin conducting wires (a), unit cell (b), plots of the effective permittivity of an array of wires (c), and its equivalent circuit (d).
\n
From Eq. (11), it is shown that when the propagation frequency is below the plasma frequency, its permittivity is negative [12]. This behavior is similar to the propagation of the electromagnetic waves in plasma medium. The propagation frequency as close to the plasma frequency, the value of effective permittivity is increasing. At the plasma frequency, the effective permittivity is equal to zero, and this corresponds to the refractive index equal to zero [13].
\n
Below the cutoff frequency of the array, there is no wave propagation, and the electromagnetic waves are totally reflected waves. This behavior is similar to the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the plasma medium. The plasma frequency depends on the lattice constant p and the radius of the individual wire. If the lattice constant frequency is several times smaller than the wavelength, the wire array can be considered as an equivalent of the continuous plasma [13, 14].
\n
\n
\n
1.2.2. The mu-negative (MNG) metamaterial
\n
As the mu-negative (MNG) material, the most popular structure has been using is split ring resonators (SRRs). A unit cell of the SRR is composed of two concentric metallic rings (can be circle or square) and separated by a gap d (see Figure 4b). Each ring has a narrow slot, and they are spaced 180 degree apart on each side. The gap between inner and outer ring acts as a capacitor, while the rings themselves act as an inductors. Therefore, the combination of the two rings acts as an LC resonance circuit. The effective permeability of MNG metamaterials is given by the formula (12):
where f is the frequency of the signal, fmp denotes the frequency at which (in the lossless case) μeff = 0 (“magnetic plasma frequency”), f0 is the frequency at which μeff diverges (the resonant frequency of the SRR), and γ represents the losses. The frequencies fmp and f0 depend on the lattice constant (p), and the geometry parameters of the SRR such as inner and outer radii of the rings, the width of the gap between the rings, and the slit width [15]. The dependence of μeff on the frequency is shown in Figure 4c.
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Figure 4.
An array of SRRs (a), SRR unit cell (b), the effective permeability of SRR array (c), and equivalent circuit (d).
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\n
\n
1.2.3. The double-negative (DNG) metamaterial
\n
The DNG metamaterial is also known as the negative refractive index material (NIM). The properties of the metamaterials DNG were first achieved by combining the thin wire-based ENG structure with SRR-based MNG structure (Figure 5a) [16]. This combination satisfies the requirement of ε < 0 from a wire/rodded medium (as an artificial dielectric) and μ < 0 from a split ring resonator (SRR). The first structure was constructed from the combination of planar SRRs etched on a thin dielectric layer and metallic rods (Figure 5b). In addition, to take advantage of the two sides of the dielectric layers, two-dimensional metamaterials have been designed by engraving the SRR on one side of the dielectric layer and planar strips on the other [17] (Figure 5c).
\n
Figure 5.
Combination of thin wires and SRR to form DNG metamaterials (a) and examples of realizations of DNG metamaterials (b) and (c).
\n
Because of DNG is made up of thin wire medium and SRRs medium, which their strong resonance behavior (Drude-Lorentz models) affects the frequency. Therefore, the generated DNG metamaterials are also dependent on frequency, which results in the refractive index n being reformatted as:
where ωep and ωmp are the electric and magnetic plasma frequencies, respectively, ωe0 and ωm0 are the electric and magnetic resonant frequencies, respectively, γc is the collision frequency, F is an amplitude factor, and Γ is a damping factor.
The plots of effective permittivity (a) and permeability (b) of the DNG metamaterial.
\n
To get the DNG metamaterial from the combination of the ENG and MNG structures, both negative regions of them must coincide. Then, the ENG domain is found corresponding to ωe0 < ω < ωep and the MNG region corresponding to ωm0 < ω < ωmp. Note that, if the wires are electrically continuous, their resonant frequency is 0 (ωe0 ≈ 0). This leads to results, since the ENG region is wider compared to the MNG region, the magnetic resonator metamaterial limits the DNG performance, when assembled together with an electric resonator metamaterial.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Metamaterials in antenna design
\n
Due to the special physical properties that natural materials do not exist, nowadays, the metamaterials are very attractive materials and are applied in many areas of life, such as the microwave invisibility cloaks, the invisible submarines, the revolutionary electronics, the negative refractive-index lenses, the microwave components, as the filters, compact, and efficient antennas [18]. Applying metamaterials to design of antennas is one of its most important applications [19, 20].
\n
Because metamaterials have unusual properties, so we can create antennas with novel characteristics, which cannot be obtained with traditional materials. The metamaterial antenna is one or more layers of metamaterials that are used as substrates or in addition to the configuration of the antenna to improve its performances [21, 22, 23]. From scientific research shows that the application of metamaterials in the antenna design can enhance the radiated power, improve some important parameters and reduce the size of the antenna. Depending on the design purpose of the antenna, the choice of structure and method of application of metamaterials varies.
\n
\n
2.1. Unit cell of metamaterials
\n
The metamaterials applied in the antenna design can be in the form of a unit cell or multiple unit cells assembled together into an array. Thus, the first step in designing the antenna metamaterials is to design and analyze the main factors affecting the resonance frequency, permittivity, and permeability of its unit cell [24]. The design of unit cells of metamaterials is based on the calculation of size and simulation of unit cells, so that the parameters ε and μ of these unit cells will satisfy the requirements at the expected resonant frequency. Depending on the structure and size of each unit cell, we can obtain different ε, μ, and resonant frequencies f. For each unit cell type, the dimensions of unit cell can be adjusted to satisfy condition at resonant frequency fr [25]. A unit cell is usually smaller than 1/10 of the operating wavelength (see Figure 7), depending on the shape of the metamaterial, but the unit cell size is different [19, 20, 26].
\n
Figure 7.
A unit cell of an inclusion with the SRR (a), second-order Hilbert fractal inclusion (b), square spiral (c), third-order Hilbert fractal inclusion (d), and fourth-order Hilbert fractal inclusion (e). Note that as the order of Hilbert fractal curve increases, the size of inclusion decreases.
\n
For example, a unit cell of metamaterial is designed and simulated based on the steps below. The size of the unit cell, in order for the metamaterial to satisfy the homogeneous conditions, the unit cell size must be much smaller than their guided wavelength. The unit cell of metamaterials at 1.88 GHz for GSM cellular phone system is shown in Figure 8 [27].
\n
Figure 8.
The unit cell of SRR simulation model (a) and the plots of S-parameters (b) at 1.88 GHz for GSM cellular phone system.
\n
The model of a SRR unit cell is shown in Figure 8a. The perfect electric conductor (PEC) boundary condition is applied to the z-axis, and the y-axis is defined as a perfect magnetic conductor (PMC) for the surfaces of the radiation box [28]. The S-parameters of unit cell including S11, S21 are exported as magnitude and phase (Figure 7b). The parameters ε and μ of the metamaterials must be verified through the S-parameters of unit cell given by formulas (16)–(19) and can extract them into graphs by the MATLAB program (Figure 9) [29].
Effective permittivity (a) and permeability (b) of metamaterial retrieved from S-parameters at 1.88 GHz [27].
\n
where S11 and S21 are the reflection and transmission coefficients, respectively; k0 is the wavenumber; d is the maximum length of the unit element; m is the integer related to the refractive index of n; and z is the wave impedance; μ is the permeability; and ε is the permittivity.
\n
In many cases, the numerical simulations of unit cells, according to calculations, do not fully achieve the desired results. Thus, the sizes of the unit cells need to be adjusted iteratively, until the simulation results satisfy the requirements of the metamaterial structure. For simulation results to be satisfied in the shortest possible time, the size of unit cells can be determined using an optimization computational algorithm. In Ansoft HFSS software, we can use the optimization method to save time and get the results as expected. Optimization algorithm of the unit cell size is shown in the diagram in Figure 10.
\n
Figure 10.
Optimal algorithm in designing unit cells of metamaterial.
\n
To save the time and load of the processor of the computer, choosing the value of parameters should be optimized in the two stages. In the first stage, we should select the start value, the end value of the parameters which are not too close to the calculated value, and the step value is not too small. After optimization, we select the desired results (if achieved). If the results are not satisfactory, we proceed with the optimization by selecting the optimal parameters, which give the result closest to the desired. Then proceed to select the start value, the value close to the selected value in the previous optimization, the value of the step is smaller than the previous step. The optimal execution will result in the most satisfying results.
\n
\n
\n
2.2. The functions of metamaterials in antenna design
\n
In the antenna applications, among the applications of microwave and radio frequency substrate materials, the artificial magnetic conductors (AMCs) and the high-impedance surfaces (HISs) are the most relevant and applied devices. They are used to design compact and low-profile antenna systems by placing HISs or AMCs around or close to the antenna radiating elements. In addition, metamaterials can also be used as part of the antenna structure or the feeding part of the antenna system.
\n
\n
2.2.1. Metamaterials used as the antenna environment
\n
Metamaterials are applied as the antennas environment, to improve their radiation properties by using the artificial magnetic conductor (AMC). It is a type of implemented metamaterial in several antennas and microwave design applications. By utilizing the unique characteristics of metamaterials which do not exist naturally, the performance of various microwave devices can be enhanced. The property limits the applications of AMC in wideband antenna applications. One of the techniques to improve the narrow band AMC as the ground plane is discussed in detail. The employment of AMC has solved many issues while overcoming the typical limitations in conventional antenna designs. To improve the radiation properties of the antenna by using metamaterials, antennas are often placed above the reflector in order to radiate in one direction only, while reducing the back-radiation [30]. In this case, the metamaterial is not used as a medium but as a device, which serves as active substrate for the creation of plasma environment in each unit cell of the metamaterial. The distance between the antenna and the metal surface should be chosen for a minimum of λ/4, where the metamaterial acts as a reflective plane to enhance the radiation, it is shown in Figure 11 [31]. This can be explained by means of image theory for electric or magnetic currents. When placing a charge \n\nρ\n(\n\n\nr\n\n→\n\n)\n\n or current \n\n\nJ\n→\n\n(\n\n\nr\n\n→\n\n)\n\n distribution close to a conductor, there are several charges and currents that appear on the surface of the metal, which are involved in the radiation of the conductor. Both perfect magnetic conductors (PMCs) and perfect electric conductor (PECs) boundary conditions (BCs) are appearing these image current [32]. Depending on the type of reflector, the images of the electric or the magnetic current will change. Figure 11b and c shows the electric currents (of a dipole antenna) placed above a PEC and a PMC boundary conditions (BSc).
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Figure 11.
Geometry of an antenna located above an AMC ground plane (a), the electric image currents due to a PEC (b) or a PMC (c) boundary condition (BCs).
\n
ACM is a widely used metamaterial in antenna design, it is used to mimic the behavior of PMC, which is not available in nature. The performance of the antenna is improved when it is combined with ACM. Because with this combination, the ACM mimics the PMC is the ability to provide zero-degree reflection phases at its resonant frequency (Figure 12a) [33].
\n
Figure 12.
Typical reflection phase diagram of AMC (a) and mushroom-like surface design (b).
\n
One of the first AMC surfaces was the electromagnetic band-gap (EBG) surface, which was introduced by Sievenpiper in 1999 [34]. The so-called mushroom-like surface is composed of a ground plane loaded with a lattice of square patches which are connected to the ground plane through metallic vias, as shown in Figure 12b.
\n
Previous ACMs was fabricated using a planar dielectric substrate double-side metallized, where one side is a ground plane, whereas on another side, the square patches are photo-etched. The metallic bars are inserted into the substrate to connect two sides (ground plane and individual patches) of the AMC. In addition, other AMCs are designed that do not require a ground plane for reflective purposes. One layer with capacitive-loaded loops (CLLs) of the volumetric AMC is seen in Figure 13a.
\n
Figure 13.
Schematic of proposed two fins CLL loaded dipole antenna (a) and the phase of the reflection coefficients of S11 and S22 (b).
\n
An electric field plane wave linearly polarized along the y-axis impinges the volumetric CLL metamaterial block along the +x direction (port 1), or along the −x direction (port 2). In such a case, the phase of the reflection coefficient S11 in Figure 13b shows a PMC response (phase (S11) = 0°) around 10 GHz. It is also interesting to note that the phase of S22 remains around the value of ±180° [35].
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2.2.2. Metamaterials as part of antenna structure
\n
Metamaterials can be used as part of the antenna structure, which aims to design a compact antenna size without deteriorating performance of its. In this case, the metamaterials are used with high permeability values (μ >> 1) as a magneto-dielectric (MD) substrate of patch antennas [36, 37]. As a result, the size of the antenna is significantly reduced without using a high permittivity (ε >> 1). Figure 14 shows the patch antennas minimized by the application of MD (a) and comparison with shifting of resonance frequencies for different substrates: air, dielectric, and magneto-dielectric.
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Figure 14.
Patch antenna with high-μ metamaterial substrate (a) and input impedance plots for different substrates air, dielectric, and magneto-dielectric (b).
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In addition, the metamaterials as part of the antenna are also applied in the left-handed transmission line (LH-TL) properties, typically the dipole antenna (Figure 15a and b).
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Figure 15.
The simulation model (a) fabricated (b) of the left-handed dipole antenna, and the equivalent circuit model of the lossless unit cell of the CRLH dipole (c) [38].
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In this case, the transmission line with left-handed loading actually operates as a composite right-/left-handed transmission line (CRH/LH TL) due to the parasitic effect [38]. Figure 15c shows the equivalent circuit model of the lossless unit cell, where the shunt inductors LL and capacitors CL act as an LH transmission line, while the shunt capacitors CR and capacitors LR act as right-handed (RH) transmission line [39].
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\n
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2.3. The effects of applying metamaterials in antenna design
\n
Using metamaterials in antenna design may lead to reduced size, improve gain, enhance bandwidth or to create multiband antenna. Depending on the technical requirements of the designed antenna, the metamaterials will be used as different functions of the antenna.
\n
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2.3.1. The metamaterials in improving gain of antennas
\n
Low gain is a main disadvantage of small planar antennas, which must be overcome to satisfy transceiver systems overall energetic ling budget. In addition to using an array antenna, recently the metamaterial is a solution that has been applied in antenna design. In this case, the used metamaterials may be artificial magnetic conductors (AMCs) or artificial magnetic materials (AMMs). They are applied as the environment of the antenna in such a way as to arrange the unit cells of the metamaterials surrounding radiated elements of the antenna [40], or using one or more superstrates above or below the radiated elements [41], or using such as metamaterials as the loading of the antenna [35, 42]. Figure 16 shows the applied methods of metamaterials for improving gain of antenna.
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Figure 16.
Models of metamaterials application in improving the power gain of the antennas: unit cells surrounding the radiated patch (a), metamaterials as superstrate (b), using the metamaterials as antenna loading (c).
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Each of these methods has different advantages and disadvantages. The ability to improve antenna power gain depends on the number of superstrate, the type of unit cell, and distance between the radiation elements to the superstrates.
\n
In the case, the unit cells of metamaterials arranged around the radiation elements of the antenna, they can be loaded to one side or both sides of the substrate. The size of these unit cells must be investigated, so that the metamaterials have special physical properties that match the resonant frequency of the antenna. The unit cells are easily integrated with radiated elements and can be used as insulators to reflect surface waves based on negative μ characteristics. By inserting the unit cells of MTM, loaded around the conventional antenna, the antenna radiation efficiency increases, and the power gain is higher than ≥2 dB [39]. Depending on the number of unit cells, as well as resonant frequency of the designed antenna, the achieved gain may be also different.
\n
In the case, when the metamaterials are placed on another dielectric layer called superstrate, the unit cells of metamaterials are loaded on a different dielectric with the distance d from the radiation elements to the superstrate. These array unit cells created AMCs or AMMs, which can be loaded in one side or both sides of the superstrate. The power gain of an antenna depends on the number of superstrate, the number of unit cells, and the distance from the radiation elements to the superstrate [43, 44]. This is shown in Figure 17.
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Figure 17.
The Sierpinski carpet fractal antenna (a), the antenna (a) covered with the AMC MTM (b), and realized antenna power gain (c), for two resonant frequencies [43, 44].
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The application of metamaterials as a superstrate in antenna design has significantly improved the achieved gain. However, this method also increases the size and thickness of the antenna.
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2.3.2. The metamaterials in reducing the size of antennas
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There are many technical solutions that have been used to design compact antennas such as high-permittivity dielectric substrate of microstrip antennas, shorting pins, shorting walls, inserting some disturbances into antenna structure, applying the fractal geometry, etc. Recently, many designers have used metamaterials as a defected ground structure (DGS) to reduce the size of the antenna. In this case, the unit cells of the metamaterials have unusual properties at the resonance frequency of the designed antenna; the dimension of these unit cells is equal to the size of the removed parts of the DGS [45]. Figure 18 shows the simulation models of the two antennas, both of which operate at 1.88 GHz for the GSM system.
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Figure 18.
Comparison of the size of microstrip patch antenna MPA without loaded CSRR (a) and with loaded CSRR (b) for GSM system [27].
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The dimensions of microstrip antenna (Figure 18a) are bigger than dimensions of microstrip antenna with complementary split ring resonator (CSRR) designed on the antenna ground plane (Figure 18b). The reduction in antenna size after CSRR as DGS is shown in Table 1.
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\n
\n\n
\n
Types of microstrip patch antennas
\n
Overall antenna size [mm × mm]
\n
Type of radiation patterns
\n
Antenna size ratio, %
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Without MTMs
\n
53.28 × 62.08
\n
Directional
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
With MTMs
\n
23.28 × 25.03
\n
Directional
\n
60
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparison between parameters of two types of antennas for GSM cellular phony.
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2.3.3. Use of metamaterials to enhance the antenna frequency bandwidth
\n
In addition to the benefits of using metamaterials to design the antennas mentioned above, it is also used to enhance the antenna frequency bandwidth. To achieve this goal, the metamaterials are used as components of the antenna (Figure 19) or a superstrate placed above the radiation surface (like the method of improving the antenna gain), it is shown in Figure 16b. Unit cells of metamaterials can be placed on top or under bottom of the superstrate. The bandwidth of this antenna depends on the number of unit cells as well as the distance of the superstrate to the radiation surface.
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Figure 19.
S-parameters of antennas without and with MTMs: as CSRR loading (a), superstrate layer for microwave C-band frequency (b) [27].
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Depending on the specific cases, the application of MTMs as the DGS of the antenna not only reduces the size but also increases the obtained bandwidth of the antenna. Figure 19 compares the sizes and bandwidths of two antennas before and after applying the MTMs with the same 2.413 GHz resonant frequency for WLAN system. The ratio of the decreased size and the increased bandwidth is shown in Table 2.
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\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Antenna types
\n
Antenna size ratio, %
\n
Ratio of BW, %
\n
Type of radiation pattern
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Without MTM
\n
100
\n
100
\n
Directional
\n
\n
\n
With MTMs
\n
78.7
\n
141
\n
Directional
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Comparison between parameters of two types of antennas for WLAN system.
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The application of metamaterials in antenna design has enhanced its bandwidth. Depending on the technical requirements of the designed antenna, the different metamaterial structures and different application methods are selected to achieve the most appropriate antenna bandwidth.
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2.3.4. Use metamaterials to get multiband
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From the need to integrate multiple functions (many communication systems operation) on single devices, multiband antennas are more interested. The use of metamaterials in antenna design is an attractive trend not only to reduce size, improve the power gain, enhance bandwidth, but also to design multifrequency-band antennas [46]. The unit cells of metamaterials can be used as radiation components, a part or loaded part of the ground plane of antenna. Because, MTMs can support negative refraction indexes at resonant frequencies and unit cell structures of symmetric pairs. This can be used to design multifrequency antennas with smaller dimensions than traditional one [46]. Metamaterial can be combined with a conventional or fractal microstrip antenna to create multiband antenna, in which the antenna size is determined by the lowest frequency. Figure 20 shows the simulation model and S11 scattering matrix coefficient of the two antennas, which operate on multiple frequencies. The resonant frequency of the antenna can be adjusted by changing the size of the antenna or the unit cell [47].
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Figure 20.
The configuration of microstrip antenna for WLAN systems without loaded CSRR (a), fractal antenna with loaded CSRR (b), and S11 parameters of them (c) [27, 48, 49].
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3. Conclusions
\n
In this chapter, the applications of metamaterials in design to enhance antenna parameters are presented. The metamaterials can be applied as an environment of the antenna or as part of the antenna. Depending on the parameters of the desired antenna to improve, the metamaterials can be applied in different methods. The metamaterials can be applied to improve bandwidth, power gain, or to create compact, multifrequency-band antennas. To apply metamaterials in an antenna, the first is to design their unit cells, which are considered as atoms, creating special properties of the metamaterial at the desired frequency. The size of the unit cells is calculated, simulated, and optimized, based on the HFSS software. Effectiveness of improving the parameters of the antenna depends on the structure, size, quantity, and method of use of the unit cell of the metamaterials. Application of metamaterials in antenna design can increase their power gain ≥2 dB, bandwidth ≥100%, reduce size ≥50% or to create additional frequency bands for multicommunication systems operated antennas.
Faculty of Electronics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
School of Engineering and Technology, Vinh University, Vietnam
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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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