\r\n\tMethadone maintenance treatment (MMT) has become the main pharmacological option for the treatment of opioid dependence. Methadone remains the gold standard in the substitution treatment, which is a harm reduction intervention, because the patient does not become abstinent, but there are a series of positive changes. Currently, the surveillance of methadone substitution treatment is considered an ongoing challenge, given the need for the individualization and the increasing of the therapy efficiency. Methadone has been also studied as an analgesic for the management of cancer pain and other chronic pain conditions.
\r\n\r\n\tThe complexity of methadone pharmacology, the high inter-individual variability in methadone pharmacokinetics, the risk of opioid diversion, the overdose and other adverse events pose many challenges to clinicians.
\r\n\tThe aim of the proposed book is to update and summarize the scientific knowledge on the opioid dependence, including the mechanism of opioid dependence, the misuse of prescription opioids and the substitution therapy of opioid dependence.
This chapter presents a Mobile Slide Monitor (MSM) which can be used for fast geographic positioning of some objectives or of some of their components that are situated at great distances from the roadways, (buildings, terrain markings) or are inaccessible in a direct mode, (dams, bridges, heaps of debris). The system assures an accurate geo-referencing of the off-road objective characteristics, an important problem for the infrastructure management at the level of public works administration.
The main applications of this MSM equipment are to estimate and alert, in due time, the occurrence of great proportion accidents caused by breaking down of civil constructions (buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams). These accidents are due to natural causes such as landslides and floods, in the areas with a high risk, or due to some human interventions such as the erroneous emplacement of some new constructions, the erroneous designing or even due to the oldness of some constructions.
Moreover, the bridges are part of a country’s transportation infrastructure and are typically assessed and maintained by the authorities responsible for the appropriate transportation sector (road or rail). Nowadays, the deterioration of bridge structures is a serious problem due to issues related to modern society; reliance on the automobile, the increased bridge traffic, the environmental pollution, and the use of potentially corrosive substances (e.g. cleaning and de-icing). Bridge monitoring is necessary to ensure the safety of those who either use, or are affected by the structure itself, and the maintenance of the sector is usually part of the legislature governing.
Therefore the main objective of the present chapter is to describe a mobile laboratory for the monitoring of constructions deformations in the incipient phases, deformations that are due to terrain sliding from natural or human causes. As opposed to the systems which achieve in static regime the stability monitoring of the constructions by using some precision optical systems or GPS equipments with differential regime functioning but to which the follower receiver is attached in a fixed montage on the surveyed construction, the proposed mobile monitoring system permits that the measurements be rapidly performed, at a preset time interval, with a reduced cost on a multitude of objectives and with a minimum delay between the moment of some defection apparition and the moment of its identification and alarming.
Monitoring of situations and territories with hydro-geological risk represent an institutional task of the Public Administrations. Therefore, in some areas, it becomes necessary to achieve systems for real-time survey, which are able to record the alarm signs of a potential risk for the population. An early-warning system provides, also, the foundation for an effective risk mitigation plan, given the uncertainties related to the mathematical prediction of the natural phenomena and the strong public demand for protection against natural hazards.
The World Bank promotes a proactive and strategic approach to managing natural hazard risk, by taking into account a comprehensive framework, based on the following five pillars:
Risk assessment - includes application of the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and loss analyses and provides projections of the average annual expected loss and the probable maximum loss from a single catastrophic event;
Emergency preparedness. Citizens and government agencies need to be prepared for breakdowns în essential services, to develop plans for contingencies, and to implement the plans. They should be encouraged to make resources available for facilities and equipment, they need to provide emergency personnel, they need training, sponsor exercises, and get information available for the public;
Investments in risk mitigation. This may include inexpensive investments in increasing institutional capacity, strengthen enforcement of building codes, provide training, and involve communities, including mapping, monitoring and warning systems. As investments in physical infrastructure (flood protection, landslides prevention and retrofitting of housing and/or public buildings for seismic resistance) are very expensive, the selection of the most suitable of them should be carried out by applying cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis;
Institutional capacity building. The efficiency and effectiveness of a comprehensive hazard risk management system depends on the knowledge, awareness, and capacity of the stakeholders involved. For that purpose, the following aspects are recommended:
to create decentralized emergency management systems;
to ensure community involvement and participation;
to develop an efficient legal framework, and
to provide training, education, and knowledge sharing.
It is also important to integrate hazard risk management into the economic development process. Emergency planning and risk mitigation need to be an integral part of the rural and urban development process, with the participation of all the stakeholders.
Develop a catastrophe risk financing strategy. Countries need to develop and introduce targeted risk financing strategies for dealing with catastrophic events that can have a severe impact on their economies. The strategy would address the funding gap caused by the need to recover economic losses and meet social obligations and other responsibilities, following a catastrophic event. Developing a risk financing strategy is particularly important for countries exposed to catastrophic earthquakes.
Therefore, the Regional Public Administrations from a country, which has more or less accentuated risk for the natural disasters, may have at their disposal the possibility to verify, at pre-established time intervals, the real state of the geological formations or of the building, which is suspected to be in danger.
The main application of the MSM equipment presented here, is the estimation and the alerting in due time regarding the risk of great proportion accidents, by break down of civil constructions due to some natural causes, such as landslides and floods, in areas with high risk of accidents.
The final result will be the achievement of a Geographic Informational System (GIS), which will have to integrate all the information and the all types of data, which are needed for the natural disasters management, from the prognosis to the post-factum measurements. Moreover, besides the hazard maps which must be elaborated for the all regions of the respective country, the local authorities must, also, draw up risk maps which refer to the most exposed areas to the natural calamities.
Usually, the measurement of superficial displacement is the simplest way to observe the history of a landslide and to analyze the kinematics of the movement, so the investigation of the terrains sliding movements permits, also, the detection of possible precursor elements of the mass movements.
In the past, a various surveying techniques were used to detect the superficial movements of unstable area. For examples, tapes and wire devices were used to measure changes in distance, between terrain points or crack walls. Levels, theodolites, Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM), and total station measurements provide both the coordinates and changes of target, control points and landslide features. In addition, aerial or terrestrial photogrammetry provides point coordinates, contour maps and cross-section of the landslides.
A classical example of such optical measurement equipment for observing different targets with displacement probability is the “Leica Smart Station”, a Total Station with integrated GPS offered on the market by the “Leica Geosystems AG” company. The introduction of SydNET, a network of Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS), allows surveyors to perform Differential GPS without having to purchase a reference receiver. For distances of up to tens of kilometres away from the network reference stations, centimetre accuracy can be achieved, with the RTK-GPS Network.
This equipment involves the optical observation of the proposed object from different static locations of the operator, locations which are precisely determined by means of the highly performing GPS receiver. In these conditions, the determination of the geographic coordinates of a single distant objective involves multiple complex operations and in consequence, can be considered time consuming.
Another totally different technical solution for this problem, solution which aims to reduce the length of the measurement times involved by the use of the optical total stations, is represented by the “Fixed Satellitary Monitoring System of the Territory and Civil Infrastructures” (or SAMOS for short) achieved by SEPA company (“Sistemi Elettronici Per Automazione S.p.A.”) from Torino (Italy).
The SEPA’s system represents a solution for cost effective applications targeting the real time monitoring and diagnosis of ground deformation; for instance, landslides and the subsidence, or the infrastructure deformations affecting buildings, bridges, viaducts and dams, or even both simultaneously.
Based on measurements from a GPS L1-only carrier phase employing commercial receivers and using the basic principles of interferometric surveying, SAMOS provides continuous real-time monitoring of the area of interest, reporting the millimetric displacement of each sensor relative to a reference sensor.
Measurements are taken at a rate of 1 Hz and the processed results are updated using the same frequency. The system performance is equivalent, on short baselines up to a few km in length.
This Satellitary Monitoring System, in fact like other this kind of systems, is composed of two subsystems, namely:
a number of Field Sensors, (Fig. 2), deployed to collect the satellite data and which are fix mounted on different parts of the objective of interest (bridge, dam, building). These field sensors are continuously relayed by means of a radio connection to
a Base Station, (Fig. 3), for real-time processing of the data collected from the field sensors.
For its protection this Base Station is introduced in a Waterproof box (Fig. 4).
Fixed Satellitary Monitoring System of the Territory and Civil Infrastructures achieved by “SEPA Sistemi Elettronici Per Automazione S.p.A.” from Torino (Italy).
GNSS receiver
The Field Sensor uses a single frequency GPS receiver to measure the carrier phase on the L1 GPS signal and an RF Modem for point-to-point communication with the base station via radio link. A microcontroller supervises the communication and the exchange of data between the GPS receiver and the radio modem, and in addition, it supplies diagnostic data related to the sensor itself.
Base station
Waterproof box of the Base Station
It is also important to mention that, for this SAMOS system, it is necessary that, on the surveyed objectives, to be assured permanent electrical energy supplies (which can be constituted from photovoltaic panels or, if this is available, from the mains power supply of the area). In both cases, a backup battery is included. Moreover, we must notice that the receivers and the system GPS components remains in field in the majority of cases, without any surveillance from the operators.
The Base Station includes the network controller, used to receive the GPS data collected via radio links from sensors deployed in the field, and a computer running the software to process the data and display the results in real-time. The raw measurement data as well as the results are stored in a database for possible further processing, if required, or simply archiving. (Caporali A., 2008)
In addition to collecting the measurement data, the base station can retrieve status information from the sensors, such as the accumulator supply voltage, RF link signal strength and temperature.
The Graphic User Interface (GUI) shows the real-time status of the network (satellites available and being tracked, nominal antenna locations and network geometry, status of each sensor) and the results of the data analysis as northing, easting and vertical displacements of each antenna with respect to the reference antenna, using diagrams and tables. The GUI can be tailored to the customer’s requirements, and it will alert the operator when preset thresholds are exceeded.
The main disadvantage of the SEPA types fixed systems is that this equipment must be mounted in a fixed position on every point of interest, meaning that for an objective or an area suspected to present landslides, a great number of equipments of this kind is necessary, and, in consequence, high total costs.
Taking account of the newest improvements of the GNSS systems regarding the real-time positioning accuracy, (A. Stoica et al., 2008), the authors of this chapter present the achievement of a mobile equipment for the monitoring of the field stability as opposed to the most used in present, static optical total stations, “Leica” or “SEPA” type systems, which are based on GPS receivers with differential regime functioning but which are fixed mounted on the surveyed objectives.
But one must specify that also for this mobile alternative, which is proposed here for the monitoring of some objective position, there are various mobile equipments for mapping and, respectively, for monitoring, introduced on international level, equipments which are described in the following subsections.
The Mobile Mapping Equipment “GPSVisionTM” (fig. 5) achieved by the “LAMBDA TECH International” company from Fort Wayne (USA), which is equipped with a positioning module composed of a GPS receiver with double frequency, an Inertial Navigation System (INS) and a linear Distance of running Measuring Instrument (DMI), in combination with four digital video cameras of high resolution. The digital video cameras are mounted above the vehicle and they can be oriented forward, to each side or backward in correspondence with the application needs, so that due to the fact that the video cameras pairs see, at a certain moment, the same field area from different positions, by using some triangulation algorithms, it is possible to calculate the locations relative to the lab vehicle of the sighted targets.
The main characteristics of the system are:
The images are taken according to an operator-defined distance interval to provide full coverage of the route and its surroundings. By applying a sophisticated photogrammetric triangulation technology, any point that appears in any set of two images can be located in a global coordinate system during digitization with Lambda Tech’s Feature Extraction software;
Stereo imaging allows for determining absolute positions of features such as signs in latitude and longitude to sub-meter accuracy and it also allows very accurate relative measurements of all visible roadside attributes, such as the width, height and offset of a sign. Stereo imagery allows for multiple views of the same object with 3D capabilities and the ability to recreate image views where the original cameras never took a picture;
GPSVision™ specified absolute accuracy for terrestrial data positions is one meter or less depending on the distance bewtween the feature to be extracted and the camera lens. Depending on the image spacing this accuracy can be increased. The GPSVision™ system was designed to deliver sub-meter RMS positions when visible features are within the camera field of view of both image pairs and no farther than 30 meters in front of the camera lenses;
From a photogrammetric perspective, GPSVision™ is a fix-based stereovision system with known position and attitude provided by the GPS/INS component. Just as a person uses two eyes to determine the distance of an object, every infrastructure feature that is “seen” by the cameras can be triangulated into a three-dimensional coordinate and then transferred into a global coordinate system (e.g., latitude, longitude, height);
GPSVision™ Feature Extraction software is executable on Microsoft Windows operating systems. It is driven by an external rule base and is language neutral. The user interacts with the software by pointing at features of interest seen in the stereo image pairs with the mouse or stylus. Then, the software triangulates the relative position of the selected feature and transfers it into the global coordinate system and positioned to within one meter or less of their actual location;
From an application perspective, the GPSVision™ system is used to collect digital images along highways, state roads, residential streets, alleys, and railroads while traveling at posted speed limits. These geo-referenced digital images are used for video log applications but most importantly, the software is used to position visible physical features, such as poles, curb lines, traffic signs, manholes, pedestals and building locations. In addition, the GPS/INS positioning component creates base maps of the route network for Geographic Information Systems (GIS) base map and Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD) applications.
GPSVision™ - with four video cameras achieved by the “LAMBDA TECH INTERNATIONAL” Company (USA) for objectives that are closed to the road arteries
A similar example of a mobile system for mapping and data collection, which can map railroads, thoroughfares and transport infrastructures (as for example, roads, circulation signs and bridges) during its displacement at posted road speeds is represented by “GPSVan™” system achieved by the Mapping Center from the Ohio State University and which is also composed of two main components: a positioning module and an imagery module. This imagery module includes, also, in this case, a stereo metric system with two video cameras which record the stereo images of the roads during the displacement on the respective arteries of the lab vehicle. Each video frame is time marked with the GPS signal and the geodesic coordinates (latitude, longitude and ellipsoidal height, respectively) are attributed to each image.
From the above presented aspects, it results that both the GPSVisionTM and GPSVan™ equipments represent, in their essence, a fix-based stereovision system with known position and attitude, provided by the GPS/INS component and, respectively, by the GPS/DRS component. This fixed base is represented by the distance, on the hood width of the lab vehicle, between the optical distances of the two video cameras, mounting distance which in the case of both GPSVisionTM and GPSVan™ equipments is approximately of 1.2 meters. As a consequence of the fixed base reduced value, the difference between the angles of sighting directions of the two video cameras is under the minimum value it can be measured by the optical system when the sighted targets are situated at a distance, greater then approximately 40 meters, in respect to lab vehicle. This limitation of the observing distance, at a quite reduced value, represents in its essence the main disadvantage of the stereo metric systems, which are based on the use of a pair of video cameras, mounted on the same lab vehicle.
The static regime systems, previously described, achieve the stability monitoring of the constructions by using precision optical systems or GPS equipment with differential regime functioning, but to which the follower receiver is attached in a fixed montage on the surveyed construction. As opposed to these systems the monitoring system presented here has the advantage that it permits measurements to be rapidly performed, at preset time interval, with a reduced cost on a multitude of objectives and with a minimum delay between the moment of some defection occurence and the moment of its identification and alarming.
Taking account of the above-mentioned characteristics of the bi-cameral stereo-metric systems, the INOE 2000 Institute from Bucharest elaborated the Invention Patent RO 126294 A2/2009 whose main objective was to increase up to U200 – 300 metersU, the distance up to which the sighted targets from the terrain can be positioned.
Conceptually this Mobile Slide Monitor - MSM involves:
The acquisition of successive images achieved from a moving vehicle by means of a single CMOS video camera mounted above this vehicle (Fig.6);
Moving vehicle and the CMOS video Camera
The determination with a sub-metric accuracy of the vehicle position, by means of a GPS device at the time of taking the picture (Fig. 7);
Multi-Frequency GPS receiver
The use of an innovative mathematical algorithm based on a triangulation method for the geographic position computing of every object which appears in two different images.
Geographic positioning of the sighted object.
The general assembly of the proposed Mobile Slide Monitor is presented in Figure 9.
The equipment assembly during a normal functioning on a tested route
More precisely, the mobile positioning system achieved in conformity with the invention patent proposes itself to obviate the limits which affect the functioning of the above-mentioned equipments by introducing the following series of combined measures:
In order to increase up to 200 – 300 meters, the distance up to which the sighted targets from the terrain can be positioned, the proposed MSM equipment resorts to the use of a single digital camera of high resolution in a fixed montage on a lab vehicle. This way, the measurement of the applied stereo-metric method is based not on the width of the lab vehicle, which uses the bi-cameral method, but on the distance of 20 – 30 meters between the positions resulted from the lab vehicle displacement and from which the camera sights the same objective (fig. 10). This single video camera has a telemetric type objective and a reduced angle of view;
On the basis of the notations entered in the figure 10, it is possible to compute the geographic position coordinates of the sighted target: λT, φT, hT - longitude, latitude and height, respectively:
ΨT1 and ΨT2, azimuth angles of the sighted target in rapport with two positions of the Lab Vehicle, angles which are determinated from the two target preloaded images with the Video Camera;
λ1, φ1, h1 and λ2, φ2, h2, the vehicle geographic coordinates determined for the two positions of the Lab Vehicle by means of its GPS receiver;
Ψ1, Θ1, Φ1 and Ψ2, Θ2, Φ2, the vehicle orientation angles determined for the two positions of the Lab Vehicle by means of its Inertial Navigation System (INS);
M.B. – Measuring Base, namely the distance between the two positions, Pos.1 and Pos.2 of the Lab Vehicle,
Fig.10 The Sighting of the same target from two different positions between which the Measuring Base - MB is forming.
The geographic positioning of a far away target (200 – 300 meters) involves in a first phase the use of the video camera which is triggered by the PPS (Pulse Per Second) signal furnished by the GPS receiver for taking photo images of the respective target from two different positions of the lab vehicle (about 20 – 30 meters) (Fig.11).
The sighting of a far away objective from two positions of the mobile monitoring system.
Afterwards, in a post processing regime, the pixel coordinates of the point, representing the target in each of the two images are determined, and, thus, it is possible to establish in each case the target angular position, relative to the video camera axis (Fig. 12).
The definition of the deviation angles ψp and θp of the target direction relative to the central axis of the viewing field of the video camera
To assure the positioning of the sighted objectives in the frame of the global terrestrial system of coordinates and their registering in files of GIS (Geographic Information System) type, at the operator returning at the computing centre, from the obtained images, series of two images are selected. In these series of two images the same sighted objective is evidenced in a corresponding mode, which will allow the selection of this objective in an electronic modality and the determination of the pixel coordinates which achieves the objective displaying on the monitor screen. These coordinates together with other data which accompany the two selected images, permit to compute the geographic and elevation coordinates of the sighted objective with the use of using triangulation proceedings as well as methods to report to the spherical system of the terrestrial coordinates.
So, as it is presented in figure 12, in the post processing regime, the pixel coordinates of the point representing the target in each of the two images are determined, and, on this basis, it is possible to establish in each case the target angular position relative to the video camera axis.
To achieve, in real time, the precise positioning of the lab vehicle, with errors that can be included between few millimetres and some centimetres, it resorts to the use of a GPS positioning system with multiple frequencies and with differential RTK (Real Time Kinematic) regime functioning capability. This means that it has the possibility to be connected through the Internet network, to a reference GPS station, at which it is subscribed and from which it can take the differential corrections. In relation to this, it is mentioned that the National Romanian Service ROMPOS – DGNSS provides corrections for the real time kinematic applications with a positioning accuracy evaluated at the interval between 3.0 and 0.5 meters for the receiver with a single frequency. The ROMPOS – RTK service delivers corrections for the real time kinematic applications with a positioning accuracy value situated between 0.5 and 2.0 cm for the receivers with two frequencies (Stoica, 2008);
To increase the time marking accuracy of the obtained video images, the video cameras triggering is achieved from exterior by the PPS signal (Pulse Per Second) received from the GPS satellite system, which, also, contains in its message, besides of the positioning data, the data regarding the Universal Time – UTC;
In order to continuously maintain the achieved positioning precision, the GPS system is tight coupled with an IMU (Inertial Measuring Unit) unit, the data of these systems being distributed through a filtering element of Kalman type. By integrating GPS and INS, the accurate GPS position is used to update the INS, and the latter then produces the high rate of accurate position and attitude data of mobile mapping system. The INS is needed for continuously measure the camera location and orientation. Combining GPS, INS and Distance Measurement Indicator (DMI) data is a very efficient and accurate method to determine the position (lat/long/height), azimuth, pitch and roll angles of the system cameras. The measurements of the INS come from two sensor triads, an accelerometer block and a gyro block. They are defined as three components of the specific force vector and three components of the body rotation rate. Integrated with GPS data, the system geometry data are calculated using the Kalman method. (Moafipoor S. et al., 2004)
The integrated GPS/INS solution produces continuous, smooth position and orientation of the system even when the GPS signals are lost due to obstructions such as bridges, trees, tunnels, mountains, high-rise buildings or limited and sporadic satellite coverage.
Taking into account of the functioning details described here, the figure 13 presents the complete set of devices which compose our Mobile Slide Monitor.
Inertial Measuring Systems – INS are used on land, at sea and in the air as well as in space to determine the dynamic properties and trajectory of a moving object. They are, also, used for navigation, guidance and control or stabilisation of objects.
The components of the Mobile Slide Monitor
In general, an INS system uses forces and rotations measured by an IMU (Inertial Measuring Unit) to calculate position, velocity and attitude. Forces are measured by accelerometers in three perpendicular axes within the IMU and the gyros measure angular rotation rates around those axes. Over short periods of time, inertial navigation gives very accurate acceleration, velocity and attitude output. The INS must have prior knowledge of its initial position, initial velocity, initial attitude, Earth rotation rate and gravity field. Since the IMU measures changes in orientation and acceleration, the INS determines changes in position and attitude, but the initial values for these parameters must be provided from an external source. Once these parameters are known, an INS is capable provide an autonomous solution with no external inputs. However, because of errors in the IMU measurements that accumulate over time, an inertial-only solution degrades in time unless external updates such as position, velocity or attitude are supplied.
The GPS receiver provides auxiliary information for the INS, and it is reciprocally aided by feedback from the INS to improve signal tracking. The feedback from the INS to the GPS engine is the deeply coupled aspect of the system (Fig. 14).
Bidirectional INS/GPS Coupling
The combined GPS/INS solution of the SPAN (Synchronized Position Attitude Navigation) integrates the raw inertial measurements with all available GPS information to provide the optimum solution possible in any situation. By using the high accuracy GPS solution, the IMU errors can be modelled and mitigated. Conversely, the continuity and the relative accuracy of the INS solution enable faster GPS signal reacquisition and RTK solution convergence.
GPS signal reacquisition is dramatically improved when running SPAN. This is a key performance feature in restricted coverage environments, such as urban canyons, where the user may have only a few seconds of satellite visibility before another blockage occurs. With SPAN technology, the user will be able to get GPS measurements in that small window of visibility. That means the INS will have shorter periods of free navigation and smaller errors, since the GPS is available more often for aiding (Kennedy and Rossi, 2005).
It is necessary to mount the IMU unit in a fixed location where the distance from the IMU to the GPS antenna phase center is constant. Also, the use must ensure that the orientation, with respect to the vehicle and antenna, is also constant. For the attitude output to be meaningful, the IMU should be mounted such that the positive Z-axis marked on the IMU enclosure points up and the Y-axis points forward through the front of the vehicle, in the direction of track and X pointing to right. (IMAR-iTraceRT-F200, 2008).
The body coordinate system is defined as given in figure 15:
Mount the GPS antenna close to the IMU housing. It is recommended to mount the antenna in top of the IMU if the system is mounted on a car, truck, ship or aircraft. In the cases in which the geographic positioning of some objectives which are at some distance from the surveying vehicle, an optimal variant in the case of an aircraft can be constituted by IMU unit mounting above the video camera in the mode presented in the following schema:
The reciprocal orientation of the IMU unit and the carrying vehicle. (IMAR - iTraceRT-F200, 2008)
The mounting variant of the IMU unit in a surveying aircraft. (Novatel, Inertial Explorer, 2009)
The lever arm (offset) between IMU and GPS antenna has to be measured in the IMU coordinate system and with an accuracy better than 1 centimeter. Even slight deviations in the measurement of the lever arm may lead to significant position errors and will degrade the total system performance (Fig.17).
Fig.17 Body Frame Definition for Lever Arm Offset (Novatel Inertial Explorer 8.20, 2009)The IMU is the local origin of the system and the measurements are defined as follows:X: The measured lateral distance in the vehicle body frame from the IMU to the GNSS antenna;Y: The measured distance along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle from the IMU to the GNSS antenna.Z: The measured height change from the IMU to the GNSS antenna (Fig.18).
The definition of the offsets between the IMU unit and the GPS antenna (IMAR iTrace-F200, 2008)
In the same time it is very important to mention that the necessary accuracies of some centimetres can be obtained due to the capability of a device such as Novatel GPS which is to function in a differential RTK (Real Time Kinematic) regime. (Kennedy S. et al., 2007). This type of operation is obtained by connecting the Novatel GPS receiver via Internet to a network of fixed reference base stations as it is the ROMPOS network in Romania, which is able to transmit to its customers differential correction data.
The geographic coordinates (longitude, latitude) for the vehicle positioning are provided by the GPS system, more precisely, for the IMU point in which the Inertial Measuring Unit is placed (Fig.19);
The relative positioning between the Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU) and the Video Camera coordinate systems
The reference point relatively to which the positioning measurements of the sighted target are achieved, is constituted by the central point L of the video camera lens, which is placed at the focal distance f from the video camera matrix sensor;
It arises the problem to establish the geographic coordinates for the reference point L on the basis of the same type of coordinates of the point IMU;
The distance between the points IMU and L presents the following components:
On the
On the
On the
In the above-mentioned relations, by m, n and p were noted the components, on the axis
In order to compute the offset components, in relation with the reference system
In these relations by Ψ, Θ and Φ, were noted the rotational angles of the lab vehicle, angles which were measured by the Inertial Unite IMU in relation with the reference system (x, y and z) of the current location.
for the distances on the longitude λ direction ;
for the distances on the latitude direction.
It is also adopted the notation:
On this basis, the geographical coordinates, λL,\n\t\t\t\t\t\tL, hL, of the reference point L which is constituted from the video camera objective centre, are obtained as follows:
where λ, , h, represent the geographical coordinates supplied by the IMU for the point in which this is situated.
At the computing of the linear distances, on the longitude and, respectively, on the latitude direction, between the video camera successive positions and, respectively, between the camera positions and the sighted target, it, also, takes account from the fact that this mono-cameral stereo-fotogrammetric system, permits the sighting of some objectives which are situated at distances of up to 200 – 300 meters from the lab vehicles. This way, it is possible to adopt the hypothesis consisting in the approximation of the terrestrial globe with an equivalent sphere with a radius R = 6.367.472 km., as it is presented in the Fig. 20.
The geographic position of the target T in the horizontal plane of the referential ellipsoid is achieved, by combining the determinations of the absolute angular coordinates,
In the positioning scheme presented in Figure 20, the following notations were introduced:
The Lab Vehicle and the sighted target positioning on the equivalent sphere of the terrestrial globe.
Between two circular arcs on latitude,
Also on the basis of the scheme from the figure 20 which presents the positioning mode of a target on an equivalent sphere of the terrestrial globe, the linear distances can be calculated on the basis of angular coordinate differences by means of an equation set, with the following form:
where:
For the establishment, on this basis, of the computing relations for the geographic position absolute coordinates of the target T, it resorts to the positioning scheme presented in figure 21, taking account of the fact that due to the relative reduced dimensions of the sighting field, its spherical curved surface is approximated by in plan projection of this field.
By this, in plane projection of the sighting field, the circle arcs are replaced by linear segments, as follows:
These result in the following expressions for the azimuth angles:
From the first expression, we obtain:
and from the second expression it results that:
So by elimianatig the
On this basis, the following implicit computing relation of the latitude angular difference
and in continuation:
With the determinated in this mode value of the angular difference
In similar mode:
After obtaining, in the presented mode, of the target geographic coordinates,
In plane projection of the target sighting field
On this basis, it is, also, possible to calculate the direct distances between the target T and the positions,
Moreover, in conformity with the schema presented in figure 22, the height
The diagram for the target height hT computing.
Waypoint Products Group’s Inertial Explorer post-processing software suite integrates rate data from six degrees of freedom IMU sensor arrays with GNSS information processed with an integrated GNSS post-processor (same as GrafNav’s). Inertial Explorer use strapdown accelerometer (Δν) and angular rate (Δθ) information to produce high rate coordinate and attitude information from a wide variety of IMUs. (Kennedy S. NovAtel Inc., Canada & Hinueber E., iMAR GmbH, 2005)
Inertial Explorer implements either a loose coupling of the GNSS and inertial data or tightly coupled (TC) processing that uses GPS carrier phase to limit error during periods where satellite tracking is limited or variable (even if only 2 or 3 satellites are visible). It is important to time-tag the inertial measurements to the GPS time frame during the data collection process. Proper synchronization is vital. Otherwise, the IMU data will not process. In NovAtel’s SPAN system, IMU data is automatically synchronized and the Inertial Explorer’s GNSS decoder automatically extracts the IMU data.
In order to increase up to 200 – 300 meters, the distance up to which the sighted targets from the terrain can be positioned, it resorts to the use of a single digital camera of high resolution in a fixed montage on a lab vehicle, instead of two cameras which usually are used in the case of classical stereo photogrammetric systems and for which the measurement basis is limited by the montage distance between the two cameras on the lab vehicle, respectively by the dimensional width of the respective vehicle, which is around of 1.2 meters. Due to this fact, the two viewing lines are not intersected on the sighted target, but only with great errors and therefore the bi-cameral stereo photogrammetric systems cannot precisely identify the positions of the objectives that are at distances of more than approximatively 30 meters from the equipment.
So by using a single video camera, the measurement basis of the applied stereo metric method is constituted from the distance interval of 20 – 30 meters, between two triggerings of the camera during the lab vehicle displacement, distance from which the camera sights the same objective.
On this basis, at the returning at the computing center, it follows that from the obtained images to be selected by two images in which the interesting objective is evidenced in a corresponding mode, which will permit the selection of this objective in an electronic modality and the determination of the pixel coordinates, which achieves the objective displaying on the monitor screen. These coordinates together with the other data which accompany the two selected images, will permit to compute, using triangulation proceedings as well as methods for reporting to the spherical system of the terrestrial coordinates, the geographic and elevation coordinates of the sighted objective.
The immediate result of this equipment functioning is represented by the obtaining of a series of digital documents structured in GIS format, documents which contain the data registered in field, with the possibility to update them anytime.
Taking account of its conception, the “Slide Monitor” equipment can be installed not only on a terrestrial vehicle, but also on any kind of boats for the surveillance from an aquatic medium of some isolated objectives disposed on an inaccessible border.
Low-temperature is a major environmental stress that adversely affects plant growth and development, limiting the productivity and regional distribution of crops [1, 2]. Rapeseed is an important oil crop worldwide, with planting area of 37.58 million hectares producing 75.00 million tons of oilseeds in 2018 (
Cold (low-temperature) stress included chilling stress (>0°C) and freezing stress (<0°C) [12]. Chilling stress (0–15°C) causes the membrane to rigidify, destabilizes protein complexes and impairs photosynthesis, eventually made plant stop growing, whereas freezing stress (<0°C) causes intracellular and extracellular ice crystal formation, and results in mechanical injury, and plant death [13, 14, 15].
\nDespite the fact that winter and semi-winter rapeseed is an overwintering oil crop, cold stress can still affect rapeseed development and ultimately lead to a decrease in production [8, 11]. The suitable temperature scope is 10 ~ 20°C for the growth of winter and semi-winter rapeseed. The rapeseed flower number was reduced below 10°C and the rapeseed flowering was arrested when the temperature decreased to 5°C. The rapeseed growth was arrested below 3°C and rapeseed leaves was injured below 0°C [8]. The delay of rapeseed sowing results in poor germination [16], decreased seedling biomass [17, 18], delay of floral initiation and floral bud differentiation processes [17, 19], and decreased flower number, effective pod number, pod length, and seed yield [17, 20, 21] due to low-temperature stress. In January 2008, South China was exposed to an extremely ice-frozen weather, which caused serious injuries to winter rape, affected 77.8% of the overall winter rape area in China and resulted in 10.9% yield losses [22]. Due more and more early-maturing semi-winter rapeseed varieties were planted across Yangtze River basin, rapeseed faces increased risks from continuous low temperature overcast and rainy weather in March. Continuous low temperature overcast and rainy weather during the rapeseed flowering stage or after flowering decreased the ratio of effectual silique, seeds per silique and oil content [23]. In March and April 2010, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River region were exposed to continuous low temperature overcast and rainy weather, which resulted in 10–20% yield losses [23].
\nTo date, many studies have investigated the morphological and physiological changes of low-temperature stressed rapeseeds. Leaves are the main organ to perceive low temperature stress and transmit stress signal in plants [24]. The morphological changes (dehydrated and wilting) of leaves became increasingly evident with the decrease of temperature, due to the total water content in leaves of rapeseed decreased [25, 26].
\nIn winter rapeseed, prolonged cold acclimation led to increased thickness of young leaf blades and leaf cell walls, modified dimensions of mesophyll cells, numerous invaginations of plasma membranes and large phenolic deposits in chloroplasts, large vesicles or cytoplasm/tonoplast interfaces [27, 28]. Unlike cold acclimation, transient freezing treatment reduced the thickness of leaf cell walls and phenolic aggregates, caused reversible disorganization of the cytoplasm and chloroplasts swelling [27, 28]. Obvious gaps existed in the chloroplast grana and starch grains increased in quantity and volume [25]. In general, cold-tolerant winter rapeseed usually grows slowly, having small thick creeping deep-green waxy leaves and large root system.
\nLow temperature-induced thermodynamic constraints on carbon metabolism was the primary reason for lower photosynthetic activity in plants [24]. Photosynthetic efficiency is a good indicator for Low temperature tolerance in plants [10]. Just like in other crop plants, a marked reduction of photosynthetic activity is observed in rapeseed leaves when treated with low temperature [24, 29]. Tough the photosynthetic activities were reduced both in the cold-stressed leaves of cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive rapeseed cultivars, the chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and photosynthetic activities in the young leaves of cold-tolerant cultivar all were higher than that in cold-sensitive cultivar [24].
\nSimultaneously, low-temperature stress caused the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), elevated H2O2 level and increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content in plants, which leads to a necrosis of plants. Plants possess an effective antioxidant system includes superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) enzymes, whose combined activities play an important role in elimination of destructive effects of ROS [24, 30]. Furthermore, under natural cold stress in field, the proline, soluble sugar, soluble protein, MDA contents and SOD, POD, CAT activities changed obviously in functional leaves of rapeseed. CAT and SOD activity reached the highest when temperature dropped to 5 and 3°C, respectively. The proline and soluble sugar contents increased when mean daily temperature decreased to 5°C and reached the maximum when temperature was below 0°C. The contents of soluble protein and MDA showed a trend to decrease at first and then increase when mean daily temperature dropped to 10, 5 and 0°C [30]. The SOD and APX activities were both increased by low temperature in the young leaves of cold-tolerant rapeseed cultivar. However, the APX activity was decreased by low temperature in the young leaves of cold-sensitive rapeseed cultivar. While, in the cold-stressed mature leaves, both cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive rapeseed cultivars represented similar antioxidant capacities [24].
\nUnder chilling and freezing stress, the increment of proline accumulation, soluble sugar and protein contents were enhanced in cold-tolerant cultivar compared with cold-sensitive cultivar [24, 26]. Leaf abscisic acid (ABA) was enhanced in cold-tolerant cultivar under chilling and freezing stress [26].
\nPlants showed increased freezing tolerance during exposure to chilling and low nonfreezing temperatures in a phenomenon known as cold acclimation [31]. The molecular mechanism of cold acclimation and cold tolerance in Arabidopsis and winter cereals has been extensively studied. Cold acclimation is a very complex trait involving an array of physiological and biochemical modifications, and these altered processes involved changes in gene expression patterns via phytohormone and the ICE (Inducer of CBF Expressions)-CBF (C-repeat binding factors)-COR (cold-responsive) signaling pathway [13, 32, 33].
\nIn most plant species, CBF transcription factors could bind directly to the promoters of COR genes and induce the expression of COR genes [34, 35, 36]. The COR genes protected plant cells against cold-induced damage, repaired cold-rigidified membranes and stabilized cellular osmotic potential by encoding cryoprotective proteins and key enzymes for osmolyte biosynthesis [37]. In Arabidopsis, the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor ICE1/2 were induced by cold stress, could bind directly to the promoters of CBF and induced CBF expression under low-temperature stress [38, 39, 40].
\nSimilar as other plants, the expression of CBF and COR genes were induced by chilling and freezing stresses in different ecotypes rapeseed with different cold tolerance [11, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. CBFs (BnaAnng34260D/BnaCnng49280D/BnaC03g71900D/BnaC07g39680D), Kin1 and COR15 all were upregulated in both winter and semi-winter ecotype rapeseeds after cold stress (4°C for 7 days), while BnaA08g30910D (a CBF-like gene) and BnCOR25 were not varied in expression in any cold stressed rapeseeds [41]. Furthermore, COR15A/B, COR413-PM1 and nine CBF1/2/4 genes all were strongly upregulated in winter and spring ecotype rapeseeds after cold stress (4°C for 12 h) [42]. While ICE1 and COR413-PM2 was downregulated in both winter and spring ecotypes after cold stress, two CBF3 genes were not induced by cold stress [42]. Most of COR15A and COR15B were significantly induced in both cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive semi-winter early-maturing rapeseeds after chilling (4°C for 12 h) and freezing (−4°C for 12 h) stress, regardless of cold acclimation (4°C for 14 days) [11]. Ten of 12 CBF genes were strongly induced by freezing stress more than chilling stress, regardless of cold acclimation [11]. Unlike other CBFs, BnaC03g71900D was induced by chilling stress more than freezing stress and BnaA03g13620D was induced by freezing stress but suppressed by cold acclimation [11]. However, two ICE1 genes were not induced by chilling and freezing stress [11], as opposed to AtICE1 [38]. Inexplicably, no CBF genes were identified in responsive to freezing stress in freezing-tolerant rapeseed as reported by Pu [25].
\nBnCOR25 were significantly induced by cold and osmotic stress treatment in rapeseed, overexpression of BnCOR25 in Arabidopsis enhances plant tolerance to cold stress [46]. Overexpression of two rapeseed CBF-like transcription factors BnCBF5 and BnCBF17 in spring rapeseed resulted in increased constitutive freezing tolerance, increased photochemical efficiency and photosynthetic capacity [29]. However, constitutively overexpressing BNCBF5/17 in rapeseed resulted in various degrees of dwarf habit and longer time to flower [29]. The multi-gene (NCED3, ABAR, CBF3, LOS5, and ICE1) transgenic rapeseed plants exhibited pronounced growth advantage under both normal growth and stress conditions [47].
\nAbscisic acid (ABA) is a vital plant hormone that plays a key role in stress resistance during plant growth and development [48, 49, 50]. It was reported that ABA levels are increased after cold stress in plants and exogenous application of ABA can induce plant cold tolerance [11, 51, 52]. OST1/SnRK2E, a serine-threonine protein kinase in ABA core signaling pathway, acted upstream of CBFs to positively regulate freezing tolerance via phosphorylating ICE1 to prevent its 26S proteasome-mediated degradation by HOS1 [53]. OST1 phosphorylated basic transcription factors 3 (BTF3) and BTF3-like factors, and facilitated their interactions with CBFs to promote CBF stability under cold stress [54].
\n27 ABA biosynthesis genes (nine-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED3/4/5/9), ABA DEFICIENT 1/2 (ABA1/2), abscisic aldehyde oxidase 1/2/3 (AAO1/2/3) and carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 1 (CCD1)) were regulated by cold stress in winter and/or spring rapeseed. Additionally, many genes involved in ABA signal transduction, such as ABA INSENSITIVE 1/5 (ABI1/5), ABA-responsive element binding protein 3 (AREB3), ABA responsive element-binding factor 1/2/3 (ABF1/2/3), highly ABA-induced PP2C gene 1/2/3 (HAI1/2/3), OPEN STOMATA 1 (OST1), PYR1-like 4/6/7/10 (PYL4/6/7/10), regulatory component of ABA receptor 1/3 (RCAR1/3), SNF1-related protein kinase 2.2/2.5/2.7/2.10 (SnRK2.2/2.5/2.7/2.10), all were differentially expressed in winter and/or spring rapeseed after cold stress [42]. Furthermore, in freezing-treated (−2°C) leaves of cold-tolerant winter rapeseed line 2016TS(G)10, one PYL gene and one ABI5-like gene were up-regulated, while 13 PP2C and 4 ABI5-like genes were down-regulated [25]. 72.8% ABA signaling genes (94/129) were regulated by chilling and/or freezing in both cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive rapeseed plants but they presented different expression profiles [11]. The ABA receptors PYL5/7 genes were both induced by cold and freezing stress, while the PYL1/9 genes were suppressed. The PYR1/4 genes were only induced by chilling stress but not by freezing stress. The PYL6 were induced by chilling stress and freezing stress following cold acclimation. ABA co-receptor ABI1 and HAB1 were suppressed by all low-temperature treatments, while HAB2 was upregulated. The SnRK2B and SnRK2D were induced by all low-temperature treatments, while SnRK2C was suppressed. SnRK2F and one ABI5 were both induced only by freezing treatment. The OST1 was induced only in cold-tolerant but not in cold-sensitive rapeseed [11]. While 13 ABI5-like genes have a complex expression pattern in response to different low-temperature conditions, including up-regulated, down-regulated and no changed. Exogenous application of ABA significantly improved the rapeseed seedlings freezing tolerance [11]. Overexpression of BnaABI3 leads to improved embryo degreening following frost exposure and enhanced pod strength in rapeseed [55].
\nCalcium (Ca2+) is an important second messenger of signal transduction in the plant stress responses, plant growth and development. Ca2+ signaling were detected and transmitted by calmodulin/calmodulin-like proteins (CaM/CML), calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) and calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs) [56, 57]. The level of cytosolic Ca2+ was transiently increased in plants under cold stress [57, 58, 59]. In rice, COLD1 interacts with the G-protein α subunit and activates the Ca2+ channel, results the increment of expression of CBF under low-temperature stress [60]. In Arabidopsis, overexpression of CaM3 repressed the expression of COR genes (RD29A, KIN1 and KIN2) [61]. CaM-binding transcription activators (CAMTAs) bind to the promotor of CBF2, promoting CBF2 expression and plant freezing tolerance [62, 63].
\n88 of 129 CaM/CML genes were regulated by cold stress in semi-winter rapeseed cultivar ZS11 [64]. 91 of 129 CaM/CML were regulated by chilling and/or freezing stress in semi-winter early-maturing rapeseed, and most of them were strongly induced by freezing stress [11, 64]. Additionally, 22 rapeseed CDPK genes were up-regulated by freezing treatments [11]. Furthermore, there were 91 genes involved in Ca2+ signaling (35 CDPK, 38 CaM, 16 CIPK and 2 Ca2+-ATPase) were differentially expressed in winter rapeseed after cold stress, while 79 genes (44 CDPK, 19 CaM, 15 CIPK and 1 Ca2+-ATPase) were differentially expressed in spring rapeseed after cold stress [42]. In Zhang’s report, there were 5 CBL, 7 CIPK and 7 CDPK genes were regulated by cold treatment [65, 66].
\nRapeseed is one of the most important oil crops in the world and China and is affected by chilling and freezing stress. In recently years, several studies have tried to identify the main signaling pathways and genes responsible for low-temperature stress (chilling and/or freezing; cold acclimation and/or cold shock) in different rapeseeds (winter, semi-winter and spring type; cold-sensitive and cold-tolerant; late maturing and early maturing) based on transcriptomics, metabolomics, lipidomics, and QTL analyses [11, 25, 41, 42, 45, 67, 68, 69]. Tough there were so many candidate genes involved in the response to low-temperature stress have been identified, only few genes’ functions in cold tolerant have been tested and verified in rapeseed [10, 29, 55, 70, 71]. It is a pity that constitutive overexpression of rapeseed BnCBF5 and BnCBF17 resulted in various degrees of dwarf habit and longer time to flower, tough which resulted in increased freezing tolerance remarkably in spring rapeseed “Westar” [29]. There is still much work to be performed to understand rapeseed plants’ responses to low-temperature stress and breed cold-tolerant rapeseed.
\nGenome editing is an efficient approach for crop improvement either by loss or gain of gene function and several different strategies have been developed [72]. Tough there were a few studies using CRISPR/Cas9 system for editing genes associated with plant/pod development, fatty acid synthesis and biotic stress response [72], no application of CRISPR-Cas9 for editing genes involved in chilling and freezing tolerant in rapeseed. It is expected that the newly emerging genome editing system will make a contribution to future gene function research and molecular design breeding in cold-tolerant rapeseed.
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\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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