Semen characteristics and antioxidant capacity in seminal plasma of boars having normal and low sperm motility (means ± SD)
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Clark",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg",keywords:"Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis, Medical Futility, Definition of Death, Extraordinary/Ordinary Means, Need for New Antibiotics, Role of Big Pharma, Uterine Transplants, Face Transplants, Confidentiality, Ethical Decision Making, Harm Reduction Theory, Safe Injection Sites",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 26th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A faculty member for medical residents, medical students, and undergraduate students and a researcher in issues that challenge the national and global arenas. 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He is the author of To Treat or Not To Treat and Death With Dignity and has published numerous peer-reviewed articles in national and international medical and ethical journals.",institutionString:"Saint Joseph's University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Saint Joseph's University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"346794",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Miskulin",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346794/images/15795_n.png",email:"mia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40074",title:"Improvement of Semen Quality by Feed Supplement and Semen Cryopreservation in Swine",doi:"10.5772/51737",slug:"improvement-of-semen-quality-by-feed-supplement-and-semen-cryopreservation-in-swine",body:'Artificial insemination in pig offers many advantages in swine production in terms of a better disease control through semen quality control, a diverse male genetic distribution and an easiness of management. It is accepted that in developing countries, AI helps to improve the genetic profile. A number of sows can be inseminated using the same ejaculate instead of only one from natural mating. The number of pig farms using AI has increased because of the technical improvement of semen extenders and equipments, and the technique can be performed on farm. In Thailand, AI in commercial pig farms is routinely used as a standard protocol in pig production. The results obtained by AI are quite similar or higher than that from natural. Because of the quality of insemination can be guaranteed by semen testing and evaluation before insemination. The improvement of semen quality can be acquired by feed supplement and semen freezing in boar can be used to genetic conservation. The feed supplement improving the semen quality have been imperatively used in the boars which have low libido and low semen quality, because these boars have been imported and are of superior genetic merit and so are perceived to have great value to their owners who, therefore, are very reluctant to cull them. Moreover, in tropical countries, cryopreservation of boar semen is nowadays performed in a limited scale and it has yet to be conducted in Thailand particularly for the commercial purpose. Concerning this point and obtained benefit in the future, the improvement of boar semen quality by feed supplement and boar semen cryopreservation are reviewed in this chapter.
The semen quality depends on individual, breed, season, confinement and boar health. It was found that the dietary supplements of antioxidants, vitamins and/or minerals can increase libido and semen characteristics in boars. Additions of antioxidants in seminal plasma or semen extender play an important role on boar semen storability. Semen with a normal motility contains higher polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in cell membrane has that that having a low motility [1]. Short life span spermatozoa usually presented in low antioxidant condition resulting from the high lipid peroxidation of sperm plasma membrane. Spermatozoa in low antioxidants of seminal plasma also show a lower sperm motility, viability and normal morphology than spermatozoa in normal seminal plasma (Table 1) [1,2]. The feed supplements were expected to improve the semen quality by increasing the number of sperm per ejaculation, motility, viability and antioxidant in cell and seminal plasma. However, it depends on the initial performance of the boar influencing on successfully improving semen quality. Therefore, the key roles of feed supplement containing the rich of PUFAs, vitamins and minerals to improve the semen quality are increasing the antioxidant to reduce the plasma membrane damages from ROS and increase the amount of PUFAs in sperm plasma membrane that may increase the percentage of sperm motility and vitality.
Boar sperm are highly sensitive to peroxidative damage due to the high content of unsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipids of the sperm plasma membrane [3,4] and the correlation of low antioxidant capacity of boar seminal plasma and lipid-peroxidation [5]. It has been reported in sperm freezing of human [6], bull [7] and mouse [8] that is associated with ROS level and oxidative stress. Moreover, the process of freezing and thawing bovine spermatozoa can generate the ROS [9], DNA damage [10], cytoskeleton alterations [11], inhibition of the sperm–oocyte fusion [12] and can affect the sperm axoneme that is influenced on the sperm motility [13].
The lipid-peroxidation of membrane phospholipid bound docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been presented as one of the major factors that limit the sperm motility in vitro. Semen samples show high sperm variability in lifespan and, consequently, in susceptibility toward lipid peroxidation. Therefore, it is postulated that there is also cell-to-cell variability in DHA content in human spermatozoa and that the content of the main substrate of lipid peroxidation (DHA) is critical and highly regulated during the sperm maturation process. Several studies have been performed to analyze the fatty acid content of germ cells and sperm at different stages of maturation, including in vivo studies in animal models, and in vitro approaches in human spermatozoa. One of the consequences of defective sperm maturation in the seminiferous epithelium is the retention of residual cytoplasm. This residual cytoplasm, which is attached to the midpiece and retronuclear area of the sperm head, has been shown to produce high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [14-16]. In addition, the membranes enclosing the residual cytoplasm are enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids such as DHA [17,18]. The combination of high polyunsaturated fatty acid content and high ROS production in these immature sperm has been shown to lead to increased lipid peroxidation and subsequent loss of sperm function [14,15]. ROS-mediated damage to human spermatozoa was characterized in the early 1980s [19-24] and has been shown by many authors to be an important factor in the pathogenesis of male infertility [14,25-27].
To a first approximation, the process of lipid peroxidation involves the initial abstraction of a hydrogen atom from the bis-allylic methylene groups of polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly DHA, by molecular oxygen. This leads to molecular rearrangement to a conjugated diene and addition of oxygen, resulting in the production of lipid peroxide radical. This peroxyradical can now abstract a new hydrogen atom from an adjacent DHA molecule leading to a chain reaction that ultimately results in lipid fragmentation and the production of malonaldehyde and toxic shortchain alkanes (e.g., propane). These propagation reactions are mediated by oxygen radicals. DHA is the major polyunsaturated fatty acid in sperm from a number of mammalian species, including the human, accounting in this species for up to 30% of phospholipid-bound fatty acid and up to 73% of polyunsaturated fatty acids. At the same time, DHA is the main substrate of lipid peroxidation, accounting for 90% of the overall rate of lipid peroxidation in human spermatozoa [23,28].
\n\t\t\t\tCharacteristics\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tNormal motility\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLow motility\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sperm per ejaculate (×10 9) | \n\t\t\t88.6±41.7a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t76.9±36.2a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sperm motility, % | \n\t\t\t82.6±5.2a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t30.6±12.8b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sperm viability, % | \n\t\t\t86.7±5.8a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t31.5±14.9b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Normal morphology, % | \n\t\t\t96.2±1.9a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t85.1±4.9b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Normal plasma membrane, % | \n\t\t\t83.3±7.4a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15.7±7.5b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Total antioxidant status in seminal plasma (ng/ml) | \n\t\t\t1.54±0.35 a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.80±0.56 b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Lipid peroxidation has profound consequences in biological membranes. The generation of the polar lipid peroxides ultimately results in the disruption of the membrane hydrophobic packing, inactivation of glycolytic enzymes, damage of axonemal proteins (loss of motility), acrosomal membrane damage, and DNA alterations [29,30]. Oxidation of phospholipid-bound DHA has been shown to be the major factor that determines the motile lifespan of sperm in vitro [6,31,32]. Three basic factors determine the overall rate of lipid peroxidation of sperm in vitro: oxygen concentration and temperature in the medium (OXIDANT), the presence of antioxidant defenses (ANTIOXIDANT), and the content of membrane-bound DHA (SUBSTRATE). Thus, the higher the temperature and the concentration of oxygen in solution, the higher the rate of lipid peroxidation as measured by malonaldehyde production [24]. In boar, total antioxidant in seminal plasma relates to percentage of normal sperm morphology and plasma membrane. The low storability semen has presented the high plasma membrane damage from ROS, which was resulted from low amount of antioxidant in seminal plasma [2]. Moreover, the semen which having poor normal sperm morphology has shown the low level of antioxidant in seminal plasma (Table 1) [1].
The balance between these key factors determines the overall rate of peroxidation in vitro. In this system, the substrate seems to play a key role. The main substrates for lipid peroxidation are polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially docosahexaenoic acid.
The glutathione peroxidase is main intracellular antioxidant enzyme that catalyses to reduce the hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides to nontoxic metabolized compounds. The essential component of this enzyme is selenium. Vitamin E or alpha-tocopherol is the dominant antioxidant in cell plasma membranes. Many researches have shown a synergism of antioxidant activity between selenium in glutathione peroxidase and vitamin E. The effects of selenium supplementation on semen quality were more reported than the effects of vitamin E supplementation, and selenium supplementation improved in higher conception rates when gilts were serviced with extended semen from the boars [33]. However, feed additive on boar diet with high levels of vitamin C had no effects on semen quality or libido characteristics in healthy boars. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations allow up to 136 g of selenium add on/pound of feed for pigs.
Vitamin C or ascorbic acids are a dominant water-soluble antioxidant. Their action is scavenger to disable the function of any type ROS. Vitamin C is a powerful source of electron donor which reacts with hydroxyl radicals, peroxide and superoxide to form de-hydroxyl ascorbic acid. The level of ascorbic acid in seminal plasma is approximately 10-fold higher concentration comparing with blood plasma in human [30,34]. The level of ascorbic acid in seminal plasma has a positively correlation with the percentage of normal [35].
Linoleic acid or omega-6 fatty acid is the only FA for which NRC has established requirements at least 0.1% of diet for sexually active boars. However, the effect of various fatty acids (FAs) top on diet, particularly the omega-3 fatty acids, on semen quality and libido characteristics in boars are more interesting. Nowadays, there are 3 types of omega-3 fatty acids that are linolenic, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA). The boar feed commonly consist of the large amounts of crops, with source of protein added in the form of soya-bean, fish powder, bone powder, etc. Thus, dietary fatty acids have a (n-6):(n-3) normal ratio of greater than 6:1 and do not contain long chain n-3 PUFAs. If 22:6(n-3) is essential for optimal fertility in pig spermatozoa, as being in human sperm [28,36,37], then it is possible that supplement 22:6(n-3) PUFAs on boar diets to improve the spermatogenesis. This supplementation may increase from either a deficit of (n-3) fatty acids or an increasing synthesis of 22:6(n-3) from 18:3(n-3) to competition between (n-6) and (n-3) fatty acids [38]. The tuna oil supplementing on the boar diet can increase the percentages of sperm cells with progressive motility, the proportion of live sperm, normal acrosome head, and normal morphology [39]. It was found that boars fed withcommercially available product containing DHA, vitamin E and selenium (PROSPERM®, Minitube America, Inc., Minneapolis, MN) for 16 weeks had a higher sperm concentration, number of sperm/ejaculate, and sperm motility comparing with control group [40]. In many experiments, 8-week period was used as the control period because spermatogenesis in boars requires 34–39 d and epididymal transport involves another 9–12 d [41]. It is not surprising that a 7–8 week period may be necessary after dietary supplementation [40,42].
The research on semen cryopreservation in boar is limited even though the procedures have been studied during the past 60 years [43-47]. The advantages for development of frozen semen include the preservation of the good genetic resource, the distribution of superior genetic boars, and the improvement of the transportation of sperm across countries [48]. However, the utilization of frozen-thawed (FT) semen prepared for artificial insemination (AI) at present is estimated to be less than 1% of all insemination worldwide. The most important reasons are the poor sperm quality after cryopreservation and a lower fertilizing capacity of FT semen, when used for conventional AI compared to fresh semen. Poor sperm quality frequently found in FT boar semen is partly due to a high sensitivity of the boar sperm to rapid cooling to a few degrees above 0C, the so-called “cold shock”, which the sperm have to traverse during cryopreservation process. This is evidenced by the loss of viable sperm and by more capacitation-like changes in the viable sperm [49]. These changes result in a shorter survival time of the FT sperm in the female genital tract in comparison to its fresh and liquid-preserved counterparts [50,51].
Boar semen differs in several respects from the semen of other domestic animals. It is produced in large volume (200 to 250 ml) and is extremely sensitive to cold shock. The success of freezing boar semen depends on both internal and external factors. Internal factors include the inherent characteristics of sperm and the existing differences among boars and ejaculates, while external factors are composed of the composition of the extenders, freezing packages, and the method of freezing and thawing of the semen, for example [48].
Variation between individuals in the extent to which their sperm are damaged by freeze-thawing has been reports in many species including pig [52-55]. For instance, some study assigned individual boars into good, average and poor freezability groups on the basis of their post-thaw sperm viability using a system of multivariate pattern analysis, and suggested that cryosurvival of the sperm was not necessarily related to the observed quality of the semen sample. In addition to inter-animal variation, intra-animal variation such as difference between ejaculate fractions has also been described as a source of difference in boar sperm freezability [56,57]. Some researcher found that sperm present in the first 10 ml of the sperm-rich fraction (portion I) better sustain cooling and freeze-thawing compared to those present in the rest of the ejaculate (portion II) [56]. These differences were manifested by motility patterns, the maintenance of membrane integrity and capacitation-like changes of sperm after thawing. However, variation between ejaculate fractions is dependent of individual boars, with some boars differing in the ability of the two ejaculate portions to sustain cryopreservation, while in other boars such differences were not detected [57]. The mechanisms underlying differences in cryosensitivity between different individuals and different ejaculate portions have yet to be elucidated, but there is some evidence for physiological differences between sperm from individual boars. Harrison and co-workers demonstrated that the stimulatory effects of bicarbonate on the process of capacitation differ among individual boars [58]. Also, the existence of differences in seminal plasma composition and sperm morphology has been hypothesized as a possible explanation for the distinct ability of different boars and different ejaculate portions to sustain cryopreservation [59,60]. In general, boar sperm heads present in portion I were significantly shorter and wider than those present in portion II, detected by using computer-assisted sperm head morphometry analysis (ASMA) [57]. It has been hypothesized that such differences could be genetic in origin. Thurston and co-workers using Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technology to analyze genome of 22 Yorkshire (Y) boars indicated that 16 candidate genetic markers linked to genes controlling sperm freezability and these genomes varied among individual boars. Consequently, they may be useful for the prediction of both post-thaw semen quality and fertility of individual boars [55].
A number of substances have been added to boar semen during cryopreservation in order to improve FT sperm quality. It has been investigated that egg yolk added to boar semen could protect sperm acrosomes during cold shock and hence reduce cryodamage of FT boar sperm [61]. Protection has been claimed to be due to both phospholipids and the low density lipoprotein fraction in egg yolk [62,63]. The mechanism of action is unclear but could be mediated by either a less intense cellular dehydration or by stabilization of the sperm plasma membrane [51].
Cryoprotective agents (CPAs) have been divided into those that penetrate the cell and those which remain extracellular. Glycerol considered as penetrating agents and other non-penetrating agents such as various sugars have been evaluated for cryoprotective effect in boar sperm [64,65]. Glycerol in low concentrations (3 to 4%) has been utilized in various techniques of sperm cryopreservation [47,66]. At these concentrations, glycerol gives maximum post-thaw viability and also in vitro fertilizing capacity of sperm [43]. Both post-thaw motility and acrosome integrity of boar sperm would be decreased when glycerol concentration reached 5%. Glycerol and other penetrating agents could improve FT sperm survival by penetrating sperm and reduce the shrinkage of the cells developed during cooling [8]. They could also lower the freezing point of extra-cellular fluid via action of non-penetrating CPAs [67]. Therefore, the damage of sperm from the formation of intracellular ice occurred during freezing is reduced.
The success of the boar sperm cryopreservation was dramatically increased when the detergent Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS; later known as Equex STM paste) was included in the cryopreservation protocol [68,69]. The addition of SDS to semen extenders decreases freeze-thaw damage to sperm in several species, including boar [70-72]. Pursel and co-workers stated that the use of 0.5% Orvus Es Paste, a commercial preparation of SDS, in the BF5 extender significantly enhanced the preservation of fertilizing capacity concomitant with an increase in post-thaw percentages of normal acrosome morphology and motility of boar sperm [69]. The beneficial effect of SDS on the sperm membrane is not fully understood, but it has been suggested that its protective effect is mediated through a change in the extending medium, by solubilization of the protective lipids in the egg yolk contained in the extenders. This effect enhanced the cold shock resistance of sperm [73,74]
Boar sperm have been frozen in many forms of packages. Pellet, a form of freezing bull semen on dry ice, was adapted to freeze boar semen and first reported as in [47]. Boar sperm have also been frozen in 5-ml maxi-, 0.5-ml medium- and 0.25-ml mini-straws, as well as different types of 5-ml flat plastic bags [67,75]. All package forms have their own advantages and drawbacks. The 5-ml maxi-straw contains one insemination dose but has a relatively small surface-to-volume ratio, which constrains optimal freezing and thawing throughout the sample. The plastic bags allow even more homogeneous freezing and thawing and also contain a whole insemination dose, but they are not suited for storage in standard liquid nitrogen containers, and therefore are not in commercial use [71]. Pellets and the small straws (0.25- and 0.5-ml straws) have a cryobiologically suitable shape with a large surface-to-volume ratio; thus theoretically, FT sperm in pellets and small straws are less damaged than those in maxi-straws [76,77]. However, with pellets, there are difficulty in the identification of the doses and a risk of cross-contamination during storage, and the thawing procedure is rather complicated as well [71]. Also, the small packages could contain relatively few sperm such as 250 to 500 x106 sperm per straw, which are not enough for a single dose of conventional AI in pigs. Eriksson and Rodriguez- Martinez developed a new flat plastic container (the FlatPack®) for freezing boar semen. This package could contain a complete insemination dose, allows a quick and uniform freezing and thawing due to its large surface-to-volume ratio, and fits into any conventional liquid nitrogen container. Nonetheless, insemination with large numbers of sperm, such as 5 to 6x109 sperm per dose, reduces the number of AI doses per ejaculate. Achieving successful AI with fewer sperm is more important if using boars of superior genetic merit [71].
Fertility after transcervial deep AI of FT boar semen.
Three techniques of AI can be performed by conventional, intrauterine and deep intrauterine. The conventional AI is commen in fresh semen practice, while intrauterine with a reduce concentration of semen is increasing with a satisifying result. The deep intrauterine insemination is used for special kind of semen such as frozen semen or sexed semen with a reduce and semen can be deposited near the junction of uterine-oviductal junction.
Conventional AI in domestic pigs is practiced with doses of approximately 3x109 sperm extended to a volume of 80 to 100 ml. Semen doses are stored at temperatures ranging 16 to 20°C, usually for up to 3 days in simple extenders, but longer when using other extenders [78,79]. The semen is deposited into the posterior region of the cervix by using a disposable, often an intra-cervical, catheter whose tip stimulates the corkscrew shape of the boar penis and engages with the posterior folds of the cervix as it occurs during natural mating. In general, the AI process starts 12 h after detection of standing estrus and it is repeated every 12 to 18 h until standing estrus is no longer shown. When proper detection of estrus is performed, the farrowing rate (FR) and litter size (LS) are comparable with those achieved by natural mating, reaching over 90% of FR and mean LS of 14 piglets [80].
Contrary to what occurs in cattle, where FT semen is routinely used for AI [81], cryopreserved boar semen is used in less than 1% of the AIs performed around the world. The reasons behind this restricted use of FT boar semen are the low survivability of sperm after the freeze-thawing process and the shorter lifespan of the surviving sperm. These result in lower FR and small LS compared with AI using semen preserved in liquid form [48]. Furthermore, owing to the restricted lifespan of the FT boar sperm, excessive sperm numbers are used often 5 to 6 x109 sperm per dose. Moreover, at least two AIs are usually performed per estrus in order to reach acceptable fertility rates in the field [82]. Altogether, few doses can be obtained from a single ejaculate and too many sperm are used to ensure fertilization. A decrease in the number of sperm per dose is therefore required to improve the use of ejaculates, so that the production will be cheaper and the use of genetically superior sires more effective.
Although few sperm are required for fertilization within the oviduct, this reduced number is the product of a sequential and very effective reduction along the process of sperm transport in the female reproductive tract (i.e., 25 to 40% of inseminated sperm are lost with the backflow and 50% of the rest of the sperm are ingested by leukocytes in the uterus; Matthijs et al., 2003). The problem to be overcome during AI is to get an adequate number of sperm to the uterotubal junction (UTJ) that could ensure the establishment of the functional sperm reservoir with enough viable, potentially-fertile sperm to ensure maximal fertilization. One strategy proposed to accomplish this is to decrease the number of sperm per AI-dose, by depositing the semen directly in the uterus, and get sufficient sperm into the UTJ. Such deep AI with reduced sperm numbers is a relatively new reproductive practice that has attracted the attention of the swine industry. Such a method could also be advantageous for the spreading of AI with FT semen.
There are basically two non-surgical procedures for depositing sperm into the pig uterus. These include semen deposition either in the uterine body [49,75,83] or into the uterine horn [84,85].
Intra-uterine insemination (IUI) (Figure 1a)
Sperm can be deposited in different procedures: (a) intra-uterine insemination (IUI) and (b) deep intra-uterine insemination (DIUI)
A non-traumatic transcervical catheter that allows an easy penetration of the cervix and deposition of semen in the uterine body of the sow has been designed. Briefly, a conventional catheter (outer catheter) is placed toward and locked into the cervix. An inner tube (around 4 mm outer diameter) is passed through the outer catheter, along the cervical lumen, to reach the uterine body or the posterior part of one of the uterine horns (about 200 mm beyond the tip of the outer catheter). The IUI catheter can be used with minimal training and it does not seriously delay the process of insemination, although it can only be safely used in sows [83]. Under commercial conditions, use of the IUI catheter with extended fresh semen can reduce sperm numbers to 1x109 sperm per insemination dose and results in a comparable effect on both FR and LS (89% FR and 12 LS) compared with 91% FR and 12.5 LS after conventional AI with 3x109 sperm. However, in the field trials carried out by references [86,87], FR were similar between IUI with 1x109 sperm and conventional AI with 3x109 sperm, but IUI sows had significantly less piglets born per litter (1.5 to 2 smaller LS). The reasons for the loss in LS have not been clarified. Rozeboom and co-workers suggested that several factors such as aged sperm, improper semen handling or insemination-ovulation interval can cause decreases in reproductive performances when low numbers of sperm are used, and in order to obtain consistently high fertility results, a slightly higher number of sperm should be considered.
Non-surgical DIUI has been performed in non-sedated pigs using a flexible fiber optic endoscope (1.35 m length, 3.3 mm outer diameter) inserted via the vagina and cervix to reach the upper segment of one uterine horn [84]. The procedure required 3 to 5 min in 90% of the females. After this DIUI, only 1% of the sows showed signs of uterine infection. However, the endoscope is a highly expensive instrument and unpractical for routine use. A flexible catheter was therefore developed on the basis of the propulsion force and flexibility of the fibro-endoscope [85]. The method allows deposition of low sperm doses of either fresh or FT sperm. Moreover, the technology can be successfully used to produce piglets with sex-sorted sperm [88], or for embryo transfer [89].
Using fresh semen, FR and LS were not statistically different between DIUI with 150x106 sperm per dose and conventional AI with 3x109 sperm, ranging from 83 to 87% FR and 9.2 to 10.4 LS [88]. Nonetheless, LS was always lowest in the DIUI sows. Similarly, although no differences in FR were found (83% and 90% for DIUI and conventional AI, respectively), DIUI sows had less LS (10.5 and 12.9, respectively). The low LS achieved in the DIUI sows inseminated with 150x106 sperm probably resulted from the high incidence of unilateral or incomplete bilateral fertilization, and could be overcome by increasing the number of inseminated sperm to 600x106 sperm per dose [90]. On the other hand, when a single DIUI with 150x106 sperm was performed in hormonally induced ovulating sows, both FR and LS of DIUI sows (83% and 9.7) were not different from those of conventional AI sows (83% and 10) [85]. When FT semen (1x109 sperm per dose) was used for DIUI, promising results were obtained. With hormonally induced ovulation and a single DIUI, the FR was 77.5% and LS was 9.3, while with spontaneous ovulation and two DIUIs, the FR was 70% and LS was 9.3. The lower fertility obtained in the latter group resulted from the suboptimal insemination-ovulation period [91]. Bolarin and staff working with spontaneously ovulating sows (n=407) obtained FR of over 80% and about 10 piglets born per litter when two DIUIs, at 6 h interval, with only 1x109 FT sperm per dose were conducted at the peri-ovulatory period [92]. It has been suggested that DIUI should be carried out ≤ 8 h before spontaneous ovulation when FT sperm are used [93].
In tropical countries including Thailand, cryopreservation of boar semen is nowadays performed in a very limited scale and it has yet to be conducted for the commercial purpose. Our studies undertaken between 2004 and 2009 therefore aimed to develop boar semen cryopreservation in Thailand. Effects of straw volume, Equex STM paste added to a freezing extender and of the individual differences on boar sperm quality after cryopreservation were investigated. In addition, in vivo fertility results such as fertilization rate, FR and LS of FT boar semen after DIUI and IUI in multiparous sows were evaluated.
Using a lactose-egg yolk extender with 9% glycerol as a freezing extender of boar semen, it was demonstrated that after thawing the motility, viability and NAR of sperm evaluated with conventional methods were improved when 1.5% Equex STM paste was added into the freezing media [94]. This finding confirms beneficial effects of the detergent on preventing/diminishing cell damage during the freeze-thawing process [68,95]. Equex STM paste improves post-thaw survival of sperm by acting as a surfactant to stabilize cell membranes, particularly acrosomal membranes, and to protect sperm against the toxic effects of glycerol during cryopreservation [73]. However, since the positive effects of this substance are only observed in the present of egg yolk in the semen extender, it is suggested that Equex STM paste exerts its beneficial action through the alteration of low-density lipoproteins in egg yolk rather than directly affects sperm membranes [69].
In theory, post-thaw sperm loaded in 0.5-ml straws which have smaller surface-to-volume ratio should not have a better quality than those in 0.25-ml straws. Nevertheless, based on the results of 12 ejaculates from 4 boars evaluated in our study [94], the viability and normal morphology of FT sperm packaged in 0.5-ml straws were superior to those in 0.25-ml straws despite being frozen and thawed with their own optimal protocols. The reason behind this is unknown, but it is interesting that similar results have also been observed in dog semen [96]. Therefore, in order to find the reason and draw conclusions with boar sperm, more investigations in this aspect might have to be performed.
With regard to effect of individual variations on the FT sperm quality, 45 ejaculates of 15 boars from three breeds (Landrace (L), Y and Duroc (D); 5 boars each) were studied [97]. It was found that the breed of boar and the individual boars within the same breed significantly influenced most of the FT sperm parameters evaluated. For instance, the post-thaw sperm viability in D and L boars was significantly higher than Y boars. The motility and the normal morphology of FT sperm were lowest in Y boars. L boars seemed to have the most variations in many of the FT sperm parameters. The difference in sperm quality among individual boars that was found in our study was in agreement with previous findings [52,98], suggesting that such individual variation may be correlated with difference in physiological characteristic of the sperm plasma membrane among boars. Additionally, the genomic differences between individual boars may be responsible for freezability and post-thaw quality of their sperm [55].
Cervical AI with FT semen usually results in suboptimal fertility; thereby, deep AI using IUI and DIUI procedures was developed. We evaluated fertility (fertilization rate, FR and LS) of FT boar semen after IUI, with 2x109 total sperm per dose, and DIUI, with 1x109 per dose, in spontaneously ovulating weaned sows. The results revealed that at approximately 2 days following inseminations either with IUI or DIUI, embryo(s) could be recovered from both sides of the oviducts. This observation, the first report in FT semen [99], was consistent with previous studies where the extended fresh semen was used [85,100,101]. It was demonstrated that both transuterine and transperitoneal migrations were involved in transport of sperm inseminated using DIUI to reach the other side of the oviduct [85]. Nonetheless, comparing between techniques, fertilization rate in the IUI group was significantly higher than the DIUI group. The reason for this finding might not associate with the insemination techniques, but rather it was a result of insemination time relative to the moment of ovulation which was not appropriate in the DIUI group (≥ 8 h before ovulation).
After AI using the same procedures (IUI and DIUI) and same numbers of FT sperm (1 to 2 x109 per dose), acceptable fertility (67% FR and 7.7 to 10.5 LS) were obtained in both groups (P>0.05); however, TB in the DIUI group was about 3 piglets fewer than the IUI group. This was probably the consequence of inadequate numbers of functional sperm used for DIUI (400x106 motile sperm) which leaded to the unilateral and/or incomplete bilateral fertilization and resulted in the low LS [102] (Table 2)
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tInsemination procedure\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tIUI \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDIUI \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
No. of sows | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t
Parity number (mean±SD) | \n\t\t\t5.0±1.9 | \n\t\t\t4.8±1.9 | \n\t\t
Weaning to estrus interval (days) (mean±SD) | \n\t\t\t4.9±0.9 | \n\t\t\t5.1±1.5 | \n\t\t
Sows inseminated within 6 h before/after ovulation (%) | \n\t\t\t8/9 (89) | \n\t\t\t9/9 (100) | \n\t\t
Non-return rate at 24 days (%) | \n\t\t\t8/9 (89) | \n\t\t\t6/9 (67) | \n\t\t
Sows return-to-estrus after 24 days (%) | \n\t\t\t2/8 (25) | \n\t\t\t0 (0) | \n\t\t
Farrowing rate (%) | \n\t\t\t6/9 (67) | \n\t\t\t6/9 (67) | \n\t\t
Number of total piglets born per litter (mean±SD) | \n\t\t\t10.5±2.9 | \n\t\t\t7.7±3.0 | \n\t\t
Number of piglets born alive per litter (mean±SD) | \n\t\t\t9.5±3.0 | \n\t\t\t7.5±3.0 | \n\t\t
Non-return rate, farrowing rate, number of total piglets born per litter and number of piglets born alive per litter after intra-uterine insemination (IUI) and deep intra-uterine insemination (DIUI) with frozen-thawed boar semen [102]
According to the results of our studies, it could be indicated that timing of insemination in relation to ovulation and sperm numbers per insemination dose are important factors for successful insemination regardless of insemination procedures and types of semen used. The time of insemination factor becomes more essential when using FT semen because the life span of FT sperm in the female reproductive tract is relatively short compared with the fresh cells, i.e. 4 to 8 h vs about 24 h after insemination, respectively [103,104]. It has been demonstrated that the number of sperm per insemination dose is related to both the number of functional sperm colonized in the oviductal sperm reservoir and fertilization rate [49,101]. Insufficient sperm numbers in the DIUI group might account for the lower fertilization rate [99] and thus smaller LS [102].
The feed supplement containing the rich of PUFAs, vitamins and minerals can improve the sperm motility, vitality and number of sperm per ejaculation in boar. The success of feed supplement depends on the initial performance of the boar. They may not improve the semen quality if the boars are the good performance of semen producers. Moreover, taking all of our researches, we can conclude that the production of cryopreserved boar semen and AI with FT boar semen could be successfully performed in Thailand and its application in commercial farm is undergoing. An IUI procedure was considered to be suitable for FT boar semen to produce acceptable fertility rates. This is very useful for the conservation and/or production of animal with high genetic merits.
Natural dyes are known to be used since historic times for coloring food substrate, leather, as well as common textile fibers like cotton, wool and silk. However due to the advent of synthetic dyes and their good fastness properties in comparison to natural dyes, the use of natural dyes have suffered drastically. In the present scenario there has been a rise in concern of eco-friendliness and sustainability of the products used by the consumers for which natural dyes are again starting to experience slight rise in popularity. A study has been conducted by Samanta and Agarwal [1] which reports the characterization as well as chemical/biochemical analysis of various natural dyes available, the different types of mordants as well as different mordanting techniques, the different conventional and non-conventional method of natural dyeing of textiles. The different natural dyes used for the study are madder, henna, held, indigo and others such as annatto pulp, Rubia tinctorum. Different methods of extraction are employed such as aqueous extraction, non-aqueous method as well as by acid and alkali. Different types of mordant and method of mordanting significantly affect the rate of fading. For cotton the best mordant combinations used in this study are harda and tartaric acid, followed by tannic acid and harda. Double mordanting is employed by using harda and aluminum sulphate. The various process variables to be considered for dyeing with and extraction of natural dyes are concentrations of dye source material, extraction time, dyeing time, mordant concentration, pH and concentration of salt used.
Another study conducted by Daberao et al. [2] gives us a concept about dyeing with palash or tesu flower petal (Butea monosperma) as natural dye sources. The dyes were extracted from Butea monosperma or in other terms flame of the forest and they were applied on 100% cotton. A different method of extraction by boiling was employed and alum was used as mordant. The fabric was then tested for all color fastness tests. The cotton sample was scoured and bleached for better color uptake. The washing fastness results were observed where the natural dye having not too much affinity with the fiber but by the application of mordant could withstand at least five washes. Also wet rubbing fastness of the dye was found to be poorer in the experimental results. However it was observed that Butea monosperma has good perspiration fastness since it is unreactive to acidic and alkaline perspiration.
The use of natural dyes has further started to be increased substantially over the current years for its slow but growing revival phase at present, due to people’s concern over reducing environmental pollution and hence to avoid chemically more hazardous synthetic dyes and intermediates. Day by day in export market, demands for natural dyed natural textiles are being increased. Different institutions/organizations and Govt. have started multifold revival strategies for increasing the use of natural dyes as not only as an employment opportunity for several NGOs, weaver and dyers society, designers, industries, small scale cottage industries, etc. but mainly for adopting green technology dyeing. The handicraft industry in India uses local talents to dye yarns and fabrics with natural compounds, where several products are famous worldwide like Kalamkari print. Different countries other than India like Turkey, Korea, Mexico, several countries of Africa have embraced the uses of natural dyes. A study has been conducted by Gulrajni [3] to understand the scope of natural dyes and its present status in the world in addition to different application techniques, extraction of different natural dyes as well as varying mordanting techniques. Different problems associated with such natural dyeing are also highlighted there.
The Tharu tribes of the Devipatan [4] division have found a new source of natural dyeing from the local leaves and stems of Jatropha curcas L. The dyes are extracted by simple boiling the leaves in water and then evaporating the extract to dryness. The extract obtained is of yellowish olive syrupy color and when applied to the cotton fabrics the different shades of tan and brown color are obtained.
Another state in our country, Manipur has been considered to be a source of a natural dye namely extracts from Strobilanthus flaccidifolius for uses in handicrafts, handlooms, fine arts, etc. Other tribes of Manipur like the Meitei community have been using species like Parkia javanica, Melastoma malabathricum, Pasania pachyphylla, Solanum incidum, Bixa orellana, Tectona grandis, etc. these plants are combined with other plants for extraction and then dye is prepared by indigenous sources. This study is a report by Potsangbam et al. [5] of the dyes extracted from the above sources, the method of extraction as well as their application.
Now from the forest of Chhattisgarh, different dye yielding plants have been identified and collected. A study was conducted by Tiwari and Bharat [6] on the diversity of dye-yielding plants of Chhattisgarh, the indigenous method of dye extraction and ethnic uses of dyes. These colors are being used by tribal folks of this region for different purposes such as ornamentation, cosmetics, decorating houses and coloring home utensils made up of mud.
From the state of Goa [7] natural dye-yielding plants like Cassia fistula, Garcinia indica, Tectona grandis are obtained and studied where Goa is said to house more than 3000 different species of flowering plants. Natural dyes were extracted from various parts of plant like fruits, seeds, bark, flowers, roots, etc. The extraction processes are studied and dyes of different shades are obtained. This study can also encourage the small scale industries to use natural dyes from these sources to be applied on cotton and silk fabrics.
A report by Gaur [8] shows the extensive description of survey, collection of botanical information and review of relevant literature on the vegetable dye yielding resources of Uttarakhand Himalayas. Of which, very little known dye yielding plants are considered like Acacia nilotica, Agrimonia pilosa, Careya arboraea, Averrhoa carambola, etc. Different extraction processes for each plant are carried out and subsequently dyeing is done by using different mordants. Some of these plants also have high medicinal values and has no toxicity.
Various natural products are being used for dyeing these days in order to fulfill the demand of consumers for sustainable environment. The reviews below are for the various natural dyes used on textile materials.
Bechtold et al. [9] have studied on the quality of Canadian golden rod plant material as a natural dye. Aqueous solutions of the material containing the extracted flavonoid dyes were characterized by means of direct photometry, absorbance after addition of FeCl2 is measured, total phenolics (TPH) in the extract and dyeing on wool yarn are analyzed where only relatively small differences in color depth and shade were noted amongst the major parts of the different materials collected.
A study on natural dye henna was conducted by Rahman Bhuiyan et al. [10]. Henna is a red-orange pigment that has long been used for the coloration of skin and hair as well as textile materials. A large number of studies were carried out on extraction as well as application of henna dye in textile fibers and the standardization and simplification of dyeing techniques were determined. Due to burgeoning environmental conditions and growing awareness on sustainability there has been a renewed interest in expanding the scope and applications in the coloration of textile fibers with some successes and promises. Henna shows an acidic nature due to the presence of polar groups, which promotes its use in the textile dyeing process.
Dyeing of natural dye extracted from Liriope platyphylla fruit on silk fabrics have been studied by Huang et al. [11]. From which it has been observed that the total phenolic content (1109.13 ± 69.02 mg), total flavonoid content (530.60 ± 89.44 mg), and total anthocyanin content (492.26 ± 77.79 mg) were measured in 100 g fresh weight of L. platyphylla fruits. A broad variation in color shade and color depth has been achieved with mixtures of different combinations of dye extracts and metal mordants. Purple, blue, and pale green were main color shades obtained when dyed with the extracts. The fastness of dyed silk fabrics against light, washing, and rubbing were noted to be acceptable with at least a gray scale rating of 3.
A study has been conducted on orange peel by Hou et al. [12]. Orange peel is an easily available agricultural byproduct and it is cheap as well as abundant. The variation in effects of dyeing methods and conditions, including pH value, temperature, time and concentration of OP extracts on the colors of the dyed wool fabrics, were studied. Eco-friendly mordants of aluminum and iron were used. The optimum dyeing conditions were noted which included dyeing temperature of 100°C, dyeing time of 120 min, pH of 3 for direct dyeing and pH 7–9 for one-bath mordant dyeing. Good colourfastness to washing with soap, good colourfastness to rubbing and acceptable colourfastness to light were displayed by the tested specimen.
Hibiscus is a major source material for natural dyeing. It belongs to the family Malvaceae. Aqueous extracts of these flowers have shown good fastness properties according to the study conducted by Shanker and Vankar [13]. The dye has been found to have a good scope in the commercial dyeing of cotton, silk for garment industry and wool yarn for carpet industry. In the present study dyeing with hibiscus has been shown to give good dyeing results. The material is pretreated with 2–4% metal mordants, keeping M:L ratio as 1:40 on weight of the fabric to plant extract. The dye is cheap and has good commercial value if dyed with cotton, wool and silk.
Another natural material has been found by Vankar et al. [14] to be a good source of natural dyeing which is Mahonia napaulensis DC., common name taming, from the family Berberidaceae. The natural dye is from the stem and has been used by the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. The fastness properties for dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn were show to increase substantially when pretreated with metal mordant (2% w/w with respect to the fabric).
An attempt has been made by Kamel et al. [15] in dyeing of wool fabrics using lac as a natural dye in both conventional and ultrasonic techniques. The dye extraction was compared between conventional method and ultrasonic technique and the data were evaluated. Accordingly the effects of dye bath pH, salt concentration, ultrasonic power, dyeing time and temperature were compared. The result of fastness properties obtained was fair to good.
Montazer and Parvinzadeh [16] have dyed wool with marigold as a source of yellow color. At first the wool yarns were premordanted with alum, dyed with marigold and then treated with different percentages of ammonia solutions. After washing with standard soap after color hue alters and there has been no effect of ammonia after treatment on washing fastness however the samples show lower light fastness.
A study on the dyeing properties of woolen yarns using gallnut extract as a natural dye was conducted by Shahid et al. [17]. A conclusion that gallnut extract can be applied on woolen yarn with or without mordants to produce bright ivory to light brownish yellow color with good fastness properties against light, washing and rubbing was obtained from the test.
Natural dyes have been slowly garnering popularity all over the world. So a study was carried out by Mirjalili et al. [18] by extraction of dyes from weld using soxhlet apparatus. The natural dyes were extracted and isolated and the colored substance obtained was used for dyeing of wool fiber. Finally a comparison was made with the synthetic colorants on the color fastness tests. It can be concluded from the study that weld can be used as a non-toxic dye. Good fastness properties were obtained from this natural extract.
An attempt has been made to dye the wool fabric with Limoniastrum monopetalum stems by Bouzidi et al. [19]. Extraction parameters were optimized. The optimization of extraction results obtained were dye concentration of 60 g/l, a temperature of 90°C and time duration of 100 min. The best results were obtained of pH 2, dyeing temperature of 100°C, and time duration of 60 min. Metal mordants were used in this process. The extract has ample natural tannin and polyphenol compounds which are considered as mordants since they have the ability to fix the dyes in bath to the fabric.
Indigo carmine is another renewable resource based blue dye which can be used to color protein fibers. Komboonchoo and Bechtold [20] have worked on use indigo carmine in combination with other natural dyes in a one-bath procedure as a hybrid dyeing concept. Optimum dyeing parameters of pH in the range of 4–5 and temperature between 40 and 60°C were obtained.
A new concept of few natural dyes as dye sensitized solar cell (DSC) was brought forth by Hao et al. [21, 22, 23, 24]. Amongst all these photochromatic natural dye-extracts, black rice extract dye shows best results, perhaps due to high interaction between carbonyl [▬C〓O] and hydroxyl [▬OH] groups of anthocyanin present in such dyes. Because of the simple preparation technique, these are considered as widely available and low/cheap cost natural dyes as photo sensitized color of natural dyes, having photo-sensitized solar cell type character. Other materials like achiote seeds, rosella, blue pea flowers, spinach and ipomoea were also reported for such natural dyes having in built photo-sensitized solar cell in it.
Cochineal is an insect species of scientific name Dactylopius coccus. Carminic acid is the natural colorant obtained from the dried female body of such insects. This finds application in cosmetics, foods, pharmaceutical sectors as well as textile and plastic industries. The study has been conducted by Borges et al. [25] and the study on the newer process of extraction will be discussed in the extraction methods section.
A study of natural eco-friendly dye extracted from Plumeria rubra is carried out by Vettumperumal et al. [26]. Due to the existence of highly delocalized systems absorption spectrum shows a broad absorption in the range of 292–590 nm. This plant also encourages usage of waste lands, afforestation of wasteland and provides consequent additional source of income to rural population.
Rubia tinctorum is commonly known as madder produces anthraquinone pigments in its roots, one of them being alizarin (1,2 dihydroxy anthraquinone) which has been used for dyeing textiles since ancient times. Angelini et al. [27] has evaluated four madder genotypes for their agronomic characteristics as well as for their industrial value and to assess its value as a new industrial dye crop. Industrial assays demonstrated good performance when using dry powder 30% of the weight of material to be dyed for dyeing cotton, wool and silk yarns. Resistance to fading appears to be fairly good for dyed wool when using madder.
Different coloring plants from New Caledonia were considered for research by Toussirot et al. [28] amongst which Hubera nitidissima, an Annonaceae, showed an intense yellow color on fibers. Color was extracted from the leaves of the said plant on linen, silk and wool. The color fastness results were obtained where it was concluded that H. nitidissima appears as an excellent source of light-fast yellow dye with interesting antioxidant properties. These days natural dye extracted from mangrove bark was also used as a dyeing material.
Punrattanasin et al. [29] applied selectively extracted few natural dyes to a silk fabric by an exhaustion dyeing process where aluminum potassium sulfate, ferrous sulfate, copper sulfate, and stannous chloride were used as mordants. Dyeing was carried out in three different stages of the fabric-premordanted, meta-mordanting and post-mordanting. Color fastness values of each were reported. Dyeing conditions were optimized as dyeing temperature of 90°C, dyeing time—60 min and dye bath pH of 3 was fixed to be optimum. In this work, natural silk textiles were dyed with and without mordants using SnCl2, KAl SO4, FeSO4 and CuSO4 providing varying degree of color/tone/shade, where FeSO4 produced darker and blackish brown shade, CuSO4 produced lighter to pale reddish brown shade, both showing poorer washing fastness but very good water soaking, perspiration, light and rubbing fastness.
The various physical tests were done and tensile strength, tearing strength and stiffness of the fabrics before and after dyeing were also compared.
Shukla et al. [30] has reported dyeing of woolen textiles with extract of acacia pennata plants. The color was extracted from barks of the said plant and applied on wool. Acacia pennata is a thorny shrub found throughout India and Burma. Experiments were carried out where acacia pennata was used in conjunction with banana stem. When compared without banana stem it was observed that dye fastness without the banana stem was poorer than when stem was used. It was concluded that banana stem acted as a good mordant thus eliminating the use of metallic, carcinogenic mordants.
An attempt has been made by Gulrajni et al. [31] to dye nylon and polyester with annatto. Annatto also known as Bixa orellana has a color component namely carotenoid dye bixin. It has been observed that both of these fibers show good affinity for this dye but moderate fastness to washing and poor light fastness.
An attempt has been carried out by Gulrajni et al. [32] to extract dyes from ratanjot also known as Arnebia nobilis for application on cotton, wool, silk, nylon, polyester and acrylic. The process conditions such as pH and temperature were recorded. It has been noted that dye exhibits acute sensitivity to pH in terms of solubility and color and is found to be thermally stable upto 80°C. The different colors shown by various fabrics were noted such as pink color for polyester, blue for nylon and other substrates acquiring a purple hue under similar dyeing conditions.
A study by Gulrajni et al. [33] on the kinetics and thermodynamics of dye extracted from Arnebia nobilis on woolen textiles was reported. Physicochemical and dyeing kinetics parameters of this natural dyeing using aqueous extract of Arnebia nobilis applied on woolen textiles were reported as compared to the same for other natural colorants like juglone, lawsone and Rheum emodi, etc. The results showed here that anthraquinonoid based these natural colors do not form desired coordinated complex with wool and rather are absorbed on wool substrate by partition mechanism following Nernst isotherm like absorption of disperse dye on polyester.
Chakraborty and Chavan [34] reviewed on dyeing of cotton denim with Indigo, which gives the information on the newer application techniques of indigo dyes applicable for natural indigo. Since indigo has negative affinity for cotton conventional methods cannot be applied. The details of indigo reduction, solubilization and dye application has been studied in this reference.
Deo et al. [35] had attempted dyeing of ecru denim with onion extract as natural color using Potash-alum in combination with harda and tartaric acid as mordants. Any of the single mordant did not produced desired shade. Amongst combined mordants used, Potash-alum + harda combination was found to be better than potash-alum + tartaric acid for producing desired depth of shade, but potash alum + tartaric acid (5%:5%, that is, 1:1 combination of each 5% application) post mordanting showed best overall color fastness results.
A study has been carried out by Samanta et al. [36] on standardizing dyeing process variables for its application on bleached jute fabric with aqueous extract of tesu (Palash flower petal). It is observed that higher amount of pre-mordanting with 20% myrobolan (Harda containing chebulinic acid) followed by 20% aluminum sulphate in sequence and dyeing at pH −11.0 produced optimum color yield and all round good color fastness. Improvement in wash and light fastness was also achieved with suitable chemical post-treatment using suitable agents.
Gray jute fabric bleached with hydrogen peroxide in conventional method was mordanted with different concentrations of ferrous sulphate and dyed separately with natural dyes extracted from deodara leaf (Cedrus deodara L.), jackfruit leaf (Artocarpus integrifolia L.) and eucalyptus leaf (Eucalyptus globulus L.). Pan et al. [37] have observed the interdependency of color yield and color fastness properties on dosages, that is, concentrations of mordants (FeSO4) used, higher iron-mordant concentration lead to higher color yield, darker color and better overall good color fastness. But they have not studied loss of strength of due to mordanting and which is essentially needed to be assessed also.
Narayana Swamy et al. [38] have studied the use of madhuca longfolia as a dye source. The dried leaves of the said plant are taken as dye source for silk dyeing. The optimum conditions under which the dye has been extracted are pH of 10, time (60 min) and temperature (95°C). Varying range of shades is obtained using different methods with or without using mordants. The dyed samples have been evaluated for color measurements and standard wash, light and rub fastness tests. Eco-friendliness of the dye has been kept into account. The dyed samples are also tested for antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The dyed silk fabrics show acceptable fastness properties and the results show that Madhuca longifolia leaves are promising as a natural colorant, which can thus open new doors towards environment friendly products.
An attempt has been made to color silk using barberry, a cationic type natural dye by Pruthi et al. [39] Barberry bark also known as Berberis aristata DC. was used for dyeing of degummed pure silk yarn using four selected mordants; alum, chrome, copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate in different ratio, that is, 1:1, 1:3 and 3:1. Optimized results was obtained for aqueous extraction of barberry as 60 min time, 8% dye source material and optimized dyeing conditions were observed to be pH-of dye bath-4.0, dyeing time-45 min for standard mordanting with chrome + ferrous sulphate (1:3) and chrome + copper sulphate (3:1) produced the higher degree of color fastness properties. Varying shade percentages and color tone were obtained by using varying degree/percentages of different combination of mordants.
Das et al. [40] have worked on the application of Bixa orellana on protein textiles viz. on wool and silk. Seeds of annatto have been extracted first and then have been employed on silk and wool in absence and presence of magnesium sulphate, aluminum sulphate and ferrous sulphate. Effective colouration has been achieved at pH 4.5 commonly in the absence and presence of such inorganic salts. Color uptake for wool is found to be more than that for silk under all the conditions studied. When both the substrates are treated with such salt prior to application of annatto there has been significant increase in color uptake. Colored protein fibers, in general, produce light and wash fastness ratings of 2–3. Ferrous sulphate in turn, improves color fastness properties and color retention on washing of wool and silk fibers.
Another study has been conducted by Das et al. [41] on the application of Punica granatum on wool and silk textiles. Punica granatum also commonly known as pomegranate rind was used on wool and silk fabric in the presence and absence of environment-friendly mordanting agents. Both the dyeing of silk and wool with pomegranate solution is found to be effectively accomplished at pH 4.0. With the application of ferrous sulphate and aluminum sulphate during pre- and post-mordanting has shown improvement in the color uptake, light fastness and color retention on repeated washing. The use of such mordants, however, does not show any improvement in wash fastness property of dyed substrates.
An application of Terminalia bellerica fruit extract dyeing on woolen textile under different conditions of pH, concentrations of natural coloring matter, time of extraction/durations and temperatures were studied by El-Zawahry and Kamel [42]. The results evaluated were mainly surface color strength and color depth. The study shows that optimum color yield was obtained using following extraction and dyeing conditions:
Extraction: source coloring matter—5%, temperature of extraction bath—near boil, that is, 90–100°C at pH—7 (neutral).
Mordanting: (i) potassium dichromate + lactic acid-application 0.5 gpl, and (ii) chromic chloride + lactic acid-application −0.5 gpl,
Dyeing: time—60 min and temperature—near boil (95°C),
Shade obtained: moss green with mordanting system (i) as above, mustard yellow with mordant system (ii) as above and muster brown with both copper acetate and ferrous sulphate or ferric chloride as mordant. Thus for such natural dyes-color tone and shade depth are much dependant on type of mordant and its concentration used. Overall color fastness results to washing, to acid or alkaline human perspirations and rubbing/crocking fastness were found to be almost the same for said premordanted and dyed wool fabrics. In case of light fastness, longer the duration of exposure to light, darker the shade and better light fastness were obtained. There has been no change of color strength and fastness properties despite of use of standing dye bath (50 g T.b. fruits/100 ml water) for 8 times.
A new approach of dyeing was undertaken by Naz et al. [43] where Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) bark powder (without any further treatment/irradiation) using gamma ray irradiated natural colorant of dry powder of eucalyptus leaf extract, for producing natural colored textiles of soothing brown color with improved color fastness by required pre and/or post mordanting. Thus, when this fabric was therefore dyed in this case using gamma ray irradiated powder of eucalyptus dry leaf, it showed noticeable improved overall color fastness properties.
A paper was presented by Ferda Eser et al. [44] on dyeing of polyester and polyester/viscose blends dyed with walnut shell extracts. Different extraction conditions were considered such as material—liquor (M:L) ratio, extraction temperature, extraction time and pH in order to obtain highest color depth. Optimal extraction of natural dyes from walnut shells (Juglans regia) was obtained at temperature—80°C, time of extraction—75 min using MLR as 1:30 at pH 2. For dyeing polyester and polyester/viscose blends with said extract of wall nut shell using AlKHSO4 or AlK(SO4)2 or FeSO4 for separate mordanting for 90 min time and subsequent dyeing was studied and found that pre mordanting with FeSO4 offers best dyeing results with good color depth and overall good color fastness, which can be used for future applications for ecofriendly dyeing of polyester and its blended textiles.
A detailed study was carried out by Samanta and Agarwal [45, 46] on dyeing of jute and cotton fabrics with binary mixtures of jackfruit wood along with other natural dyes in combination for producing compound shades after study of their compatibility. Conventionally hydrogen peroxide bleached jute and cotton fabrics were taken and was pre-mordanted with 10–20% harda (myrobolan) followed by 10–20% Al2(SO4)3 or FeSO4 salt in sequence as sequential double mordanting as a most prospective mordanting system for subsequent dyeing with aqueous extract of jack fruit wood. Study of dyeing process variables showed that optimum dyeing results were obtained for 90 min dyeing time, 70–90°C dyeing temperature, 11.0 pH, 1:30 material-to-liquor ratio, 20–30% mordants concentration, 30–40% source dye concentration, and 15 gpl common salt. In conventional method, for test of compatibility of these selected binary pairs of natural dyes, in order to obtain progressive depth of shade, two sets of five different samples were produced and tested after dyeing with 1:1 mixture of two dyes at 1% fixed shade depth with varying time and temperature profile in one set as well as by varying total concentrations of the binary pairs of dyes (using varying shade depth with 1:1 equal proportion of mixture of two dyes) keeping time and temperature fixed for second set were obtained and their color parameters of K/S vs. DL and DC Vs. DL were compared to judge compatibility by graphical comparison method. However, in this work, a newer method of compatibility rating procedure with calculation of Color Difference Index data (a newly defined useful color difference parameter) was described and adopted here for easy determination of compatibility rating between two dyes of any binary pairs of selective natural dyes used for applying that binary mixture of natural dyes in the same dye bath for compound shade. Moreover, they have shown methods of improving color fastness to washing by using separate post treatment with cationic agents like CTAB (n-cetyl-N-trimethyl ammonium bromide), or cetrimide, etc. Similarly separate post treatment with 1% benztriozale as an UV absorber had also shown an improvement in light fastness results.
Another attempt of dyeing ratanjot on nylon and polyster was studied by Gulrajni et al. [47] where the observed results indicated that this dye has a good substantivity for both nylon and polyester fibers, probably due to less polar structure of this dye and Nernst partition isotherm of absorption of this dye on these two fibers. However, deep color shade and better fastness to light and washing was obtained.
Sagarika Devi et al. [48] have studied about Alternaria alternata for textile dyeing and printing where reddish brown natural pigments which was obtained after extraction of colors from dry mycelium of Alternaria alternata in methanol solvent media. At pH −6, this Fungus produce the said extractable colored pigment, which can be applied on cotton for light color with medium grades of color fastness results using pigment dyeing process. This natural color is antibacterial and antifungal as evidenced in this work by AATCC100 test method for both gram positive and gram negative bacteria species for test, showing its antimicrobial nature.
Ke [49] studied the dyeing properties of natural dye extracted from Rhizoma coptidis on acrylic fibers. Acrylic fiber was dyed with Rhizoma coptidis aqueous solution and its dyeability was studied in terms of the thermodynamic and kinetic properties and dyeing process conditions. This study showed that effect of dyeing temperature is positive, that is, color yield and dye diffusion rate increases with increase of dyeing temperature up to a limit, indicating dyeing temperature and mordant concentration as important critical variables in such dyeing of acrylic with extract of Rhizoma coptidis. Color fastness to washing and rubbing are found to be grade—4.
Haque et al. [50] extracted ubiadin dye from Swietenia mahagoni and studied its dyeing characteristics onto silk fabric using metallic mordants. Metallic mordants such as MgCl2 and FeSO4 were used and dyeing properties were evaluated. FeSO4 as compared to that of MgCl2 showed good result for color yield and color fastness results.
Mahale et al. [51] studied about natural dyeing of Silk yarn skeins using extract of Acalypha wilkesiana leaves using varying concentrations of mordants like potash alum, potassium dichromate, copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate. Potassium dichromate and copper sulphate are not ecofriendly mordant. Potash alum though gives good fastness but considering color yield and fastness both, FeSO4 offers best results of color yield and color fastness.
A study was conducted by Poorniammal et al. [52] for natural dyeing with extracted and purified natural fungal pigment from Thermomyces sp. to apply on different textile fabrics to optimize and dyeing process parameters for silk, cotton and woolen fabrics. This extracted pigment color obtained from Thermomyces sp. indicated good affinity towards silk fabrics than others, with good light fastness (rating 4), color fastness to washing (rating 4–5) and color fastness to rubbing (rating 3–4). The optimum conditions for dyeing was found to be dyeing temperature—30°C, dyeing pH—3, myrobalan mordant—5%, and dyeing time—20 min duration were suggested. The pigment also gave a reasonable extent of bacteria reduction in such silk dyed sample against Salmonella typhi (51.05%).
An attempt is made by Onial et al. [53] on utilization of Terminalia chebula Retz. fruits pericarp as a source of natural dye for textile applications. Terminalia chebula Retz. of Family-Combretaceae, trade name-Myrobalan fruits pericarp powder was taken for the utilization as a dye. The dried fruits constitute one of the most important vegetable tanning materials and have been used in India for a long time. This fruit pericarp thus can be used as a raw material for natural dyeing.
Das et al. [54] made an attempt to dye wool and silk with Rheum emodi. Silk and woolen fabrics, which were dyed with colorant extracted from Rheum emodi in the absence and presence of metallic mordants such as magnesium sulphate, aluminum sulphate and ferrous sulphate for producing shades of different colors, ranging from yellow to olive green. Study of dyeing isotherms and kinetics of dyeing process indicated that this dyeing mechanism do not follow coordinated complex formation amongst fiber-mordant-dye, rather follow Nernst type isotherm showing pattern of partition mechanism, for this anthraquinonoid-based colorant where the dye molecules are adsorbed by silk and woolen fabrics as a disperse dye.
However, rate of dyeing is found to be higher for silk than that of wool and that color depth is increased by use of both aluminum sulphate or ferrous sulphate as mordant and considering color fastness test results, the later, that is, ferrous sulphate as mordant is found to be superior (offering wash fastness grade as 3 to 4 or 4) than use of same dosages of aluminum sulphate.
Thus ferrous sulphate is preferred as mordant for obtaining an improvement in the color fastness properties and color retention on washing of both wool and silk fabrics further.
Goodarzian and Ekrami [55] used brown dry rind of pomegranate as dyestuff. Extraction was carried out by solvent extraction method. Woolen fabrics were dyed with both raw and extracted dyestuffs using variations of concentrations. Spectrophotometric evaluations as well as colorimetric studies were carried out to compare the color strength of raw and extracted dye stuff on woolen fabric. It was concluded that color strength of extracted dye from pomegranate rind was more than raw dye stuff.
As mentioned by Garfield and Mauve [56], ‘Mauviene’ was the first synthetic dye synthesized by William Perkin in 1856. Like every scientific invention with man-made materials, advantages and disadvantages coexist, and the synthesis of synthetic-dyes is no exception. With the present growing global concern for environment protection and use of eco-friendly and bio-degradable materials, the trend of application of natural dyes have once again gained the momentum and for growing concern of consumers on eco friendliness of textile products, application of natural dyes on textiles is slowly being revived again.
Advantages of natural dyes over synthetic are manifolds [57] as they are eco-friendly, safe for body contact and are harmonized as reported by Brian [58]. Many scientists have also suggested and reported the medicinal and antibacterial importance of natural dyes [59, 60]. Yellow dye from rhizome of turmeric has been reported to be traditionally used in medicine as an anti-inflammatory drug [61]. Most of the natural dyes are proved to be non-toxic and eco-friendly, although there are some exceptions.
The natural dyes are the colorants extracted from the vegetables matters, minerals or insects [62]. Although most of the natural dyes have poor to moderate light fastness and the synthetic dyes represent a full range of colors with light fastness properties ranging from moderate to excellent [63], the use of natural dyes on textiles have been reported by many scientists. Dyeing of cotton with leaf-extract of Beilschmiedia fagifolia was reported by Vankar et al. [64], who has used sonicator method to dye cotton with aqueous extracts of B. fagifolia. The authors have reported that pre-treatment of cotton with 1–2% metal mordant and dyeing with 5% plant extract produced optimum results with good fastness properties.
In another report, Shah and Datta [65] used floral dye extracted from marigold flower to dye cotton fabrics. Gahlot et al. [66] used colorants extracted from Jatropha integarrima flowers for dyeing of cotton, wool and silk. Dyeing of silk with Onosma echiodes (Goldendrop) was reported by Sidhu and Grewal [67]. Mahale et al. [68] dyed cotton with Arecanut palm extract. Ultrasonic dyeing of cotton and silk with Nerium oleander flower has also been carried out [69]. Purohit et al. [70] reported use of natural color from waste leaves of Arotocarpus beterophyllus on different textile substrates like cotton and silk to get standard reproducible shades of golden yellow color.
The application of natural dyes such as turmeric, madder, catechu, Indian rhubarb, henna, and tea and pomegranate rind on manmade fiber nylon has been reported by Teli et al. [71]. Some studies have also been conducted on application of Lac dyes [72] on different fibers. Application of a natural dye, annatto, on mulberry silk was carried out by Javali et al. [73]. Some studies [74, 75, 76] on natural dyeing of silk textiles have been reported in literature for use of Indian madder, Spathodea campanulata and lac dyes as natural sources. Patel et al. [77], have reported environmental-friendly and cost-effective method to create various shades on silk with few natural dyes.
There are many historic books documenting the literature on the use of natural dyes or natural dyed materials (textiles, candles, food, furrs, etc.) dating to as far back as the eighteenth century. The significant literary document on natural coloring matter was made available for the first time by Perkin and Everest [78].
Sahid and Mohammad [79], and Mayer and Cook [80] have also reviewed details of chemistry asnd application of natural dyes and more recent report on the structures of quinonoids natural colorants is described in Thomson’s book [81]. Recent reviews in this area also include work undertaken by Parris [82] and Hofenk de Graaff [83] the latter includes information on fastness properties and history of use. Studies in the analysis of natural colorants in textiles are a fascinating subject which started as early as 1930s.
Recently, Samanta et al. [84, 85, 86] have described thermodynamic analysis of rate of dyeing, half dyeing time, enthalpy, free energy, etc. as a physico-chemical parameter of dyeing jute with red sandal wood, jackfruit wood and tesu as natural dyes.
The analysis of mass spectrometry of textile fibers dyed with indigo has been reported by McGovern [87]. However, Wong [88] was not able to detect 6,6-dibromoindigotin by direct analysis, but only after it had been separated by reductive extraction with sodium hydrosulphite.
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used by many workers to identify natural dyes in textiles [82]. Dyes detected were insect dyes and vegetable dyes viz., yellow, red and blue colors. Koren [89] also analyzed the madder and indigoid dyes by HPLC. Guinot et al. [90] also used TLC chromatography analysis to carry out a preliminary evaluation of plants containing flavonoids (flavonols, flavones, flavanones, chalcones/aurones, anthocynanins), hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins and anthraquinones, which are the phylo-compounds (color compounds) found in the plants.
Physicochemical dyeing parameters of red sandal wood as natural dyes and its compatibility with other dyes were analyzed by Samanta and Agarwal et al. [91, 92]. Neem bark [93] colorant showed two absorption maxima at 275 and 374 μm; while beet sugar showed three absorption bands at 220, 280 and 530 μm as per study undertaken by Mathur [93]. The visible spectra of ratanjot [47] in methanol solution was observed at both acidic and alkaline pH by Gulrajani et al. [47]. Gomphrena globosa flower colorant showed one major peak at 533 μm. The dye did not show much difference in the visible spectrum at pH 4 and 7; however the peak shifted to 554 μm as reported by Shanker and Vankar [94].
Bhuyan [95] observed the amount of dye absorption for extract of Mimusops elengi and Terminalia arjun varies from 21.94 to 27.46% and 5.18 to 10.78%, respectively, for the said two dye sources. The color components isolated from most of the barks contain flavonoid moiety. Samanta et al. [96, 97] postulated a new index called color difference index (CDI) value which can be calculated by an empirical formula postulated by them and which made determining dye compatibility easier and simpler for a binary mixture, that is, between a pair of natural dyes.
Identification of dyes in historic textiles though chromatographic and spectrophotometric methods as well as by sensitive color reactions was highlighted by Blanc et al. [98], who studied the retention of carminic acid, indigotin, corcetin, gambogic acid, alizarin flavanoid, anthraquinone and purpurin, etc. A non-destructive method was reported for identifying faded dyes on textiles fabrics through examination of their emission and excitation spectra. Zin and Moe [99] purified and characterized extracted natural agents and colors from mango bark for application in protein fibers like wool.
Walker and Needles [100] carried out the separation and identification of natural dyes from wool fibers using reverse phase HPLC using a C-18 column. Two quaternary solvent systems and one binary solvent system were reported to be used to obtain chromatograms of by the HPLC analysis of plant and insect based red anthroquinonoid and molluscan type blue and red purple indigoid dyes [89]. This method enables the elution process for the determination of different chemical functionality and class of dyes and significantly shortens the time of test. Son et al. [101] reported HPLC analysis of indigo highlighting the structural changes of indigo component, attributing a decrease/increase in color strength with variation of dyeing time.
Balakina [63] also investigated/analyzed the quantitative and qualitative analysis of red dyes such as alizarin, purpurin, carminic acid, etc. by HPLC. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) has been also used by several workers to identify synthetic as well as natural dyes.
Jain and Vashanta [102] characterized antimicrobial activity after eco-friendly dyeing with arcea nut using natural mordant/mordanting additives like myrobolan, lodhra and pomegranate rind and found that pomegranate rind renders best antibacterial activity and Lodhar renders highest color fastness to wash amongst all the moderating additives used.
Mondhe and Rao [103] made an attempt to prepare azo-alkyd dyes by the reduction of nitro alkyds, followed by diazotization of amino alkyds and coupling with different phenol compounds present in Jatropha curcas seed oil by using IR spectra.
The toxicity [104, 105] data also provide evidence about the adverse effect to human and environment. Of primary concern are the acute toxicity, irritation effects on the skin and the eye and sensitization potential besides environmental pollution in the society. Furthermore, possible long-term effects such mutagenic, carcinogenic or reproductive toxicity is best judged by LD50 test. The crude methanolic extracts of stem and roots stem, leaves, fruit, seeds of Artocarpus Hetrophyllus [106] exhibited good rating of antibacterial activity. The butanol fractions of the same root bark and fruit were also found to be the most active.
Mishra and Patni [107] extracted tannins from gall leaf from oak plant (i.e., oak galls containing gallic acid and tannic acid and helps in better dye fixation) from Himalayan region and dyed cotton, woolen and silk textiles with different metallic mordants and obtained better color fast fabrics, which are skin friendly too. The main reason of revival of natural dyes for textiles are its environmental friendliness and skin friendliness too.
A study was conducted by Mari Selvam et al. [108] to investigate the antibacterial and antifungal effects of such dyed textiles dyed with Turmeric, Terminalli, Guava and Henna. The results obtained indicated that at a dose level of 50 μl of Terminalli dye was able to inhibit the growth of all the fungi tested. The absorbance rate of natural dyes was analyzed by UV Spectrophotometer. The absorbance rate obtained were high in Terminalli (2.266) and turmeric (2.255). Hence from this study it was concluded that natural dyes were bound with traditional products to give good color and good antimicrobial activity against isolated fungal pathogens.
Another study carried out by Rajni Singh et al. [109] on antimicrobial activity of some natural dyes like Acacia catechu, Kerria lacca, Quercus infectoria, Rubia cordifolia and Rumex maritimus, which gives us an idea about to determine their minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), which was found to be varying from 5 to 40 mg. So, such dyed textile material with these dyes must up take above MIC concentration for effective antimicrobial action in such natural dyed textiles.
Curcumin, a common natural dye used for fabric and food colorations was used by Han and Yang [110] to dye woolen fabric to obtain dyeing and antimicrobial finishing simultaneously showing relation amongst bacterial reduction percentage and dye (curcumin) concentration, and microbial inhibition rate and surface color strength (K/S value). However, durability of antimicrobial action for different nos. of washing cycle after laundering and after exposure to UV light/sun light are also very important criteria, which were also critically discussed in this work.
Shafat Ahmad Khan et al. [111] attempted a work to investigate the anti-microbial action of Rheum emodi L. as a potential antibacterial natural dye and they dyed wool yarns with extract of Rheum emodi L. as purified dye applying dye concentration of 5–10% with or without mordants like ferrous sulphate, stannous chloride and natural alum for subsequent antimicrobial test against E. coli and S. aureus following AATCC100 test method. Test results of such Rheum emodi natural dyed woolen yarn samples indicated 90% bacterial reduction percentage as well as very high fungal protection showing very effective antimicrobial properties.
Shahid-ul-Islam et al. [112] have studied the use of Tectona grandis L. leaves extract plant colorants for dyeing woolen fabrics for simultaneous dyeing and antimicrobial finishing with natural dye cum natural antimicrobial finishing agent. This study indicated that the dyeing woolen yarn with extract of Tectona grandis L. is suitable for dyeing cum multifunctional finishing to impart simultaneous dyeing and antioxidant and antibacterial finishing properties to woolen based textile fabrics.
Fatemeh Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. [113] have found that pre-treatment with aluminum sulphate as pre mordanting and followed by subsequent dyeing with selective natural dyes extracted from green tea leaf, madder route, turmeric route, saffron petals, and henna as natural dye cum natural antimicrobial agents provide moderate to good antibacterial finishing property on woolen fabrics and also led to good durability of the said antimicrobial action even after five cycles of laundering and above 300 min exposure to UV light/sun light.
Mohd Ibrahim Khan et al. [114] have conducted a study on antimicrobial activity of catechu itself and catechu extract dyed woolen yarn. The results indicated to show more than 90% antibacterial reduction as per standard test method. Observed antimicrobial inhibition character indicate that catechu may be a promising natural antimicrobial finishing agent for developing bioactive and antimicrobial dyed textile materials for today’s need.
A number of recent studies on simultaneous natural colouration and antimicrobial finishing of different textiles using selective natural dyes/natural agents applied alone or in combination were investigated by several authors as mentioned below for detailed study and further references:
Prusty et al. [115] have studied about simultaneous natural coloring and antibacterial finishing of few natural colorants on silk.
Similarly Gupta and Laha [116] have worked on simultaneous natural dyeing and antimicrobial finishing of cotton fabric using natural tannin-rich extract of Quercus infectoria (QI) plant in combination with alum, copper and ferrous sulphate as mordants showing good antimicrobial activity at 12% concentration (owf), inhibiting the bacterial reduction around 45–60% for ferrous sulphate and bacterial reduction increases to 70–90% when mordanted with alum or copper sulphate making it suitable for anti-odor agent for use in medical, sports and home textiles.
Chen and Chang [117] have applied extract of onion skin on plasma pretreated cotton fabric to obtain simultaneous coloring and antimicrobial finishing effect where the plasma-pre-treated cotton samples subsequent dyed/grafted with extract of onion skin showed measurable inhibition zone against S. aureus around 1.1–0.8 cm inhibition for 10 min grafting time with onion skin extract and 0.7–0.5 cm inhibition zone for 30 min grafting time of onion skin extract.
Joshi et al. [118] have reported a comprehensive review on natural product based bioactive agents such as chitosan, natural dyes, neem extract and other herbal products for antimicrobial finishing of textile substrates which is useful for further study.
A study has been conducted by Salah [119] about antibacterial and UV property of Egyptian cotton fabrics treated with aqueous extract from waste peel of banana fruits after its extraction in 1% NaOH solution.
Chattopadhyay et al. [120] have worked on developing natural dyed jute fabric with improved color yield and UV protection characteristics using harda (myrobolan) as bio mordant (though it is not truly a mordant, it is rather a mordanting assistant having high coordinating power for promoting fiber-mordant-dye complex formation using several ▬OH and ▬COOH groups of chebulinic acid present in it) and pomegranate rind extract as natural dye as well as UV protective agent using ecofriendly ferrous sulphate and potash alum as mordants. Very good ultraviolet (UV) protection ratings were achieved in case of dyeing of jute fabric with pomegranate rind. However, Jute fabric treated with manjistha, annatto, ratanjot and baboolas natural dyes cum natural UV protective finishing agents, applied after pre-mordanting with sequential pretreatment with Harda extract as biomordant and Alum as metallic but natural eco-friendly chemical mordant. Observed results indicated that UV protection properties of the said selective natural dyes cum natural UV protective finishing agents applied on bleached jute fabric follows the following order of UV protective performances: babool > annatto > manjistha > ratanjot.
Hou et al. [12] has used in their study waste orange peel as agricultural bye product for obtaining concurrent natural coloring and UV protective finishing on textiles for potential strong UV absorbance character of orange peel applied on woolen fabrics. The results was encouraging and optimum conditions of this concurrent natural coloring and UV protective finishing of woolen textiles is: optimum temperature of 100°C, optimum time—120 min, dyeing cum finshing bath pH—3 for following dyeing cum finishing without mordant and pH is 7–9 for simultaneous mordanting, dyeing and finishing in one bath using aluminum sulphate or ferrous sulphate, that is, iron as metallic eco-friendly mordant, showing great potential of orange peel extract as useful for this purpose.
Grifoni et al. [121] have shown in their reports that UV protection property not only depends on the surface finishing agents applied whether natural or synthetic, but also depend much on fabric construction, type of fibers, type of natural or synthetic dyes and finishes used (absorption criteria of dyes and finishing agents in UV zone). In this study, they measured UPF value of different types of textile apparels, hats, canopy type shade structure made of textiles with varying fabric construction for vegetable and natural fibers based product and finally dyed with different natural dyes cum natural finishing agents using tannin based natural mordants for obtaining maximum level of safest UV protection from sunlight radiation.
Feng et al. [122] have conducted a study on the UV protective properties of hats and clothing against solar ultraviolet radiation and found that Rheum emodi and L. erythrorhizon shows equally good and comparable UV-absorption protection character as compared to the common known standard UV-absorber compounds like benzophenone and benztriazole, etc.
Sinnur et al. [123] have reported a study on natural colouration and UV protective finishing using aqueous extract of pomegranate rind, that is, commonly known as anar peel. Besides optimization of conditions of natural color extraction from dried anar peel powder, effect of different single and double mordants in different proportions and concentrations on color yield and optimization of dyeing process variables as well as measurement of UV protective action of such dyed cotton khadi fabric with extract of anar peels (pomegranate rind, i.e., Punica granatum L.) as a natural colorant has been reported recently as an encouraging work.
The analysis of mass spectroscopy of cellulosic textile fibers dyed with indigo has been reported as a method of its identification, which may be the basis and can be used as a finger print for identifying natural indigo with TLC and UV VIS spectroscopic results in combination. Similarly for assuring any textiles being only dyed with natural dye, need its identification method. Very recently BIS has published two national IS standards on identifying natural Indigo and madder (IS 17084-2019 for natural indigo and IS 17084-2019 for madder) for test and identification of these two natural dyes from such a natural dyed textiles.
Thus, still there are many gaps in standardizing dyeing conditions for specific fiber-mordant-dye combinations and there is still need of required scientific and industrial research on the effects of different ecofriendly chemical mordants and bio mordants (tannin based natural compounds) and mordanting assistants (gallic acid or chebulinic acid based natural compounds) for finally standardization/optimization of dyeing process variables for obtaining uniform and repeatability of shades to produce with natural colors. Another side of utilizing antibacterial/antifungal and UV protective action or deodourizing action of selective natural dyes by detailed scientific study of the effects of different after-treating compounds antibacterial/UV absorbers compounds for improving its uses as high valued textiles. Similarly study of different natural and ecofriendly chemical dye fixatives for improving color fastness to Washing and effects of UV absorber compounds on exposure of such natural dyed textiles to the exposure to sun-light/UV light can be improved by suitable after-treatment with UV absorbers. For improving rubbing fastness of such natural dyed textiles, after treatment with natural binders or different natural reactive thickeners and ecofriendly synthetic binding agents are required, besides approaches to improve antimicrobial and UV protection activity of such natural dyed textiles. It is also important to know and understand well the exact fiber-mordant dye interaction and role of different pre and post treatments on promoting color yield (in terms of K/S values), uniformity of color yield (measurable by CV % of K/S values) as well as rating for antimicrobial and UV protection factor for different fiber-mordant-natural dye combination as applicable particularly to cotton, silk, wool and jute fibers when dyed with aqueous extract of any selected natural dye.
Hence application of natural dyes on high value apparel and functional textiles are gaining worldwide interest for its less toxic nature, better biocompatibility, biodegradability, producing elegant hues and highly functional value-added textiles as environment friendly oeko-tech/ecofriendly textiles for gaining popularity for natural dyed and finished as high valued textiles of tomorrow, if its revival strategies are well created and executed with utmost care with back up of sufficient scientific study with time bound growth plan and correct revival strategy.
Some of the revival strategies include (i) availability of commercially standardized process and standard commercial shade cards for developing desired shades with acceptable repeatability and appreciable color fastness results; (ii) availability of standardized test methods for identifying and assuring customers for proving a dyed textiles is really 100% dyed with natural dye(s) without any synthetic dyes used as adulterant/topping to match shade; (iii) commercial process variables need to be standardized for different dyes for desired shades at economical minimum cost; (iv) to train and educate concern dyers and weavers and any big or large textile industry sector for successful extraction and dyeing with natural dyes and finally (v) future creation of a natural dye mark certification method by suitable national and international bodies for consumer assurance service like khadi mark, silk mark, etc.
We believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
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\\n\\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at oapf@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at oapf@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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