\r\n\tLiterature showed the presence of ACE2 receptors on the membrane of erythrocyte or red blood cell (RBC), indicating that erythrocyte (RBC) can be considered as a peripheral biomarker for SARS-C0V2 infection.
\r\n\r\n\tIncreased levels of glycolysis and fragmentation of RBC membrane proteins were observed in the SARS-C0V2 infected patients, demonstrating that not only RBC’s metabolism and proteome but its membrane lipidome could be influenced by SARS-C0V2 infection changing the homeostasis of the infected erythrocyte. This altered RBC may result in the clot and thrombus formation; the major signs of critically ill Covid-19 patients.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is going to be a succinct source of knowledge not only for the specialists, researchers, academics and the students in this area but for the general public who are concern about the present situation and are interested in knowing about simple non-invasive measures for identifying viral and bacterial infections through their red blood cells.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-121-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-120-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-122-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa5f4b6ef59e28b6e7c1a739c57c5d2f",bookSignature:"Prof. Kaneez Fatima Shad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10494.jpg",keywords:"Spike Protein, Hemoglobin, Proteins for Oxygen Transport, Altered Protein Structures, RBC ACE Receptors, RBC ACE-2 Receptors, Carboxypeptidase, Mas Receptor, Metabolomics, Gas Transport, Glucose-6-Phosphate, Phosphoglycerate",numberOfDownloads:10,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 18th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Shad is a governing body member and mentor of Women in World Neuroscience (WWN), a division of the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO). She is also a member of IBRO-APRC Global Advocacy responsible for brain research funding distribution in this region.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31988/images/system/31988.jpg",biography:"Professor Kaneez Fatima Shad, a neuroscientist with a medical background, received Ph.D. in 1994 from the Faculty of Medicine, UNSW, Australia, followed by a post-doc at the Allegheny University of Health Sciences, Philadelphia, USA. She taught Medical and Biological Sciences in various universities in Australia, the USA, UAE, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Brunei. During this period, she was also engaged in doing research by getting local and international grants (total of over 3.3 million USD) and translating them into products such as a rapid diagnostic test for stroke and other vascular disorders. She published over 60 articles in refereed journals, edited 8 books, and wrote 7 book chapters, presented at 97 international conferences, mentored 34 postgraduate students. Set up a company Shad Diagnostics for the development of cerebrovascular handheld diagnostic tool Stroke meter into a wearable.",institutionString:"University of Technology Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Technology Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"75447",title:"Detection of Benzo[a]Pyrene Diol Epoxide-DNA Adducts in White Blood Cells of Asphalt Plant Workers in Syria",slug:"detection-of-benzo-a-pyrene-diol-epoxide-dna-adducts-in-white-blood-cells-of-asphalt-plant-workers-i",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1624",title:"Patch Clamp Technique",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24164a2299d5f9b1a2ef1c2169689465",slug:"patch-clamp-technique",bookSignature:"Fatima Shad Kaneez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1624.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1359",title:"Underlying Mechanisms of Epilepsy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"85f9b8dac56ce4be16a9177c366e6fa1",slug:"underlying-mechanisms-of-epilepsy",bookSignature:"Fatima Shad Kaneez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5780",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:"A Chemical Messenger Between All Types of Living Cells",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fe2c461c95b4ee2d886e30b89d71723",slug:"serotonin-a-chemical-messenger-between-all-types-of-living-cells",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5780.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6683",title:"Ion Channels in Health and Sickness",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b02f45497488912833ba5b8e7cdaae8",slug:"ion-channels-in-health-and-sickness",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9489",title:"Neurological and Mental Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c29557d356441eccf59b262c0980d81",slug:"neurological-and-mental-disorders",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad and Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7842",title:"Basic and Clinical Understanding of Microcirculation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a57d5a701b51d9c8e17b1c80bc0d52e5",slug:"basic-and-clinical-understanding-of-microcirculation",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad, Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi and Nazar Luqman Bilgrami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"9115",title:"A Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of a Short Duration High Speed Transient Flow Test Facility",doi:"10.5772/7586",slug:"a-comprehensive-performance-evaluation-of-a-short-duration-high-speed-transient-flow-test-facility",body:'\n\t\tIn the study of high speed flow (supersonic and hypersonic) related to aerodynamics of aerospace vehicles, concepts such as heat transfer, non equilibrium flow, ionization, dissociation and other high temperature effects are very important. These effects are very difficult to model theoretically or computationally. It is also impossible to measure the flow conditions which are encountered by the aerospace vehicles during the actual flight; therefore high speed transient flow test facility is an important component in the design process of aeronautics equipment.
\n\t\t\tThe problem of providing a source of air at a sufficiently high temperature and pressure, similar to those encounters by aerospace vehicle to act as the working fluid of wind tunnel has been approached in a variety of ways. Because of the high capital cost and also high operating cost associated with continuous high speed wind tunnels, most of the high speed flow test facilities, especially those of high temperature, are short duration blow down type. For example Hotshot tunnels, Plasma arc tunnels and light gas gun [1]. Furthermore, in high speed fluid flow problems, achieving a high Mach number is less important than achieving the correct flow enthalpy (temperature). This is because the high temperatures which developed around the stagnation region have a profound effect on the gas dynamics and aerodynamics [2]. Continuous facilities cannot provide high enthalpy flows due to design problems associated with heat transfer especially in nozzle and reservoir regions. Transient high speed flow test facilities are very attractive due to their ability to provide high enthalpy flows [3].
\n\t\t\tShort duration high speed transient flow test facility is a device that can be used to generate gas flows or gas conditions that are difficult to achieve in other test devices. By its nature, these facilities produce these conditions for a very short duration. The maximum achievable stagnation temperature or enthalpy in a short duration facility is an inverse function of flow duration. For example, expansion tubes can provide stagnation enthalpy in the order of 100 MJ/kg but only for tens of microseconds [4]. The useful flow duration in shock tunnels is longer (in the order of milliseconds) but the maximum stagnation enthalpy decreases to around 20 MJ/kg. Hotshot facilities that produce useful flows for around 100 ms have a maximum stagnation enthalpy of around 4 MJ/kg. Blow down tunnels are near continuous facilities that can provide long flow durations (measured in tens of minutes) but the maximum stagnation enthalpy is generally somewhat less than 4 MJ/kg [3].
\n\t\t\tIn this article, a new short duration high speed transient flow test facility which has been developed in Universiti Tenaga Nasional – Malaysia is described. The test facility can be operated in four different modes, shock tube, free-piston compressor, shock tunnel and gun tunnel. All utilize the same basic facility and offer alternative modes of operation for the same apparatus. They differ in such away that, in shock tube and shock tunnel, the driver gas is employed to operate a shock tube containing the test gas, whilst in the free-piston compressor the free piston is used to directly compress the test gas in the driven section. The free piston in the gun tunnel compresses the test gas before ejecting it through a high speed flow nozzle.
\n\t\t\tThe developed facility is the first of its kind in Malaysia. In other part of the world, there are currently existing facilities which can reach these high temperatures, but they are limited and rare. Free piston hypersonic shock tunnels have been constructed at California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in the United States and the German Aerospace Center (DLR Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft-und Raumfahrt) in Germany, but most of these high temperature ground facilities were very costly to build and expensive to operate and maintain [5].
\n\t\t\tThe main reason for development of the test facility is to enable aerodynamics study related to high speed flow. Apart from that, such high speed transient flow test facility is fundamentally important for the development of advanced instrumentation for high speed flow, for example, fiber optic pressure sensors and fast response thermocouples and investigation of flow and heat transfer in high speed low pressure turbine.
\n\t\t\tAlthough similar facilities have been built in a few parts of the world [5], there have been no open literatures available that describe the design procedures and important parameters that need to be considered when building such facilities. Hence, in the present work, a systematic approach has been developed in designing such facilities.
\n\t\t\tHistorically, a large number of methods have been used to improve the performance of shock tubes and shock tunnels [6]. One method is to fill the driver section with a light gas such as helium. Another is to increase the temperature of the driver gas by use of a heater. In both of these methods, the improved performance is achieved by a higher speed of sound than if cold air is used. In the first case, the speed of sound in helium is higher than air because of its lower molecular weight. In the latter, the speed of sound is increased by raising the gas temperature. The higher sound speed results in a lower driver-to-driven tube pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 required to generate a given incident shock Mach number in the driven tube, or a higher incident shock Mach number for the same value of diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1.
\n\t\t\tAlthough both of the above mentioned approaches are well established, there are a number of disadvantages associated with them. Both require high pressure pumps and extensive plumbing. Helium is expensive and large amounts must be used to pressurize the driver tube. Helium’s higher specific heat ratio also reduces the advantages somewhat. If the driver tube is to be heated, the tube must be designed to withstand high pressure under high temperatures, adding to the construction costs. The heater also adds to the cost and it must be designed to heat uniformly because hot spots in the driver can cause unpredictable and dangerous driver tube failure. Thermal fatigue may, in fact, limit the useful life of the tube.
\n\t\t\tFor quite sometime, the free-piston driving technique, first proposed by Stalker [7], has been used to achieve some of the highest enthalpies, culminating in the X3 at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia [8], the HEG in G¨ottingen, Germany [9] and the largest known facility, the HIEST in Kakuda, Japan [10]. The free-piston technique involves compressing the driver gas by a heavy piston accelerated to nearly sonic speed. The piston compresses the gas ahead of it to achieve high values of temperature and pressure. The operation of a free-piston shock tunnel, however, appears to be complicated, as a massive piston has to be accelerated rapidly and then must be stopped in a controlled manner.
\n\t\t\tMany methods of producing strong shock waves have been and are still being analyzed and tried experimentally.
\n\t\tThe main objective of this study is to design and develop a short duration high speed transient flow test facility and investigate the parameters that influence the performance of the facility. The performance of this test facility is described by the maximum Mach number that can be generated and the quality of flows that it can produce. The Mach number depends on the maximum temperature and pressure achievable. The facility is aimed to produce a targeted Mach number of 4.0. Different values of Mach number can be obtained by changing the diaphragm pressure ratio, different driver/driven gas combinations and by rising the driver gas temperature or in another word, increasing driver/driven gas temperature ratio T\n\t\t\t\t4/T\n\t\t\t\t1.
\n\t\t\tA theoretical model has been developed to determine the shock strength (P\n\t\t\t\t2/P\n\t\t\t\t1) and Mach number values as a function of diaphragm pressure ratio (P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1) and working fluids. Based on the theoretical model, the design procedure was developed. In order to verify the design, experimental measurements were performed which proved that the targeted Mach number can be achieved by using the prescribed pressure ratio and gas combinations determined by the design procedure.
\n\t\t\tIn order to investigate the detail flow process inside the shock tube, which will influence its performance, a new two dimensional time accurate Navier-Stokes solver for shock tube applications was developed. The solver uses second order accurate cell-vertex finite volume spatial discretization and fourth order accurate Runge-Kutta temporal integration with Air-Air as working fluids. The solver is validated against experimental measurements in the developed high speed flow test facility. Further investigations were made on the flow process inside the shock tube by using the solver. The shock wave motion, reflection and interaction with the boundary layers were investigated and their influence on the performance of the shock tube was determined.
\n\t\t\tAn in-house made surface junction fast response thermocouple was used to measure the surface temperature change profile during the facility operation. In order to evaluate the heat flux from the surface temperature change history, a MATLAB numerical transient heat transfer model was developed. Extensive experimental measurements were performed at different pressure ratios in order to investigate the performance of the facility. Pressure transient inside the tube were captured at two different locations using fast response transducers.
\n\t\t\tThe last part of the work concerns with further experimental investigation of the performance of the facility using different gas combinations (dissimilar gases). The gas combinations used are He-Air and He-CO2. The experimental results were compared with the theoretical predictions. The discrepancies were discussed based on the factors determined in the previous part.
\n\t\tThere are three important limitations that govern the selection of the shock tube dimensions; cost, available space, and manufacturing process. Taking into consideration all these parameters, the decision was made to choose the dimensions of the test facility as described below. The detail components of the facility are described briefly and shown in Figure 1. More details about the facility are available in [11].
\n\t\t\tDriver section:- A high-pressure section (driver) which will contain the high pressure driver gas, which can be either Air, Helium, Hydrogen or other light gases.
Discharge valve:- To discharge the driver section after each run.
Pressure gauge:- To read the pressure inside the driver section, which is also provided with a static pressure transducer to record the exact value of the driver pressure P\n\t\t\t\t4 at which the diaphragm ruptures.
\n\t\t\tSchematic of UNITEN’s test facility
Vacuum pump:- When the driver gas is not Air (e.g. Helium or Hydrogen) then the driver section should be evacuated and refilled with the required driver gas.
The primary diaphragm:- This is a thin aluminum membrane to isolate the low-pressure test gas from the high-pressure driver gas until the compression process is initiated.
Piston compression section:- A piston is placed in the (driven tube) adjacent to the primary diaphragm so that when the diaphragm ruptures, the piston is propelled through the driven tube, compressing the gas ahead of it. This piston is used in the free-piston compressor and gun tunnel tests.
Discharge valve:- To discharge the driven section after each run.
Vacuum gauge:- To set the pressure inside the driven section to values less than atmospheric value (vacuum).
Driven section:- A shock tube section (smooth bore), to be filled with the required test gas (Air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide).
Driven section extension:- The last half meter of the driven section on which the pressure transducers and thermocouples are mounted.
The secondary diaphragm:- A light plastic diaphragm to separate the low pressure test gas inside the driven section from the test section and dump tank which are initially at a vacuum prior to the run.
Test section:- This section will expand the high temperature test gas through a nozzle to the correct high enthalpy conditions needed to simulate hypersonic flow. A range of Mach numbers is available by changing the diameter of the throat insert.
Vacuum vessel (dump tank):- To be evacuated to about 0.1 mm Hg pressure before running. Prior to a run, the driven section, test section and dump tank are to be evacuated to a low-pressure value.
In this section, a two dimensional time accurate Navier-Stokes solver for shock tube applications is described briefly. The solver has been programmed based on the dimensions and configuration of the test facility. The developed solver uses second order accurate cell-vertex finite volume spatial discretization and fourth order accurate Runge-Kutta temporal integration and it is designed to simulate the flow process for similar driver/driven gases (e.g. Air-Air as working fluids). The solver is validated against analytical solution and experimental measurements in the high speed flow test facility. In the next section, further investigations were made on the flow process inside the shock tube by using the solver. The shock wave motion, reflection and interaction with the boundary layers were investigated and their influence on the performance of the shock tube was determined.
\n\t\t\tIt is intended that this CFD solver can be a useful tool in the design process of the test facility. Experimental data which could be achieved from the facility can be verified using this developed numerical tool.
\n\t\t\tThe mathematical model and the fluid flow governing equations are described in ref [12]. This includes the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations (RANS) and The Mixing Length Turbulence Model. The latter is added to the solver in order to include the viscous effects to the solution. Based on the facility dimensions, mesh generation procedure was performed to transform the flow domain into a finite number of grid points. Finally, using two verification approaches, the code was validated in terms of the ability to capture shocks, rarefaction waves and contact discontinuity and to produce the correct pressure, temperature, density and speed profiles, using two verification approaches. The first one was the validation against a standard analytical solution of the shock tube problem. The second was to compare the code solution with selected experimental measurements for a certain value of diaphragm pressure ratio. Further details about the solver can be found in [12].
\n\t\tIn this section, in order to obtain greater understanding of the processes involved, CFD simulations were used for selected cases and the results were analyzed in details. In order to investigate the effect of various parameters on the performance of the facility, various experimental measurements were made. The parameters that were investigated were pressure ratio, gas combination and effect of piston. This section provides detail discussions of the results obtained.
\n\t\tCFD solution for an inviscid simulation of a diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 of 10 has been chosen for a detail investigation. The simulation was conducted using the actual dimensions of the test facility shown in Figure 1. The pressure, temperature, density and Mach number of the flow were stored in two stations at the end of the driven section with an axial separation of 342 mm, as shown in Figure 2.\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\tThe two stations at the end of the facility
The pressure history for the above mentioned shot is depicted in Figure 3 from which one can follow the physics of the flow inside the shock tube. The first jump represents the shock wave, for which the pressure inside the driven section increases from 100 kPa to around 220 kPa. As the shock wave proceeds to the end of the tube it will reflect and move in the opposite direction, increasing the pressure to about 450 kPa. The shock wave will then interact with the contact surface which is following the shock wave and due to this interaction between the shock wave and the contact surface the pressure will be increased until it reaches its peak pressure value of 530 kPa.
\n\t\t\tPressure history for inviscid flow (Air-Air, P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1=10)
The shock wave speed can be determined from the CFD data obtained in this simulation. As the distance between the two stations is known (0.342 m) and the time of the shock to travel from station 1 to station 2 can be obtained from the pressure history graph (see Figure 4), the shock wave speed in this case was calculated to be 518 m/s. Comparing this value to the theoretical value for this pressure ratio, which is 558 m/s, the percentage difference was found to be around 7%. The difference is probably due to the two-dimensional effects which were not modeled by the theoretical solution. From experimental measurements the shock speed for the same pressure ratio was 450 m/s, which indicate percentage difference of about 13% from CFD results.
\n\t\t\tShock wave speed (inviscid flow)
Using the same procedure, the reflected shock wave speed can be determined. As the wave reflects from the tube end and moves in the opposite direction (left direction), due to impact with the end wall the wave will lose some of its kinetic energy due to the collision with the end wall and consequently its speed decreases to about 342 m/s.
\n\t\t\tThe same trend can be noted when the temperature history is investigated, as shown in Figure 5. The first jump in the temperature profile represents the shock wave and the second jump is due to the reflected shock wave. The temperature is increased from the initial value 300 K to about 380 K due to shock wave effect. When the shock reflects from the tube end, the temperature rises to 475 K and after interaction between reflected shock wave and the contact surface, the flow temperature becomes about 490 K.
\n\t\t\tTemperature history inside the shock tube (inviscid flow)
In order to have an overall view of what is happening inside the tube after diaphragm rupture, the x-t diagram for both pressure and density are depicted in Figures 6 and 7 respectively. From these two figures, the inviscid flow process inside the tube can be fully described. After diaphragm ruptures a shock wave travels along the driven section followed by a contact surface compressing the test gas inside the driven section causing high pressure and temperature. At the same time a rarefaction waves travels in the opposite direction along the driver section, decreasing the driver pressure and temperature. Both shock and expansion waves will be reflected after getting to the end of the tube and the shock wave interacts with the contact surface.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx-t diagram for pressure profile (inviscid flow)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx-t diagram for density profile (inviscid flow)
It is interesting to note that after interaction with the reflected shock wave, the contact surface remains at about the same position, indicating achievement of the tailored condition. The presence of the bush is also seen to have prevented the rarefaction wave and the shock wave from passing to the other section. The rarefaction wave and the shock wave are reflected when they reach the bush.
\n\t\t\tThe contour plots of the pressure along the facility are shown in Figures 8 to 13. At time t = 0, the driver pressure P\n\t\t\t\t4=100 kPa and pressure in the driven section P\n\t\t\t\t1 is 10 kPa.
\n\t\t\tContour plot for pressure history at t = 0
After diaphragm rupture, shock wave travels to the right through the driven section while the expansion wave travels to the left through the driver section. These two waves are captured after 0.005 sec and shown in Figure 9.
\n\t\t\tShock and expansion waves at t = 0.005 sec
The two waves continue their journey towards the tube ends, at time 0.0078 s the shock wave hits the driven section end on the right hand side while the expansion wave reaches the left hand side of the facility as shown in Figure 10.
\n\t\t\tShock and expansion waves at the facility ends t = 0.0078 sec
At time t = 0.0082 sec, both waves reflect from the end of the tube as shown in Figure 11.
\n\t\t\tShock and Expansion waves’ reflection at t = 0.0082 sec
The reflected shock wave now moves to the left towards the contact surface while the reflected expansion wave moves to the right towards the bush section as shown in Figure 12.
\n\t\t\tReflected waves move towards the contact surface at t = 0.0134 sec
The shock wave interacts with the contact surface and reflects again. This process continues until pressure balance along the whole facility as shown in Figure 13.
\n\t\t\tInteraction between shock wave and contact surface
The presence of the bush has caused the flow in the facility to be two-dimensional and this requires two-dimensional CFD simulations. The contour plots of the velocity in x-direction along the facility at selected times are shown in Figure 14. As the shock wave reflects from the tube end it will move to the left and interact with the contact surface and the flow is no longer symmetry as shown in Figure 15.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity contour plots in x-direction at selected times
Velocity contour after shock reflection and interaction with contact surface (t = 0.0125 sec)
The velocity contours at t = 0.02 sec after diaphragm rupture are shown in Figure 16. It can be observed that the flow is highly two-dimensional especially in the region close to the bush in the driven section. It is interesting to note that after t = 0.0125 sec, the velocity in area close to the bush becomes asymmetric. The asymmetry becomes more and more obvious as time progress and creates a recirculating region, which extend to about 10 times the bush inner diameter along the x-axis.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity contour after shock reflection and interaction with contact surface (t = 0.02 sec)
To investigate further, the velocity profiles at different times at x = 279 mm from the diaphragm section are plotted in Figures 17 to 19. As shown in the figures, at time t = 0.001 sec the profile is perfectly symmetrical. However, the velocity profile contains inflexion part, which according to Drazin and Reid [13] is unstable and susceptible to disturbances. The asymmetry becomes more apparent as the process continues. The upper half of the tube has mainly positive velocity whereas the bottom half has negative velocity.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity section profile after diaphragm rupture at x = 279 mm from diaphragm
The formation of the recirculating region in this inviscid simulation is surprising especially considering that the tube is symmetrical [14]. However, it has been previously reported by Xu Fu et al. [15] that high speed flow tends to become unstable when shock wave interacts with contact discontinuity.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity profile after shock reflection at x = 279 mm from diaphragm section
Velocity profile after shock interaction with contact surface at x = 279 mm from diaphragm section
In order to get deeper understanding to what is happening inside the shock tube after diaphragm rupture; velocity, pressure, temperature and density profiles below tube axis (25% of the tube diameter), along the tube axis (50% of the tube diameter) and above tube axis (75% of the tube diameter) were depicted at different times. Figure 20 shows the results at t = 0.005 sec. At this time, the fluid velocity immediately jumps from zero to 500 m/s which is greater than speed of sound in air, consequently a shock wave is generated and starts to move to the right. The profiles at 25%, 50% and 75% of the tube diameter follow the same trend whereby pressure decreases from 1000 kPa to 800 kPa, the temperature increases from 300 to 400 K and the density drops from 11.5 kg/m3 to 9.8 kg/m3. Similar to the velocity profile, the pressure, temperature and density profiles at 25%, 50% and 75% of the tube diameter along the facility follow the same trend.
It can be noted that there is a sudden change in the pressure, temperature and density curves in the diaphragm region. This is due to cross sectional area change where the diameter decreases from 50 mm to 30 mm which is the bush diameter. The bush is located adjacent to the thin aluminum diaphragm and it is used to facilitate the rupture process. Fig. 20. Velocity, Pressure, Temperature and Density profiles at t = 0.005 sec\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 21 shows the flow profiles after shock reflection. From the velocity profiles at this time, it can be seen that the flow is still symmetry about the tube longitudinal axis, however, it can be noted that asymmetry has already started. Pressure, temperature and density along the driven section (except the bush section) are all increased due to the effect of the compression waves.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity, Pressure, Temperature and Density profiles at t = 0.0125 sec
At t = 0.175 sec, the flow non-uniformity becomes clearer as shown in Figure 22.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity, Pressure, Temperature and Density profiles at t = 0.0175 sec
As the reflected shock proceeds to the left, asymmetric flow becomes very clear as shown in Figure 23. The gas flows to the right in the upper side while it flows to the left in the bottom side of the tube, as can be seen from velocity profile shown in Figures 24.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity, Pressure, Temperature and Density profiles at t = 0.02 sec
Velocity, Pressure, Temperature and Density profiles at t = 0.025 sec
After a series of frequent reflections the gas becomes more quiescent and moves towards a balance state as shown in Figure 25.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity, Pressure, Temperature and Density profiles at t = 0.03 sec
In order to investigate the effect of viscosity on the transient flow in shock tube and how it affects the performance of the facility, a viscous simulation has been conducted using the same boundary conditions as for the inviscid simulation presented in the previous section. The pressure history for the above mentioned shot is depicted in Figure 26. The Figure shows similar trend as for the inviscid flow. The first jump represents the pressure rise due to shock wave, for which the pressure inside the driven section increases from 100 kPa to around 220 kPa. The shock wave then reflects as it hits the end of the tube and moves in the opposite direction, subsequently rising the pressure to about 450 kPa.
\n\t\t\tPressure history for viscous flow (Air-Air, P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1=10)
The shock wave will then interact with the contact surface (which is following the shock wave) and due to their interaction, the pressure will be increased until it reaches its peak pressure value, which is equal to around 530 kPa in this case.
\n\t\t\tUsing similar procedure as outlined previously, the shock wave speed in this case was calculated to be 456. Comparing to the inviscid value for the same pressure ratio obtained previously (518 m/s) the effect of viscosity becomes obvious. It can be deduced that viscosity decreases the shock wave speed to about 11% due to the boundary layer effects. From experimental measurements the shock speed for the same pressure ratio was 450 m/s, which indicated percentage difference of about 1.3% from the CFD result.
\n\t\t\tShock wave speed (viscous flow)
After it hits the tube end, shock wave will be reflected and moves to the left with a slower wave speed of about 311 m/s. Comparing with respect to the reflected shock wave speed for inviscid flow which is 342 m/s, it is apparent that viscosity resists the fluid motion causing slower speed of the shock wave by 9.1%.
\n\t\t\tAnalyzing the temperature history for this simulation, it can be seen that the trend is quite similar to pressure history. The temperature results for this run have been displayed in Figure 28. The first jump represents the shock wave and the second jump is due to the reflected shock wave. The temperature is increased from the initial value of 300 K to about 500 K.
\n\t\t\tTemperature history inside the shock tube (viscous flow)
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 29 and 30 show x-t diagram for pressure and density profiles respectively. It can be noted from Figure 30 that the intersection point between the reflected shock wave and the contact surface occurred at 5.35 m as compared to inviscid flow at 5.15 m (as shown in Figure 7); this indicates slower shock speed for the viscous flow and hence confirm the above calculation of shock speed.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx-t diagram for pressure profile (viscous flow)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tx-t diagram for density profile (viscous flow)
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 30 shows the so-called tailored interface, where no disturbance is reflected from the contact surface back towards the rear wall of the shock tube. The “tailored” contact surface configuration offers a number of advantages when applied to the operations of shock tubes, it increases the testing-time and it improves the homogeneity of the working gas parameters (i.e. it decreases possible contamination effects in the test section caused by the driver gas).
\n\t\t\tAs shown in Figure 30, the maximum useful duration time that can be obtained when the prescribed pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 =10 is about 10 ms, which is quite comparable to other facilities.
\n\t\t\tIdeally, the reflection of a shock wave from the closed end of a shock tube provides, for laboratory study, a quantity of stationary gas at extremely high temperature. Because of the action of viscosity, however, the flow in the real case is not one-dimensional and a boundary layer grows in the fluid following the initial shock wave. In the flow following the initial shock wave, there is a boundary layer generated near the walls of the shock tube, across which the velocity of the flow decreases from that in the main stream to zero at the walls.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 31 shows the velocity profiles at x = 279 mm from the diaphragm after shock wave passes through it. It can be seen that the boundary layer thickness grows rapidly causing more blockage to the flow. It can be seen from Figure 31 that the shock wave speed remains constant as it moves towards the end of the tube. The shock wave speed reduces after reflection but it remains constant until it interacts with the contact surface. After that, there is evidence showing that the shock wave is attenuated and speed reduces. This is due to the effect of the boundary layer on the shock wave which cause additional blockage to the motion. The attenuation of shock wave due to interaction with boundary layer has been reported by McKenzie [15].
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity profile after diaphragm rupture (viscous flow) at x = 279 mm from the diaphragm section
In section 5.1.1, it has been shown that the inviscid flow tend to be very unstable in the region close to the bush after shock wave interacts with contact surface and the recirculating flow has developed. In order to investigate the effect of viscosity to this performance, Figure 32 to 34 shows the evolution of the velocity profiles for viscous flow case. It can be seen in Figure 34 that before the shock wave was reflected, after 0.0005 sec from diaphragm rupture, the boundary layer separation has occurred close to the tube wall and the separated region grows.
\n\t\t\t\tVelocity profile at different times (viscous flow) at x = 279 mm from the diaphragm section
Flow after shock reflection at x = 279 mm from the diaphragm section
Velocity profile after waves interaction at x = 279 mm from the diaphragm section
After the shock wave reflection and subsequent interaction with the contact surface, the separated flow region evolves into a full re-circulating region rotating in the anticlockwise direction. Then the flow returns back to the small separated flow region close to the tube walls.
\n\t\t\tIt has been reported by many researchers that increase in diaphragm pressure ratio, P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 will increase the peak pressure, temperature and shock wave speed. In the current work, experimental measurements have been performed for various pressure ratios varying from 8 to 55. CFD simulations were also performed for selected cases. Figures 35 and 36 show the measured pressure for P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 8.8, 15 and 20 at station (1) and station (2 respectively. For comparisons, the CFD results are also plotted. It can be observed that the agreement between measurement and CFD are remarkably good.
\n\t\t\tPressure history at station (1) for different pressure ratios (Air-Air)
Pressure history at station (2) for different pressure ratios (Air-Air)
Figures 35 and 36 show that as the pressure ratio increases, the pressure rise and the shock speed increases. The recorded initial rises are 280 kPa, 320 kPa and 420 kPa for pressure ratio 8.8, 15 and 20 respectively. After the shock reflection, the pressure rise further to 580 kPa, 800 kPa and 1000 kPa for pressure ratio 8.8, 15 and 20 respectively.
\n\t\t\tThe corresponding temperature histories are shown in Figure 37. It can be seen that the temperature rise to 500 K, 575 K and 625 after the shock reflection for pressure ratios 8, 15 and 20 respectively. This clearly indicates that the pressure ratio has the effect of rising the temperature and hence the enthalpy of the gas.
\n\t\t\tTemperature history for different pressure ratios (Air-Air)
The measured shock strength (P\n\t\t\t\t2/P\n\t\t\t\t1) at different pressure ratios are plotted in Figure 38. Also plotted on the same graph are the theoretical and CFD predictions. It can be seen that, in generally, the measured pressure rise is about 16% lower than the theoretical values and closer to CFD predictions. This is due to the two-dimensional effect and viscous effects which are not modeled by the theoretical solution. However, the trend is very similar. As anticipated, the shock strength increases with increase in the pressure ratio. As pressure ratio is increased, the rate of increase of the shock strength decreases.
\n\t\t\tShock strength P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t2/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 vs. diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figures 39 and 40 show the measured, theoretical and CFD results for shock speed and shock Mach number respectively. The Mach number is calculated based on the speed of sound of the undisturbed gas. The measured and CFD data are generally lower than the theoretical data and the agreement between CFD and measured data is very good. For the highest allowable pressure ratio of 55, the maximum shock Mach number is 2.116 when Air was allocated in both the driver and driven sections.
\n\t\t\tShock speed vs. diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t
Shock Mach number vs. diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 41 shows the measured peak pressure variation with pressure ratio. The peak pressure is defined as the maximum pressure achieved after shock reflection and subsequent interaction with contact surface, which further increases the pressure. It can be seen that the peak pressure rise increase when the pressure ratio is increased but at a slower rate. The maximum peak pressure produced was 2200 kPa.
\n\t\tPeak pressure vs. diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t
Theoretical analysis showed that in order to achieve higher shock strength and shock speed, a gas combination with higher ratio of γ4/γ1 should be used. This can be achieved by using lighter gas in the driver section and heavier gas in the driven section. In the present work, combinations of He, CO2 and Air were chosen. Other lighter gas such as Hydrogen was not used due to safety reason.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFigure 42 shows the pressure history at station (1) for pressure ratios of approximately 8, 15 and 20 respectively. The corresponding graphs at station (2) are plotted in Figures 43.
\n\t\t\tPressure history for three different gas combinations measured at station (1)
Pressure history for three different gas combinations measured at station (2)
In general, it can be seen from Figures 42 and 43 that the He-Air gas combination provides the best results in terms of shock speed, shock strength and peak pressure. Comparing to Air-Air gas combination, He-CO2 gives better shock strength and peak pressure. The recorded initial rises at station (1) for He-Air are 400 kPa, 450 kPa and 650 kPa for 8, 15 and 20 pressure ratios respectively. After the shock reflection, the pressure rise further and peak pressure of 1500 kPa, 1800 kPa and 2400 kPa for pressure ratio 8, 15 and 20 respectively.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental measurements were performed for pressure ratios from 8 to 55. Figures 44 and 45 show the measured shock speed and shock Mach number, respectively, for different gas combinations at various pressure ratios. Also plotted on the same graphs are the theoretical solutions.
\n\t\t\tShock speed vs. pressure ratio for different gases
Shock Mach number vs. pressure ratio for different gases
Similar to the Air-Air case, in general the measured data shows lower values compared to theoretical solution. However the trends are very similar. It can be seen that when γ4/γ1 is reduced the shock speed and Mach number increases. The maximum shock Mach number achieved was 3.69 when He-CO2 was used at pressure ratio of 55. The peak pressure values achieved at various pressure ratios and gas combinations are plotted in Figure 46.
\n\t\tPeak pressure vs pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t
Previous researchers have shown that the addition of very light piston immediately after the diaphragm will increase the peak pressure achieved. After diaphragm rupture, the piston velocity will rapidly approach the contact surface velocity of a conventional shock tube. Multiple reflections of the shock wave ahead of the piston between the end of the driven section and the piston will compress the gas non-isentropically and result in a higher peak pressure.
\n\t\t\tTwo experiments have been performed at pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1=13 for two gas combinations, Air-Air and He-Air. Figure 47 shows the pressure history at station (1) for Air-Air at pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 = 13. The first pressure jump denoted by (1) is due to the shock wave passing as it moves from the piston to the end wall, whereas the second pressure rise denoted by (2) is due to the reflected shock wave which causes further non-isentropic heating of the test gas. Between (1) and (2), the pressure gradually increases due to the compression by the piston. The shock wave will then be reflected from the piston and again moves towards the wall and cause the third pressure rise, denoted by (3). It will then reflect from the end wall and proceeds to the left causing further increase in pressure. The process of shock reflections and piston compressions are repeated a few more times causing further gas heating and pressure rise until the last one denoted by (5). Then there is a drop in pressure due to the fact that the piston has overshot its equilibrium position and has now been pushed to the left by compressed gas and come to rest. But the process of shock reflection continues to cause pressure rise, (6). This transient rapidly disappears as the pressure becomes equal on both sides of the piston.
\n\t\t\tPressure history for free-piston compressor shot P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1=13 (Air-Air)
Figures 48 and 49 show the comparison of pressure transients at station (1) between cases with piston and without piston at pressure ratio 13 for Air-Air and He-Air gas combinations respectively.
\n\t\t\tExperimental pressure history inside driven section (Air-Air) P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 =13
Experimental pressure history inside driven section (He-Air) P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 =13
It is apparent from Figures 48 and 49 that the shock speed is faster when the piston is not used, this is because the piston slows down the test gas ahead of it and consequently the shock will be slower. However, the peak pressure of that using piston is higher; the piston increases the peak pressure due to the compression process of the test gas. In spite of this, the He-Air as combination shows a tremendous improvement in terms of both shock strength and peak pressure. It is worth to mention here that the He-Air combination can produce a peak pressure of about 70 bar (with piston) as compared to that of Air-Air (33 bar), which has marked percentage of increase of more than 100%.
\n\t\t\tThe shock speed and the shock Mach number can be obtained by comparing the pressure transient at station (1) and station (2). A sample result for Air-Air at pressure ratio 13 is shown in Figure 50. In this particular case the shock speed and shock Mach number is 441.3 m/s and 1.3 respectively.
\n\t\t\tPressure history at station 1 and 2 (free piston compressor)
Similarly, Figure 51 shows the pressure history at stations 1 and 2 for shock tube shot.
\n\t\t\tPressure history at station 1 and 2 (shock tube shot)
As explained previously, due to the piston effects in the free piston compressor test, the shock wave speed and shock Mach number for the shock tube shot are found to be higher, which are 570 m/s and 1.67 respectively.
\n\t\tThe gas temperature increase significantly during the test duration. For example, from the CFD results of Air-Air at a pressure ratio of 20 will produce gas temperature rise of 350 K. This high temperature rise, although for a very short duration will likely cause the tube wall temperature to rise and further cause heat loss that can affect the performance of the facility. In order to ascertain this effect, a surface junction thermocouple was used to measure the wall temperature during the test.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFigure 52 shows the surface temperature change measured experimentally at three different pressure ratio for shock tube shots with Air-Air gas combination. It clearly shows that the difference in surface temperature increases as the pressure ratio increases, which consequently enhance the undesirable heat loss to the surrounding. As explained previously, the first temperature jump is due to shock wave as it compresses the test gas and as the shock wave reflects from the end wall, further temperature rise is achieved.
\n\t\t\tSurface temperature change profile at different pressure ratios
The corresponding figure for the heat flux is shown in Figure 53 and as depicted, the heat flux increases after shock wave passes through the test gas, which may consequently, influence the facility performance.
\n\t\t\tHeat flux profile (shock tube shot)
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 54 presents surface temperature change for three gas combinations at a fixed pressure ratio of 8.4. The results show that maximum heat transfer occurs when He-Air was used.
\n\t\t\tSurface Temperature Change for different gas combinations at P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1= 8
The same trend can be observed for the free piston compressor shot as shown in Figure 55. It is worth mentioning here that the free piston compressor was able to produce a surface temperature change of about 4 oC (with piston) as compared to about 1.7 oC in the conventional shock tube indicating marked percentage increase of approximately 100%.
\n\t\tSurface temperature change and heat flux (free piston compressor shot)
The goal of designing a high speed transient flow test facility with a relatively inexpensive price for research use has been achieved. This design for a multi arrangement high speed fluid flow tunnel will provide high speed fluid flows around test objects for actual flow measurement. Although the control of flow quality in such a tunnel would not be so easy, the actual ability for researchers to get their knowledge in real high speed fluid flow would be an immeasurable benefit.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental and theoretical results agree very well with slight difference in shock speed values which are expected as the theoretical solution disregards the viscous, two dimensional and heat transfer effects which influence the shock strength and shock speed. It can be noted from results that time of shock wave creation for both experimental and CFD data are very much matched. The incident shock wave travels all the way along the driven section until it reflects off of the end wall. Similarly, the expansion wave reflects at the end of the driver section. The reflected shock then interacts with either the contact surface or the reflected expansion wave. It can be said that the general pattern of the experimental and CFD results are quite similar. Experiments showed that the shock wave speed for He/Air driver/driven gases is higher than He-CO2 and Air/Air gas combinations for the same diaphragm pressure ratio.
\n\t\t\tShock speed can be increased by raising the diaphragm pressure ratio, or more powerfully, by raising the speed of sound in the driver gas. To achieve high Mach numbers it is essential to raise the speed of sound ratio (a4/a1\n\t\t\t\t) if excessive pressures are to be avoided. Mach number of 3.69 is achieved and higher Mach number up to 6 is achievable by setting pressure ratio to P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 = 465 using He-CO2 or P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 = 192 using H2-CO2. This ratio can be lowered by increasing temperature ratio T\n\t\t\t\t4/T\n\t\t\t\t1.
\n\t\t\tResults when employing different working fluids combination are also presented. The results showed a direct proportional relationship between Mach number and diaphragm pressure ratio and inverse proportion with speed of sound ratio.
\n\t\t\tThe results show that for Air-Air driver/driven gases, the shock speed is decreased when piston is used. However, the peak pressure produced using piston is higher. The same trend can be observed for the He-Air combination. In spite of this, the latter shows a tremendous improvement in terms of both shock strength and peak pressure [17]. It is worth to mention, that He-Air combination can produce a peak pressure of about 70 bar for diaphragm pressure ratio P\n\t\t\t\t4/P\n\t\t\t\t1 equal to 13 only (with piston) as compared to that of Air-Air (33 bar) at the same diaphragm pressure ratio, which has marked a percentage of increase of more than 100%. This detailed information may be used to identify some of the causes for observed variations in pressure and temperature.
\n\t\t\tAs the shock wave propagates in the driven section the test gas temperature rises up and consequently heat transfer to the tube wall causes an increase in the wall surface temperature. The same trend can be observed for the free piston compressor shot. It is worth to mention here that the free piston compressor can produce a surface temperature change of about 4 oC (with piston) as compared to that of conventional shock tube (1.7 oC), which has marked a percentage of increase of approximately 100%. The stagnation temperature achieved in free piston compressor is limited by the strength of the light piston used to compress the test gas, and the useful running time is restricted by the large heat losses to the cold walls of the tube.
\n\t\t\tThe maximum testing time is varying between the arrival of the primary shock wave at the tube end, and the arrival of the first reflected wave, which has passed up the low pressure tube, reflected from the high pressure tube and returned to the nozzle station. The useful test time achieved from results was 10 ms which is quite comparable to other existing facilities.
\n\t\t\tAlthough this design showed good results, it should be noted that in the future, upgrades could be made to the facility to provide the better flow quality and longer flow times that would be needed for high speed fluid flow research. Detail design calculations, numerical simulations and experimental works have been conducted. The results presented in this chapter show that two-dimensional modeling of the high speed fluid flow test facility is an effective way to obtain facility performance data. Although this thesis focused on the UNITEN’s facility, the CFD code is generic and may be applied to other facilities.
\n\t\tUTI affects approximately 150 million people worldwide, which is most common infection with female predominance [1]. Around 15–25% hospitalized patients receiving indwelling urinary catheter develops CAUTI with prolonged catheterization and in among 40% nosocomial UTI, 80% is due to CAUTI [2]. CAUTI causes about 20% of episodes of health-care acquired bacteraemia in intensive care facilities and over 50% in long term care facilities [3]. The microbiology of biofilm on an indwelling catheter is dynamic with continuing turnover of organisms in the biofilm. Patients continue to acquire new organisms at a rate of about 3–7%/day. In long term catheterization that is by the end of 30 days CAUTI develops in 100% patients usually with 2 or more symptoms or clinical sign of haematuria, fever, suprapubic or loin pain, visible biofilm in character or catheter tube and acute confusion all state [4]. In CAUTI the incidence of infection is Escherichia coli in 24%, Candida in 24%, Enterococcus in 14% Pseudomonas in 10%, Klebsiella in 10% and remaining part with other organisms [5]. Bacteraemia occurs in 2–4% of CAUTI patients where case fatality is three times higher than nonbacteremic patients [6]. Adhesions in bacteria initiate attachment by recognizing host cell receptors on surfaces of host cell or catheter. Adhesins initiate adherence by overcoming the electrostatic repulsion observed between bacterial cell membranes and surfaces to allow intimate interactions to occur [7]. A biofilm is an aggregate of micro-organisms in which cells adhere to each other on a surface embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance [8]. In biofilm micro-organisms growing in colonies within an extra-cellular mucopolysaccharide substance which they produce. Tamm-Horsfall protein and magnesium and calcium ions are incorporated into this material. Immediately after catheter insertion, biofilm starts to form and organisms adhere to a conditioning film of host proteins along the catheter surface. Both the inner and outer surfaces of catheter are involved. In CAUTI biofilms are initially formed by one organism but in prolonged Catheterization multiple bacteria’s are present. In biofilm main mass is formed by extra cellular polymeric substance (EPS) within which organisms live. So there are three layers in biofilm, where deeper layer is abiotic, than environmental zone and on surface biotic zone [9]. Growth of bacteria in biofilms on the inner surface of catheters promotes encrustation and may protect bacteria from antimicrobial agents and the consequence is more drug resistance of biofilm organisms. When antibiotic treatment ends the biofilm can again shed bacteria, resulting recurrent acute infection. The patients may present as asymptomatic bacteriuria or symptomatic. In symptomatic bacteriuria patient present with fever, suprapubic or costovertebral angle tenderness, and systemic symptoms such as altered mentation, hypotension, or evidence of a systemic inflammatory response syndrome. In asymptomatic CAUTI diagnosis is made with presence of 105 cfu/mL of one bacterial species in a single catheter urine specimen [10]. In symptomatic CAUTI bacteriological criteria is present with clinical symptoms.
It is recommended that urine specimens be obtained through the catheter port using aseptic technique or, if a port is not present, puncturing the catheter tubing with a needle and syringe in patients with short term catheterization [11]. In long term indwelling catheterization, the ideal method of obtaining urine for culture is to replace the catheter and collect the specimen from the freshly placed catheter. In a symptomatic patient, this should be done immediately prior to initiating antimicrobial therapy. Culture specimens from the urine beg should not be obtained [10, 12]. Urine sample can be collected from suprapubic puncture also. Biofilm can be cultured from the catheter, for this swab is taken from inner side of catheter.
Catheter Associated Asymptomatic Bacteriuria (CA-ASB) is diagnosed when one or more organisms are present at quantitative counts ≥105 cfu/mL from an appropriately collected urine specimen in a patient with no symptoms [13]. Lower quantitative counts may be isolated from urine specimens prior to ≥105 cfu/mL being present, but these lower counts likely reflect the presence of organisms in biofilm forming along the catheter, rather than bladder bacteriuria [14]. Thus, it is recommended that the catheter be removed and a new catheter inserted, with specimen collection from the freshly placed catheter, before antimicrobial therapy is initiated for symptomatic infection [13]. In biofilm culture, most biofilm contains mixed bacterial communities meaning polymicrobial colonization.
Patients who remain catheterized without having antimicrobial therapy and who have colony counts ≥10 2 cfu/mL (or even lower colony counts), the level of bacteriuria or candiduria uniformly increases to >105 cfu/mL within 24–48 h [14]. Given that colony counts in bladder urine as low as 102 cfu/mL are associated with symptomatic UTI in non-catheterized patients [15], untreated catheterized patients and those who have colony counts ≥102 cfu/mL or even lower, the level of bacteriuria or candiduria uniformly increases to >105 cfu/mL within 24–48 h [10, 16]. Colony counts as low as 102 cfu/mL in bladder urine may be associated with symptomatic UTI in non-catheterized patients. Whereas low colony counts in catheter urine specimens are likely to be contaminated by periurethral flora, and the colony counts will increase rapidly if untreated. Low colony counts in catheter urine specimens are also reflective of significant bacteriuria in patients with intermittent catheterization [14].
Pyuria is usually present in CA-UTI, as well as in CA-ASB. The sensitivity of pyuria for detecting infections due to enterococci or yeasts appears to be lower than that for gram-negative bacilli. Dipstick testing for nitrites and leukocyte esterase was also shown to be unhelpful in establishing a diagnosis in catheterized patients hospitalized in the ICU [17].
It is the most common cause of CAUTI in 24–60% patients [5, 18]. In CAUTI the source of this organism is usually patients own colonic flora. E. coli is large and diverse group of bacteria found in environment, foods and intestine of human and animal. Among many species of E. coli only a few causes disease in human being. It is beneficial in that it prevents the growth and proliferation of other harmful species of bacteria. Even it plays an important role in current biological engineering.
E. coli was discovered in 1885 by Theodor Escherich, German bacteriologist, is gram negative rod, lactose fermenter, composed of one circular chromosome which is common facultative anaerobes in colon and farces of human. Distribution is diverse and most of them are harmless belonging to genus Escherichia. Harmful species causes infection of urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system and rarely bacteraemia and septicemia. Phylogenetic analysis of E. coli showed majority of the strains responsible for UTI belongs to the phylogenetic group B2 and D, while in smaller percentage belong to A and B1 [19].
It has three antigens O-cell was antigen, H- flagella antigen and k- Capsular antigen. It has pili—a capsule, fimbriae, endotoxins and exotoxins also. Uropathogenic E. coli use P fimbriae (pyelonephritis-associated pili) to bind urinary tract endothelial cells. Vast majority of catheter-colonizing cells (up to 88%) express type 1 fimbriae and around 73% in E. coli causing CAUTI [20]. In UPEC fimbrial genes are ygiL, yadN, yfcV, and c2395 [21]. Pathogenesis of CAUTI initiated with UPEC colonization in periurethral and vaginal areas. Then it ascends to bladder lumen and grows as planktonic cells in urine. Sequentially adherence to bladder epithelium, then biofilm formation and invasion with replication and kidney colonization and finally bacteremia [22] (Figure 1).
Gram stain picture and morphology of E. coli. Adapted from CCBC faculty web. BIOL 230 Lab Manual: gram stain of E. coli and infection landscapes: Escherichia coli. http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/labmanua/lab16/gramstain/gnrod.html.
Diagnosis of E. coli infection is simple, by isolation and laboratory identification of bacterium from urine or biofilm. Laboratory diagnosis by culture of specimen—urine or catheter biofilm in blood agar, MacConkey’s agar or eosin-methylene blue agar (which reveal lactose fermentation). Immunomagnetic separation and specific ELISA, latex agglutination tests, colony immunoblot assays, and other immunological-based detection methods are other ways for diagnosis of E. coli.
Proteus species, member of the Enterobacteriaceae family of gram-negative bacilli are distinguishable from most other genera by their ability to swarm across an agar surface [23, 24]. Proteus species are most widely distributed in environment and as other enterobacteriaceae, this bacteria is part of intestinal flora of human being [25, 26]. Proteus also found in multiple environmental habitats, including long-term care facilities and hospitals. In hospital setting, it is not unusual for proteus species to colonize both the skin and mucosa of hospitalized patient and causing opportunistic nosocomial infections. It is one of the common causes of UTI in hospitalized patients undergoing urinary catheterization [26, 27].
UTIs are the most common manifestation of Proteus infection. Proteus infection accounts for 1–2% of UTIs in healthy women and 5% of hospital acquired UTIs. Catheters associated UTI have a prevalence of 20–45%. Proteus mirabilis causes 90% of proteus infection and proteus vulgaris and proteus penneri also isolated from long-term care facilities and hospital and from patients with underlying disease or specialized care. Most common age group is 20–50 years. More common in female group and the ratio between male female begins to decline after 50 years. UTI in men younger than 50 are usually caused by urologic abnormalities. Patients with recurrent infections, those with structural abnormalities of the urinary tract, those who have had urethral instrumentation or catheterization have an increase frequency of infection caused by proteus species [28].
Proteus mirabilis produces an acidic capsular polysaccharide which was shown from glycose analysis, carboxyl reduction, methylation, periodate oxidation and the application high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. Proteus species possess an extracytoplasmic outer membrane, a common feature shared with other gram-negative bacteria. Infection depends upon the interacting organism and the host defense mechanism. Various component of the membrane interplay with the host to determine virulence. Virulence factors associated with adhesion, motility, biofilm formation, immunoavoidance, nutrient acquisition and as well as factors that cause damage to the host [29, 30] (Figure 2).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Proteus. Adapted from CCBC faculty web. BIOL 230 Lab Manual: gram stain of Proteus mirabilis and Proteus vulgaris bacteria (SEM) | Macro & Micro: Up Close and Personal | Pinterest | Microbiology, Bacteria shapes and Fungi. https://www.pinterest.com › pin.
Certain virulence factors such as adhesin, motility and biofilm formation have been identified in Proteus species that has a positive correlation with risk of infection. After attachment of Proteus with urothelial cells, interleukin 6 and interleukin 8 secreted from the urothelial cells causes apoptosis and mucosal endothelial cell desquamation. Urease production of proteus also augments the risk of UTI. Urease production, together with the presence of bacterial motility and fimbriae or pili, as well as adhesins anchored directly within bacterial cell membrane may favor the upper urinary tract infection. Once firmly attached on the uroepithelium or catheter surface, bacteria begin to phenotypically change, producing exopolysaccharides that entrap and protect bacteria. These attached bacteria replicate and form microcolonies that eventually mature into biofilms [31, 32]. Once established, biofilms inherently protect uropathogens from antibiotic and the host immune response [33, 34]. Proteus mirabilis as with other uropathogens is capable of adapting to the urinary tract environment and acquiring nutrients. And this is accomplished by the production of degradative enzymes such urease and proteases, toxins such as Haemolysin Hpm A and iron nutrient acquisition proteins.
The infection with Proteus can be diagnosed by taking a urine sample for microscopy and culture which is sufficient in most of the cases except in few cases where advanced diagnostic tools are used. If the urine is alkaline, it is suggestive of infection with Proteus sp. The diagnosis of Proteus is made on swarming motility on media, unable to metabolized lactose and has a distinct fishy door. Ultrasound or CT scan to identify renal stone (Struvite stone) or to visualized kidneys or surrounding structures. It will allow to exclude other possible problems, mimicking symptoms of urinary tract infection [35, 36].
Pseudomonas is a gram-negative bacteria belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae and containing 191 validly described species [37]. Because of their widespread occurrence in water and plant seeds, the pseudomonas was observed in early history of microbiology. Pseudomonas is flagellated, motile, aerobic organism with Catalase and oxidase-positive. Pseudomonas may be the most common nuclear or of ice crystals in clouds, thereby being of utmost importance to the formation of snow and rain around the world [38]. All species of Pseudomonas are strict aerobes, and a significant number of organisms can produce exopolysaccharides associated with biofilm formation [39]. Pseudomonas is an opportunistic human pathogen that is especially adept at forming surface associated biofilms. Pseudomonas causes catheter associated urinary tract infection(CAUTIs) through biofilm formation on the surface of indwelling catheters, and biofilm mediated infection including ventilator associated pneumonia, infections related to mechanical heart valves, stents, grafts, sutures, and contract lens associated corneal infection [40].
Pseudomonas is third ranking causes nosocomial UTI about 12%, where E. coli remain on the top [41]. CAUTI is directly associated with duration of catheterization. Within 2–4 days of catheterization 15–25% patients develop bacteriuria [42].
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram-negative, rod shaped, asporogenous and monoflagellated, noncapsular bacterium but many strains have a mucoid slime layer. Pseudomonas has an incredible nutritional versatility. Pseudomonas can catabolize a wide range of organic molecule including organic compounds such as benzoate. This, then make Pseudomonas a very ubiquitous microorganism and Pseudomonas is the most abundant organism on earth [43] (Figure 3).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Pseudomonas aeroginosa. Adapted from Science News. A new antibiotic uses sneaky tactics to kill drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa illustration and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Stock Photos & Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Stock Images—Alams. https://www.alamy.com › stock-photo.
Pseudomonas is widely distributed in nature and is commonly present in moist environment of hospitals. It is pathogenic only when introduce into areas devoid of normal defense such as disruption of mucous membrane and skin, usage of intravenous or urinary catheters and neutropenia due to cancer or in cancer therapy. Its pathogenic activity depends on its antigenic structure, enzymes and toxins [44]. Among the enzymes Catalase, Pyocyanin, Proteases, elastase, haemolysin, Phospholipase C, exoenzyme S and T and endotoxin and endotoxin A play role in disease process and as well as immunosuppression. Pseudomonas can infect almost any organ or external site. Pseudomonas in invasive and toxigenic. It attached to and colonized the mucous membrane of skin. Pseudomonas can invade locally to produce systemic disease and septicemia. Pseudomonal UTs are usually hospital acquired and are associated with catheterization, instrumentation and surgery. These infections can involve the urinary tract through an ascending infection or through bacteriuria spread. These UTIs may be a source of bacteraemia or septicemia [45].
Identification of bacterium with microscopy is simple method of identification of pseudomonas. Culture and antibiotic sensitivity pattern can be done in most laboratory media commonly on blood agar or eosin-methylthionine blue agar. Pseudomonas has inability to ferment lactose and has a positive oxidase reaction. Fluorescence under UV light is helpful in early identification of colonies. Fluorescence is also used to suggest the presence of pseudomonas in wounds [46].
Urinary catheters are standard medical devices utilized in both hospital and nursing home settings are associated with a high frequency of catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI). The contribution of Klebsiella spp. in CAUTI is near about 7.7% [47].
Klebsiella pneumoniae is a gram-negative pathogenic bacterium, is part of the Enterobacteriaceae family. It has got polysaccharide capsule attached to the bacterial outer membrane, and it ferments lactose. Klebsiella species are found ubiquitously in nature, including in plants, animals, and humans. They are the causative agent of several types of infections in humans. It has a large accessory genome of plasmids and chromosomal gene loci. This accessory genome divides K. pneumoniae strains into opportunistic, hyper virulent, and multidrug-resistant groups [48] (Figure 4).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Klebsiella pneumonie. Adapted from studyblue.com. Microbio Lab Practical I—Microbiology 101 with Johnson at University of Vermont—StudyBlue. Study 368 Microbio Lab Practical I flashcards from Tess H. on StudyBlue and Klebsiella Pneumoniae Stock Photos and Pictures. Getty Images https://www.gettyimages.com › photos.
The source of Klebsiella causing CAUTI can be endogenous typically via meatal, rectal, or vaginal colonization or exogenous, such as via equipment or contaminated hands of healthcare personnel. They typically migrate along the outer surface of the indwelling urethral catheter, until they enter the urethra.
Migration of the Klebsiella along the inner surface of the indwelling urethral catheter occurs much less frequently, compared with along the outer surface Internal (intraluminal) bacterial ascension occurs by Klebsiella tend to be introduced when opening the otherwise closed urinary drainage system, ascend from the urine collection bag into the bladder via reflux, biofilm formation occurs.
A critical step in progression to CAUTI by Klebsiella is to adhere to host surfaces, which is frequently achieved using pili (fimbriae) [49]. Pili are filamentous structures extending from the surface of Klebsiella. They can be as long as 10 μm and between 1 and 11 nm in diameter. Among the two types of pili—type 1 (fim) pili and type 3 (mrk) pili, type 1 aids virulence by their ability to adhere with mucosal surfaces and type 3 pili strongly associated with biofilm production [50]. Both fim and mrk pili are considered part of the core genome [51]. It is thought that both types of pili play a role in colonization of urinary catheters, leading to CAUTI [52]. In addition to fim and mrk pili, a number of additional usher-type pili have been identified in Klebsiella with an average of ~8 pili clusters per strain. Based on varying gene frequencies, some of these appear to be part of the accessory genome. Immediately after catheterization Klebsiella starts biofilm production on the inner as well as outer surface of the catheter and on urothelium. Biofilm augments migration of Klebsiella into urethra and urinary bladder. Biofilm formation on the catheter surface by Klebsiella pneumoniae causes severe problem. Type 1 and type 3 fimbriae expressed by K. pneumoniae enhance biofilm formation on urinary catheters in a catheterized bladder model that mirrors the physicochemical conditions present in catheterized patients. These two fimbrial types does not is expressed when cells are grown planktonically. Interestingly, during biofilm formation on catheters, both fimbrial types are expressed, suggesting that they are both important in promoting biofilm formation on catheters [53]. The biofilm life cycle illustrated in three steps: initial attachment events with inert surfaces type 1 and type 3 fimbriae encoded by the mrk ABCDF gene cluster within K. pneumoniae promotes biofilm formation [54, 55]. Detachment events by clumps of Klebsiella or by a ‘swarming’ phenomenon within the interior of bacterial clusters, resulting in so-called ‘seeding dispersal’.
Modifiable risk factor are prolonged catheterization, lack of adherence to aseptic catheter care, insertion of the indwelling urethral catheter in a location other than an operating room, presence of a urethral stent, feecal incontinence. Non-modifiable risk factor—renal disease (i.e., serum creatinine >2 mg/dL), diabetes mellitus, older age (i.e., age > 50 years old), female sex, malnutrition and severe underlying illness [53]. For infection several virulence factors such as surface factors (fimbriae, adhesins, and P and type 1 pili) and extracellular factors toxins, siderophores, enzymes, and polysaccharide coatings are necessary for initial adhesion with colonization of host mucosal surfaces for tissue invasion overcoming the host defense mechanisms, and causing chronic infections [55].
Diagnosis of klebsiella infection is by isolation and laboratory identification of bacterium from urine or biofilm. Laboratory diagnosis can be done by culture of specimen—urine or catheter biofilm in blood agar, MacConkey’s agar. Specific ELISA, latex agglutination tests, PCR and other immunological-based detection methods are sophisticated alternatives for diagnosis of klebsiella. Determination of a gene on capsule of Klebsiella is rapid and simple method for the determination of the K types of most K. pneumoniae clinical isolates [56].
Enterobacter species, particularly Enterobacter cloacae and Enterobacter aerogenes, are important nosocomial pathogens responsible for about 1.9–9% CAUTI, rarely causes bacteremia [57, 58]. Enterobacter cloacae exhibited the highest biofilm production (87.5%) among isolated pathogens [53].
Enterobacter bacteria are motile, rod-shaped cells, facultative anaerobic, non-spore-forming, some of which are encapsulated belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are important opportunistic and multi-resistant bacterial pathogens. As facultative anaerobes, some Enterobacter bacteria ferment both glucose and lactose as a carbon source, presence of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity and the lack of urease activity. In biofilms they secrete various cytotoxins (enterotoxins, hemolysins, pore-forming toxins. Though it is microflora in the intestine of humans, it is pathogens in plants and insects. Amp C β-lactamase production by E. cloacae is responsible for cephalosporin resistance. They possess peritrichous, amphitrichous, lophotrichous, polar flagella. E. aerogenes flagellar genes and its assembly system have been acquired in bloc from the Serratia genus [59] (Figure 5).
Gram stain picture and morphology of Enterobacter species. Adapted from Gram Stain Kit | Microorganism Stain | abcam.comAdwww.abcam.com/ and Science Prof Online. Gram-negative Bacteria Images: photos of Escherichia coli, Salmonella & Enterobacter and Enterobacter aerogenes | Gram-negative microorganism—HPV Decontamination | Hydrogen Peroxide Vapour—Bioquellhealthcare.bioquell.com › microbiology.
The most important test to document Enterobacter infections is culture. Direct gram staining of the specimen is also useful. In the laboratory, growth of Enterobacter isolates is occurs in 24 h or less; Enterobacter species grow rapidly on selective (i.e., MacConkey) and nonselective (i.e., sheep blood) agars.
Enterococci are gram-positive facultative anaerobic cocci, two species are common commensal organisms in the intestines of humans: Enterococcus faecalis (90–95%) and Enterococcus faecium (5–10%) [60]. Though normally a gut commensal, these organisms are commonly responsible for nosocomial infection of urinary tract, biliary tract and blood, particularly in intensive care units (ICU) [61]. E. coli is usually the most frequent species isolated from bacteremic catheter associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI). However, Enterococcus spp. (28.4%) and Candida spp. (19.7%) were also reported to be most common [62]. In another study, E. coli was found the commonest (36%) followed by Enterococcus spp. (25%), Klebsiella species (20%) and Pseudomonas spp. (5%) [63].
The most important cause of bacteriuria is the formation of biofilm along the catheter surface [64]. Enterococcus is gram positive bacteria often found in pairs or short chains. Broadly, Enterococcus is in two groups—faecalis and non-faecalis (E. gallinarum and E. casseliflavus). Enterococcus faecalis formerly classified as part of the group D Streptococcus is a gram-positive, commensal bacterium inhabiting the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other mammals, survive harsh environmental conditions including drying, high temperatures, and exposure to some antiseptics [65]. E. faecalis has the important characteristics of complex set of biochemical reactions, including fermentation of carbohydrates, hydrolysis of arginine, tolerance to tellurite, and motility and pigmentation. Presence of the catheter itself is essential for E. faecalis persistence in the bladder, E. faecalis depends on the catheter implant for persistence via an unknown mechanism that more than likely involves its ability to produce biofilms on the silicone tubing and immune-suppression [66].
E. faecalis produce a heteropolymeric extracellular hair-like fimbrial structure called the endocarditis- and biofilm-associated pilus-Ebp, having three components the organelle (EbpC), a minor subunit that forms the base of the structure (EbpB) and a tip-located adhesin (EbpA) [67]. EbpA is responsible for adhesion in urothelial and catheter surface for biofilm production (Figure 6).
Morphology of Enterococcus. Adapted from Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo Image ID: F6YBC3.
Urine sample and biofilm microscopy can identify this gram positive organism. Culture yields the growth of E. faecalis in appropriate media. Advanced diagnostic methods like immunological-based detection methods and PCR are rarely needed for diagnosis.
One of the common causes of catheter associated urinary tract infection is fungal infection. Bacterial infections are accounted for 70.9% of catheter associated urinary infection. E. coli is the most commonly isolated organism (41.6%) whereas fungal infections are accounted for 16.6% and mixed fungal and bacterial infections accounted for 12.5% [68]. The National nosocomial infections surveillance (NNIS) data indicated that C. albicans caused 21% of catheter-associated urinary tract infections, in contrast to 13% of non-catheter-associated infections [69]. In one study 24% of the cases showing fungal yeast growth. Candida spp. was the commonest. Non-albicans Candida (86%) isolated more commonly than Candida albicans (14%) [70]. Candida are commensals, and to be pathogenic, interruption of normal host defenses is crucial which is facilitated in conditions like immunocompromised states as AIDS, diabetes mellitus, prolonged broad spectrum antibiotic use, indwelling devices, intravenous drug use and hyperalimentation fluids [71]. Diabetes mellitus has been reported as the most common risk factor for fungal infection [72, 73]. The duration of catheterization is also an important risk factor as the duration increases the incidence of fungal infection is increased [74].
Candida albicans is an oval, budding yeast, which is a member of the normal flora of mucocutaneous membrane. Twenty species of Candida yeasts can cause in human infection but most common is Candida albicans. Sometimes it can gain predominance and can produce disease. Other candida species that can cause disease occasionally are Candida parapsilosis, Candida tropicalis and Candida krusei [75]. Although Candida albicans are common isolates in CAUTI, Candida tropicalis is increasingly reported in CAUTI [76]. The majority of Candida albicans infections are associated with biofilm formation on host or abiotic surfaces such as indwelling medical devices, which carry high morbidity and mortality [63, 77]. Several factors and activities contribute to the pathogenesis of this fungus which mediate adhesion to and invasion into host cells, which are in sequences are the secretion of hydrolases, the yeast-to-hypha transition, contact sensing and thigmotropism, biofilm formation, phenotypic switching and a range of fitness attributes [78] (Figure 7).
Morphology of Candida albicans. Adapted from biomedik8888, Aug 24, 2011. http://www.BioMedik.com.au3.
Urine and materials removed from catheter are needed. Microscopic examinations of gram-stained specimen showed pseudohyphae and budding cells. Culture on Sabouraud’s agar at room temperature and at 37°C showed typical colonies and budding pseudomycelia [79].
It is facultative anaerobic bacilli gram-negative rod of Enterobacteriaceae family considered opportunistic human pathogen but not a component of human facial flora. It is capable of producing a pigment called prodigiosin, which ranges in color from dark red to pale pink. It is ubiquitously spent in nature and has preference for damp conditions. Though previously known as nonpathogenic, but since 1970s it is associated with multi drug resistant infection due to presence of R factor—a plasmid. A study in Japan showed 6.8% incidence of UTI with this organism [80]. It also causes bacteraemia rarely. Diagnosis is confirmed by culture of the urine specimen or catheter biofilm. Automated bacterial identification systems and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is the other modality for diagnosis of serratia as well as other enterobacteriaceae [81].
This non-fermentative gram-negative rod discovered as plant growth-promoting bacterium and potential biocontrol agent against plant pathogens. Infection with this uncommon organism in CAUTI occurs in combination with commonest bacteria E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. D. tsuruhatensis and E. coli coexist and tend to co-aggregate over time and also cooperate synergistically [82]. D. tsuruhatensis metabolized citric acid more rapidly leaving more uric acid available in the medium to be used by E. coli for dynamic growth of both organisms. Identification of this organism is not confirmatory with culture, so molecular methods are more reliable [83].
Achromobacter denitrificans is gram negative bacterium formerly known as Alcaligenes denitrificans. Infection with this organism predominantly observed in elderly patients with predisposing factors as urological abnormalities, malignancies and immune-suppression. Rarely it causes bacteraemia. This bacterium has high level of antibiotic resistance [84].
In polymicrobial biofilm, Achromobacter xylosoxidans cohabits with common organisms E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Diagnosis is by bacterial culture and molecular methods.
Staphylococci (methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus [MSSA] and methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA], Staphylococcus saprophyticus. These are the common gram positive bacteria usually responsible for skin and soft tissue infections but rarely cause CAUTI and bacteraemia [85].
The incidence of Staphylococcal UTI as well as CAUTI is increasing and the organisms carry wide variety of multidrug-resistant genes on plasmids, which augment spread of resistance among other species [86].
Diagnosis is easy, gram stain of the sample, culture is sufficient. Advanced techniques rarely needed (Figure 8).
Morphology of Staphylococcus aureus. Adapted from abcam.comAdwww.abcam.com/ pharmacist-driven intervention improves care of patients with S aureus Bacteremia/Staph aureus. Nebraska Medicine https://asap.nebraskamed.com.
CAUTI is one of the most nosocomial Infection worldwide resulting from rational as well as sometimes irrational use of indwelling urinary catheter. Cause of CAUTI is formation of pathogenic biofilm commonly due to UPEC, Proteus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter rarely Candida and other uncommon opportunistic organisms. CAUTI has got high impact on morbidity and mortality as biofilm producing organisms are more antibiotic resistant. Antibiotic resistance is a global problem. Early detection of CAUTI is simple by examination of urine and catheter biofilm with microscopy as well as culture with antibiogram. It is easy and cost effective with early diagnosis and treatment for good clinical outcome. Advanced and sophisticated methods like Immunomagnetic separation, specific ELISA, colony immunoblot assays and PCR for diagnosis of CAUTI is seldom necessary.
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