Processing sequences, action, and water contents for green tea manufacture.
\n
AQ6
Green tea farms at Kawane honcho, Shizuoka.
Processing green tea is delicate and has several significant steps that require specialized skills. After the leaves are picked from the tree, a total of eight work sequences are necessary for ready to drink tea (Table 5).
Name of task | Action | Time (min) | Water contents (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Sassei (steam) | Fresh leaves are steamed at 100°C, and oxidation is stopped | 0.5–1 | 100 |
Reikyaku (cool down) | Wait until room temperature and some water is removed from leaf surface | 5 | – |
Sojyu (first hand-rolling) | Wield leaves and some mass of leaves come up by light hand-rolling at 35°C | 60 | 40 |
Jyunen (second hand-rolling) | Push and make a mass bigger by knead hand-rolling and remove some water from inside of leaf at 100°C | 20 | – |
Chujyu (third hand-rolling) | Loosen a mass up and twist leaf by hand-rolling at 95°C | 30 | 30 |
Seijyu (forth hand-rolling) | Shape like needle and polish by hand-rolling at 85°C | 60 | 10 |
Kansou (dry) | Dry at 65°C | 120 | 5 |
Shiage (finishing) | Removed leaf powder and piece of stem with some heat for dry | – | 4 |
Processing sequences, action, and water contents for green tea manufacture.
Manufacturing Japanese green tea takes more than 5 h with much labor if all sequences are done by hand. Recently, most of the processing steps have become automated. Hand making tea, however, is still practiced by some processors as the hand-rolling technique is a cultural heritage (Figure 8a–e).
Processing machines, at Kawanehoncho, Shizuoka, (a) sojyu-ki, (b) jyunen-ki. Processing by hands, at Kawanehoncho, Shizuoka, (c) sojyu, (d) seijyu, and (e) shiage.
Recently, a number of scientific studies have suggested that green tea has medicinal effects, reducing high cholesterol and treating cancer, diabetes, and liver disease [18]. In the natural elements and nutrients in Japanese green teas, the most consumed
Gyokuro | Sencha | Houjicha | Matcha | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tannin (Catechin) | 10.0 | 13.0 | 9.5 | 10.0 |
Caffeine | 3.5 | 2.3 | 1.5 | 3.2 |
Theanine/Amino Acid | 29.1 | 24.5 | 18.2 | 30.6 |
Fat | 4.1 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 5.3 |
Carbohydrate | 43.9 | 47.7 | 39.2 | 38.5 |
Fiber | 11.1 | 10.6 | 18.7 | 10.0 |
Ash content | 6.3 | 5.0 | 5.5 | 7.4 |
Vitamin A (μg) | 21,000 | 13,000 | 6,700 | 29,000 |
C (mg) | 110 | 260 | 44 | 60 |
E (mg) | 16.6 | 68.1 | - | 28.1 |
B1 (mg) | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.10 | 0.60 |
B2 (mg) | 1.16 | 1.43 | 0.82 | 1.35 |
Niacin (mg) | 6.0 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 4.0 |
Natural elements and nutrients in Japanese green tea [19].
Catechin.
Most convenience stores and supermarkets in Japan sell many kinds of bottled green tea. Some brands put a mark “food for specified health uses” indicating healthy effects, such as cholesterol reduction or gentle rising of blood sugar after meals, and have received approval for special marking from the Consumer Affairs Agency (Figure 10) [26]. These types of foods are used for sustaining health and preventing pre-symptomatic disease.
Food mark specifies green tea health uses.
Integrative medicine is a person-centered care system that uses both modern western medicine, to take advantage of pharmaceuticals, operations, radiology, and other complementary and alternative medicines have become popular among advanced countries to change the structure of disease control. Many complementary and alternative medicine systems exist. Phytotherapy has been actively adapted into integrative medicine in United States because herbs and the origin of several pharmaceuticals and the accumulated scientific evidence are comprehended easily. For example, Dr. Andrew Weil of University of Arizona, a leading figure of integrative medicine, is an herbalist and prescribes medicinal plants for treatment [27].
\nAromatherapy was introduced to Japan from the UK in 1985, and became popular as a relaxation technique. Subsequently, aromatherapy has become better known by medical professionals and researchers. This activity advanced clinical application in psychosomatic medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, and palliative care coupled with the spread of integrative medicine. In 2008, the Japanese Society of Integrative Medicine was established, a project team of integrative medicine in Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare was launched in 2010, and the Japanese Society of Phytotherapy was established in 2012 for study of medicinal herbs.
\nAlthough still controversial, functional mechanisms of complementary and alternative medicines are thought to have the improved the spontaneous healing power of humans. Currently, this understanding is compatible with oriental thought in a regimen and a balanced diet lead to a healthy body. Accumulation of scientific evidence, culture, and history exists behind the rapid spread of aromatherapy and medicinal herbs in Japan. The next generation of integrative medicine that creates inclusive correlation between body, mind, spirituality, natural environment, and local community can be expected to help those suffering from aging and improve the health of a maturing society.
In recent years, diffusion of dietary supplements is remarkably increasing worldwide, and the trend to use natural substances in healthcare and wellness will continue to rapidly expand dietary supplement markets. In one of the highest dietary supplement consuming countries, 53% of the adults in the United States used at least one dietary supplement each day in 2003–2006 [28]. This number was more than two times that of Japan [29], and comes from different systems of health insurance. To enter health insurance is not necessary for USA citizens have a relatively expensive medical care system, making individuals concerned about their health and wellness. In contrast, Japan citizens are basically mandated to enter a health insurance. According to various reports, some consumers in Japan have the wrong knowledge about dietary supplements. For example, an inappropriate meal is no problem if you take dietary supplements [30]. Nevertheless, the Japanese market of dietary supplement keeps growing rapidly, and the prospect of dietary supplement in Japan will continue to shift more to prevent disease and maintain health and wellness.
Medicinal and aromatic plants help people remain healthy and have influenced culture, nature, and history of humans from ancient times. Further study of medicinal and aromatic plants may discover new constituents that become future medicines. In future research, more clinical trial and interaction between medicinal plants and pharmaceuticals need to be examined and useful information shared throughout the world. The important thing is to appreciate the blessings of nature and sustain all of genetic resources. Today, the society of severe aging and maturity needs to shift from animalistic world view, such as the stronger prey upon the weaker in a high-growth period, to a cooperative vegetative world view with the key factor being medicinal and aromatic plants.
Evidence suggests that conventional energy production has limited capacity to meet growing demand and that additional demands will have to be met by unorthodox sources. Since the world is now drifting toward sustainable development, renewable energy technologies are gaining traction. One of such renewable energy technologies that has received great attention in recent times include biomass gasification, which is one of three main (combustion and pyrolysis) thermochemical conversion pathways used to recover energy from biomass materials. Gasification produces energy from biomass and involves heating the biomass at elevated temperatures (above 1000°C) under a limited supply of oxygen to produce a mixture of gases (H2, CO, CO2) collectively referred to as syngas. However, the combustible constituents of the syngas are CO and H2 and can be used as fuel in gas engines for heat and electricity generation as well as for the production of chemicals (such as alcohols, organic acids, ammonia, and methanol) via the Fischer-Tropsch process [1]. The significance of gasification technology is such that it helps waste management, at the same time, produces energy and other valuable products needed for economic growth. Systems designed to gasify coal is assumed to be able to use biomass as well, however, differences in the characteristics of coal and biomass can have a significant impact on the sizing and design of the combustion chamber of the gasification system, as well as on the location of the gasifying agent [2]. A graphical representation of a gasification process, which depicts feedstock flexibility and the production of a wide range of products, is presented in Figure 1.
A schematic representation of a gasification process depicting feedstock flexibility and the wide range of products that can be obtained from the process [
The gasification technology has existed for several decades and has, as of today, been commercialized in very few countries of the world like Sweden, Germany, Canada, the United States, India, and China. The use of this technology offers a number of ecological and economic advantages such as low emission of pollutants, reduction in the environmental effects of waste disposal, generation of non-hazardous by-products when biomass is used as the feedstock, and lower operating cost [4].
Gasification occurs in a gasifier under a series of chemical reactions that are mostly endothermic in nature; however, to provide the heat required for the reactions to proceed successfully, and the heat needed for drying and pyrolysis to occur, a certain amount of exothermic combustion is allowed in the gasifier [4, 5]. The gasification reactions are described in greater detail in subsequent sections. The gasifier and its configuration are key factors that affect the entire gasification process, including the reactions occurring and their products [6]. This is true because gasifiers are generally classified into three broad groups, namely: the fixed bed gasifiers, the fluidized bed gasifiers, and the entrained flow gasifiers. Table 1 shows the main characteristics of these three gasifiers.
Type of gasifier | Characteristics |
---|---|
The fixed beds |
|
The fluidized beds |
|
The entrained flows |
|
The main characteristics of the three types of gasifiers commonly used for the recovery of heat and electricity from biomass [7].
Although the gasification technology may be considered as a useful technology for the recovery of energy from biomass materials, the technological choices with regards to the type of gasification system (fixed bed, fluidized beds, or entrained flow reactors) for the conversion of biomass are still faced with a host of technical barriers that have hindered the significant exploitation of the gasification technology and biomass energy as a whole. The quality of the syngas produced from the gasification process, the lack of feedstock flexibility and its mechanism of conversion are the main obstacles. This chapter, therefore, presents an overview of the gasification technology and discusses its main technical barriers with reference to the gasification systems commonly used today. The status of current research in gasification and future research focus are also presented.
There are different types of gasification systems but the most commonly used are the fixed-bed, fluidized-bed, and entrained-flow gasification systems. The main differences between these gasifiers are connected to their mechanism of heating and the way feedstock and gasifying agents are introduced in the gasification process, as well as by the location of syngas output [8, 9, 10]. However, the technological choices toward these gasifiers are guided by the nature and availability of biomass feedstocks. While the characteristics of biomass feedstocks intended for gasification are detailed in [11], the principles of operation of the types of gasifiers mentioned above and their merits and demerits are equally well described in [12, 13] and in [14]. These gasification systems may appear as simple devices but their successful operations are not so simple. The gasifiers are still faced with a host of technical issues that have hindered their broader market penetration. These technological barriers are described in Section 5. Nonetheless, in order to fully comprehend the technical barriers of each of these gasifiers, it is important to understand the differences between the gasifiers in terms of configuration, which also affects the thermodynamics of their operation. Therefore, a schematic diagram of each gasifier type is presented in Figure 2.
Schematic representations of the gasification systems in use today: (a) fixed bed; (b) fluidized bed; (c) entrained flow. Reproduced with permission from [
The key mechanism of the gasification technology involves the conversion of solid carbonaceous materials like biomass into flammable gas by partial oxidation. However, the chemistry involved in the process is quite complex and can be achieved via a series of physical and chemical transformation reactions that occur inside the gasification system [4, 16]. The major chemical reactions occurring are those that involve the degradation of large organic molecules into carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), water in the form of steam (H2O), and methane (CH4). These reactions take place in accordance with the chemical bonding theory and can be represented thus [3]:
The combustion reactions include:
Other key gasification reactions are:
The above reactions occur under standard operating conditions of gasification and are considered important reactions that form the major part of the syngas produced in the gasification process [4, 16]. While reaction (4) may be referred to as the “Water-Gas Reaction”, reactions (5) and (6) are termed the “Boudouard Reaction” and the “Methanation Reaction” respectively. Reactions (4) and (5) are the main reduction reactions. However, under high carbon conversion conditions, reactions (4)–(6), being heterogeneous in nature, are reduced to the following homogeneous gas-phase reactions [16]:
Reactions (7) and (8) are known respectively as the “Water-Gas-Shift Reaction” and the “Steam-Methane-Reforming Reaction”. These two reactions (7) and (8) play a key role in determining the final equilibrium of the composition of the syngas produced in the gasification process [3, 16]. Under a limited supply of oxygen to the gasifier, the sulfur composition of the feedstock is converted to hydrogen sulfide (H2S), with a minute amount forming carbonyl sulfide (COS). The nitrogen (N) chemically bound in the feedstock is converted to gaseous nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3), and traces of hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The chlorine in the feedstock is mainly converted to hydrogen chloride (HCl). It is important to however state that the concentrations of sulfur, nitrogen and chloride in the feedstock for gasification are sufficiently low that their effects in the gasification process are quite insignificant; trace elements (such as arsenic, mercury, and other heavy metals) that are associated with both the organic and inorganic components of the feedstock are mostly contained in the fractions of ash and slag formed during gasification, as well as in the gases emitted, and must be expunged from the syngas prior to further use [16].
Temperature increases in a gasification process lead to dehydration, volatilization, and degradation of the biomass feedstock. The gasification process reactions are mostly reversible reactions. The order of the reactions and their conversion rates are often subject to the limitations of the reaction kinetics and thermodynamic equilibrium of the gasification process. For instance, reactions (1)–(3) presented in a previous section are combustion reactions that actually go to completion when equilibrium positions of the reactions shift to the right. However, not all reactants in a gasification process can be completely converted into products; as such, stoichiometric calculations may be required to determine the products of a completed reaction [5].
While the kinetics of a reaction can determine how fast products are formed and whether the reactions in the gasifier go to completion, the equilibrium state of the reaction determines to what extent the reaction can progress. The thermal efficiency of the gasification process and the composition of the syngas produced are strongly influenced by the thermodynamic equilibrium of the water-gas-shift reaction and the steam-methane-reforming reaction (reactions (7) and (8), Section 3) [3, 4]. A useful tool for evaluating important design parameters of a gasification technology is thermodynamic modeling. With this tool, process efficiency can be optimized at different operating conditions; the relative quantities of gasifying agents such as oxygen and steam can also be calculated including the composition of the product syngas.
An understanding of the technical challenges of gasification technology requires a basic understanding of the factors that control the stability of gasifier operation. A typical gasification process includes the following four key steps: drying, pyrolysis, oxidation, and reduction. There are no strict boundaries between these steps; they often overlap and a host of factors including the type of gasifier, feedstock type, and process parameters, such as temperature, determines the output of a gasification process involving the four key steps listed above [4, 5, 8]. The operating temperature of a gasification process is a function of the amount of oxygen fed to the gasification system (gasifier), which induces partial gasification. Temperature response will abruptly change at an equivalence ratio (ER) of about 0.25; depending on the source of oxygen, this change point is typical of gasifier temperatures in the range 600–800°C; some quantities of oil and tar are produced in the pyrolysis stage of the gasification process. These products of the pyrolysis stage are stable for about a second at temperatures lower than 600°C [13].
The fixed bed updraft gasifier operates at temperatures below 600°C and generates considerable amounts of tars that are often emitted with the syngas, while its counterpart, the downdraft gasifier (also of the fixed bed type) is self-regulating and produces far less tar relative to the updraft gasifier; the fluidized bed gasifier also has high tar production rate, in fact, its tar production rate is greater than other types of gasifiers like the fixed bed and the entrained flow gasifiers [13, 14, 17].
Although the gasification technology has experienced development over several decades and has been commercialized in a number of countries like those previously mentioned [14]; its successful operation is not as simple as can be imagined because of the thermodynamics of the operation of the technology are not well understood. Further exploitation of the technology still needs to overcome a considerable number of technical issues. A description of the technological barriers that are associated with each type of gasification technology is presented thus:
The fixed bed gasifiers (updraft, downdraft, and crossdraft) are the simplest of all the types of gasifiers and are mainly suitable for small-scale applications (<10 MWth) [5]. Although they (fixed bed gasifiers) are very advantageous in terms of their simplicity and ease of operation, they generally suffer from poor mixing and poor heat transfer within the gasifier, which makes it difficult to achieve even distribution of fuel and temperature across gasifier geometry hence scale-up of this type of gasifier is difficult. The fixed bed downdraft gasifier, which has not satisfactorily performed with feedstock capacity beyond 425 kg/h [18], is a typical example of the described technical issue. This is because air cannot travel up the center of the gasifier, which creates cold spots in and around the combustion zone of the gasifier during operation and results in reduced gasification efficiency. This limitation has been attributed to design characteristics in terms of gasifier geometry (throat angle and throat diameter) and air inlet velocity. In the case of the updraft gasifier however, its high tar production rate (5–20%) [19] remains a challenge to date and renders this type of gasifier unsuitable where a clean product gas (syngas) is desired. Due to its high tar production rate, the updraft gasifier is well-suited for the gasification of low-volatile feedstocks like charcoal [5].
In terms of configuration, the fluidized bed gasifier (FBG) operates on the principle of fluidization where a gas stream is forced through a particle bed vessel that behaves like a fluid under certain conditions such as high particle flow velocity. The commonly used fluidization media include air, steam, or mixtures of steam/oxygen. The FBG is the most efficient of all types of gasifiers and its efficiency is mainly dependent upon the thermochemical and fluid behavior inside the gasifier; this type of gasifier is more appropriate for medium-scale units of about 5–100 MWth [5, 20, 21]. From a system performance and technical point of view, the operation of the FBG is quite complex because of the need to simultaneously control air supply, bed material, and feedstock during operation of the gasifier. As a result, the product gas obtained from the gasification process may be very high in particulates, which can circulate and cause equipment erosion. Although it may sway the gasification process, the FBG is operated at high-pressure conditions, which can result in low volumetric gas flow rates, condensation during compression, and other operational complications such as defluidization from particle agglomeration particularly when agricultural crops and wastes are used as feedstock in the gasification process. This is because agricultural crops and wastes contain an increased amount of ash/alkali and, the alkali content of ash (such as sodium and potassium alkali) can form low-melting eutectics with the silica in the sand, which is the regularly used bed material in FBG processes [22]. Under this condition, agglomeration and sintering will occur, triggering the formation of a thin sticky substance around the bed particles with an instant loss of bed fluidization (defluidization). Typical factors influencing agglomeration and the loss of fluidization in FBGs are presented in Table 2.
Parameter | Agglomeration and loss of fluidization (defluidization) |
Temperature | The possibilities of agglomeration and defluidization are exacerbated by rising temperatures. |
Steam | Agglomeration and defluidization can occur upon increase in steam during gasification due to the formation of molten sodium disilicate, which can occur via liquid-solid reaction under steam application conditions. |
Alkalis, iron sulfides, and siderite | Increases the possibilities of the formation of sticky substances, which can, in turn, facilitate agglomeration and defluidization. |
Fluidization velocity | The tendencies of agglomeration are lowered below the sintering temperature of ash when the velocity of fluidization is increased. The force of segregation also increases under this circumstance. |
Particle size distribution | The possibilities of agglomeration and defluidization are high when bimodal or multimodal particle size distribution occurs. |
Even if more sophisticated bed materials such as alumina and magnesite are used in the FBG process of feedstocks with high ash/alkali content, process cost will become an issue of concern. These types of technical issues call to question the feedstock flexibility of the FBG systems.
The entrained flow gasifier (EFG) is an old alternative energy production technology used on a large-scale (>50 MWth) [5] in the petroleum industry for the gasification of petroleum residues. This type of gasifier offers greater rates of collision between solid particles and is considered excellent in terms of performance because of vigorous mixing of feedstock and oxidizing agent as well as better feed conversion efficiencies in comparison to other types of gasifiers [25]. However, even though the EFG has been in existence for centuries, it has not been exploited to its full potential partly because the fundamental principles underpinning its operation are still vague, particularly with regards to the type of material suitable as feedstock. The mechanisms involved in the feedstock conversion process are still under debate. In addition, the EFG is operated at very high temperatures (1,200 – 2,000°C) and pressures, under these operating conditions, fuel-oxygen mixtures are turned into a turbulent flame of dust that ensures the production of liquid ash, which are deposited on gasifier walls. This constitutes a technical issue of concern, particularly when analyzing the ash melting behavior of the material used as feedstock in the gasification process. Due to this high operating pressure, numerical modeling and experimental validation of the EFG tend to be onerous. Furthermore, due to its operating conditions, only specific types of materials are used as feedstock.
Extensive studies have been undertaken on gasification technology over the last decade. Despite the numerous studies, however, there are still pending research-related issues (such as those described in preceding sections) that require further improvements. For example, Kaushal et al. [26] developed a one-dimensional steady-state model specific to the bubbling fluidized bed gasifier (BFBG). Gómez-Barea et al. [27] also reviewed the performance optimization of a small-scale FBG plant with the aim of maximizing char conversion rate and minimizing secondary gas treatments. The process performance of the downdraft gasifier was evaluated by Biagini et al. [28] in which the performance parameters such as syngas production, syngas heating value, cold gas efficiency, and the net efficiency of the gasifier were monitored using corn cobs as feedstock. Furthermore, the performance of a pilot-scale pressurized entrained-flow (EFG) plant using stem wood made from pine and spruce as feedstocks was assessed by Weiland et al. [29]. A combined system involving gasification, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technologies was developed by Papa et al. [30] using commercial process simulation software (ASPEN Plus), where the focus was to investigate the efficiency of the system under various operating conditions. The challenges and opportunities of modeling the gasification technology using Aspen Plus were also detailed by Mutlu and Zeng who alluded to the issues of the gasification technology as hindering the widespread commercialization of the technology [31].
The FBGs such as the downdraft gasifier is characterized by four distinct reaction zones including the drying, pyrolysis, combustion, and reduction zones respectively; the specific functions of each of these zones are described in [32]. Of these distinct reaction zones, the combustion zone, also known as the oxidation zone, is considered the most important zone because heat is generated in this zone. However, the presence of cold spots (a factor linked to uneven heat distribution in and around the combustion zone of the downdraft gasifier), is the main reason why these types of gasifiers are limited to small-scale applications [13]. There are basically two methods that can provide a solution to the problem of uneven heat distribution in fixed bed systems: one method is to decrease the cross-sectional area of the gasifier at a certain height. This means altering the design characteristics of the throat angle and throat diameter of the gasifier by way of size-reduction. The other method is to centralize the air inlet and its velocity using nozzles that are positioned in a way that allows the throat circumference of the gasifier to be captured.
In the case of the FBGs, although a well-established technology (in terms of design concept) for heat and power generation, bed defluidization, as indicated in a previous section, is considered the main technical issue, which as previously described, occurs due to agglomeration and pressure drops, particularly when gasifying feedstocks with high amounts of ash such as agricultural residues and wastes. Alkali silicates such as calcium, potassium, and sodium silicates present in ash can form low-melting eutectics with silica, which is often used as the bed material in FBGs [22]. A quick and easy solution to the defluidization problems in FBGs is to replace the commonly used bed material (silica) with more advanced artificial materials such as aluminum oxide or magnesium carbonate. However, the cost associated with the use of these materials may constitute a major drawback. Therefore, the hydrodynamics of the FBG needs to be further investigated and the hydrodynamic study must incorporate devolatilization kinetics, char gasification, and gas species in relation to particle agglomeration and sintering.
For the high-pressure EFG, the production of molten ash (which mostly originates from the ash constituents of the feedstock and forms deposits on the walls of the gasifier) is a commonly encountered technical problem. Depending on the operating conditions of the gasification process, the molten ash deposits often solidify, causing plugging and the blockage of critical parts of the gasifier thereby hindering process efficiency. Therefore, just like the FBG, a solution to the problem of molten ash formation in the EFG is to further investigate the feedstock conversion mechanism and gasifier hydrodynamics, particularly when more complex low-grade feedstocks such as agricultural residues and biomass-based chars are used in the gasification process under high-pressure conditions.
Studies [33, 34] have shown that modeling work has accelerated the research progress made in the field of biomass gasification since gasifier design and operating conditions can be optimized at minimal time and costs. However, modeling and simulation cannot replace good experimental investigations. In fact, studies [35] have determined that mathematical modeling and simulation of high temperature and pressure reaction systems involving gaseous, liquid, and solid phases is a major scientific challenge. Therefore, addressing the technical issues of the gasification technologies described in this chapter will not only require the development of a robust and sophisticated model that can be applied to a wider range of operating parameters of the gasifiers but also able to replicate actual operations of the gasification technologies with an acceptable level of anomaly.
Gasifier design and process optimization for complex biomass feedstocks, in general, are very challenging due to the lack of detailed understanding of the various thermochemical reaction steps governing the conversion of biomass feedstocks under high temperature and pressure conditions. The gasification technologies described in this chapter are multiphase systems that are characterized by complex operational steps. Therefore, in order to better comprehend the complex interactions between process steps during gasification and to address the technological issues earlier described, experimental studies under systematic variation of feed specification and process parameters are required. It is also necessary to ensure proper process mapping based on experimental data from lab- to pilot-scale in order to develop a comprehensive gasification process understanding and to provide a thorough data basis for the validation of numerical simulations. This implies the development of state-of-the-art experimental techniques that are applicable under the acrid conditions of gasification technologies.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. 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Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. Torrecillas, H. U. Kessel, J. Hennicke, R. Kirchner and T. Kessel",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",middleName:null,surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}]},{id:"23617",doi:"10.5772/24118",title:"Collagen- vs. Gelatine-Based Biomaterials and Their Biocompatibility: Review and Perspectives",slug:"collagen-vs-gelatine-based-biomaterials-and-their-biocompatibility-review-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:9461,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:203,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Selestina Gorgieva and Vanja Kokol",authors:[{id:"55577",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kokol",slug:"vanja-kokol",fullName:"Vanja Kokol"},{id:"61285",title:"BSc",name:"Selestina",middleName:null,surname:"Gorgieva",slug:"selestina-gorgieva",fullName:"Selestina Gorgieva"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13737,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:163,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76780",title:"Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties",slug:"basics-of-clay-minerals-and-their-characteristic-properties",totalDownloads:1958,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Clay minerals such as kaolinite, smectite, chlorite, micas are main components of raw materials of clay and formed in presence of water. A large number of clays used to form the different structure which completely depends on their mining source. They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11760,totalCrossrefCites:72,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. There are numerous original papers, reviews, and monographs focused on the synthesis, properties, and applications of hydrogels. This chapter covers the fundamental aspects and several applications of hydrogels based on the old and the most recent publications in this field.",book:{id:"5251",slug:"emerging-concepts-in-analysis-and-applications-of-hydrogels",title:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels"},signatures:"Morteza Bahram, Naimeh Mohseni and Mehdi Moghtader",authors:[{id:"179718",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Bahram",slug:"morteza-bahram",fullName:"Morteza Bahram"},{id:"185713",title:"Dr.",name:"Naimeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohseni",slug:"naimeh-mohseni",fullName:"Naimeh Mohseni"},{id:"185714",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Moghtader",slug:"mehdi-moghtader",fullName:"Mehdi Moghtader"}]},{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2692,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"18275",title:"Modeling and Identification of Parameters the Piezoelectric Transducers in Ultrasonic Systems",slug:"modeling-and-identification-of-parameters-the-piezoelectric-transducers-in-ultrasonic-systems",totalDownloads:10230,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"201",slug:"advances-in-ceramics-electric-and-magnetic-ceramics-bioceramics-ceramics-and-environment",title:"Advances in Ceramics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ceramics - Electric and Magnetic Ceramics, Bioceramics, Ceramics and Environment"},signatures:"Pawel Fabijanski and Ryszard Lagoda",authors:[{id:"13086",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",middleName:null,surname:"Fabijański",slug:"pawel-fabijanski",fullName:"Pawel Fabijański"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16265,totalCrossrefCites:189,totalDimensionsCites:409,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83123",title:"Natural Fibers: The Sustainable Alternatives for Textile & Non-Textile Applications",slug:"natural-fibers-the-sustainable-alternatives-for-textile-non-textile-applications",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106393",abstract:"The increasing environmental concerns and depletion of petroleum resources have increased the importance of natural fibers and have stimulated researchers and industries to use sustainable fibers instead of conventional synthetic fibers. Besides exceptionally brilliant mechanical and physical properties are also attractive aspects of natural fibers enabling the utilization of natural fibers in myriad of textile and non-textile applications such as clothing, and reinforced composite products in various industries such as automotive, building, and furniture. Natural fiber composites are composite materials comprising of reinforcing fibers derived from renewable and carbon dioxide neutral resources such as wood or plants. NFCs find application in molded articles that demand moderate strength for acceptable performance for various indoor and outdoor applications. A rapid drift from oil-derived polymers and mineral-reinforced materials to sustainable alternatives has fostered automotive and packaging industries to start utilizing natural fiber composites in their designs. Accordingly, natural fiber composites are serving as energy efficient and sustainable alternatives replacing traditional materials such as metals, polymeric resins, and reinforcement fibers. A worldwide clamor for green products and thus upsurge in sustainable alternatives have been witnessed as a result of diminishing petroleum reserves worldwide, exorbitant prices of petroleum, and high disposal costs of petroleum-based composites along with inability of decomposition of some petroleum-based composites. Contrastingly, natural materials outshine the petroleum-based products in being renewable, inexpensive, biodegradable, and eco-friendly.",book:{id:"11122",title:"Natural Fiber",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11122.jpg"},signatures:"Yamini Jhanji Dhir"},{id:"82948",title:"Study on Miniaturization of Antenna Using Metamaterials",slug:"study-on-miniaturization-of-antenna-using-metamaterials",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106222",abstract:"Metamaterials (MTMs) are artificially built materials intended to give its properties from the internal structure, rather than the chemical composition found in natural materials. Electric permittivity (ε) and magnetic permeability (μ) are the two basic parameters which describe the electromagnetic property of a material or medium. Permittivity describes how a material is affected when it is placed in electric field. And permeability describes how a material is affected in presence of magnetic field. Metamaterials may have either negative permittivity or permeability or both may be negative simultaneously. The concept of metamaterials has additionally been utilized to design different kinds of patches with upgraded performance, such as improved gain and enhanced efficiency. Also, it has been utilized for the scaling down of patches. Two parameters are utilized in the collected works for antennas using metamaterials. We can adjust the refractive index of the metamaterial to positive, near-zero or negative values. Utilization of epsilon negative, MNG (μ - Mu negative) or DNG (double negative) are called metamaterial- based antennas and the use of metamaterial unit cell for example complementary split ring resonator, split ring resonator and so on are alluded as metamaterial inspired antennas. The design of complementary split ring resonator and its equivalent circuit will be discussed in this work. CSRR (complementary split ring resonator) provides both isolation enhancement and miniaturization for MIMO antenna.",book:{id:"11824",title:"Metamaterials - History, Current State, Applications, and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11824.jpg"},signatures:"Andrews Christina Josephine Malathi"},{id:"83080",title:"Boron Doping in Next-Generation Materials for Semiconductor Device",slug:"boron-doping-in-next-generation-materials-for-semiconductor-device",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106450",abstract:"The article surveys the most recent achievements starting with the boron doping mechanism, mainly focused on doping in semiconductor materials such as Si, Ge, graphene, carbon nanotube, or other 2D materials. Frequently used doping methodologies are discussed, including ion implantation and solid-phase doping, mainly focused on recent developing techniques of monolayer doping. These doped materials’ structural, electronic, and chemical properties are addressed to understand the boron doping effect better. Theoretical and experimental information and data are used to support such atomic-level effects. Therefore, this review can provide valuable suggestions and guidelines for materials’ properties manipulation by boron doping for further research exploration.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Linh Chi T. Cao, Luqman Hakim and Shu-Han Hsu"},{id:"83055",title:"Boron Clusters in Biomedical Applications: A Theoretical Viewpoint",slug:"boron-clusters-in-biomedical-applications-a-theoretical-viewpoint",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106215",abstract:"In this chapter, we presented an analysis of the recent advances in the applications of boron clusters in biomedical fields such as the development of biosensors and drug delivery systems on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. Biosensors play an essential role in many sectors, e.g., law enforcement agencies for sensing illicit drugs, medical communities for detecting overdosed medications from human and animal bodies, etc. The drug delivery systems have theoretically been proposed for many years and subsequently implemented by experiments to deliver the drug to the targeted sites by reducing the harmful side effects significantly. Boron clusters form a rich and colorful family of atomic clusters due to their unconventional structures and bonding phenomena. Boron clusters and their complexes have various biological activities such as the drug delivery, imaging for diagnosis, treatment of cancer, and probe of protein-biomolecular interactions. For all of these reactivities, the interaction mechanisms and the corresponding energetics between biomaterials and boron clusters are of essential importance as a basic step in the understanding, and thereby design of relevant materials. During the past few years, attempts have been made to probe the nature of these interactions using quantum chemical calculations mainly with density functional theory (DFT) methods. This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical viewpoint on this issue.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Ehsan Shakerzadeh, Elham Tahmasebi, Long Van Duong and Minh Tho Nguyen"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83035",title:"Breaking the Property Trade-Offs by Using Entropic Conceptions",slug:"breaking-the-property-trade-offs-by-using-entropic-conceptions",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106532",abstract:"Entropic conception has been used as an effective strategy for developing materials to break the property recordings of current materials, for example, breaking the trade-off between the high-strength and low-ductility structural alloys. The performance of materials usually under a complex circumstance, a balance of multiple properties, for example, combined the high-strength, high ductility, high conductivity, high corrosion resistance, high irradiation resistance, etc., the strategy of high-entropy-alloy (HEA) will provide a materials design and development technology to realize the goal. Magnetic materials usually exhibit excellent magnetic properties but weak mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. 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