Linear regression of data from [17], with goodness-of-fit. The regression curves for electric potential (V/cm) and time (min) were both forced through zero.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7831",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book has been prepared to embody the major and efficient applications of the different duties and the role of sustainability in urban planning and design, by a new reading of the city structure and composition, as well as offering a solid and clear concept for this kind of science. The book aims to illustrate various theories and methods of the treatment of the modern ideas of metropolitan life. The book is divided into two parts and contains 23 chapters.",isbn:"978-1-83880-352-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-351-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-414-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77648",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",numberOfPages:478,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",publishedDate:"December 16th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17607,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:65,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 29th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110471/images/system/110471.png",biography:"Prof. Amjad Almusaed has a Ph.D. in Architecture (Environmental Design) from Ion Mincu University, Bucharest, Romania. He completed postdoctoral research in 2004 on sustainable and bioclimatic houses at the School of Architecture, Aarhus, Denmark. His research expertise is sustainability in architecture and urban planning and design. He has carried out a great deal of research and technical survey work and has performed several studies in these areas. He has edited many international books and is an active member of many worldwide architectural associations. He has published more than 170 international academic works (papers, research, books, and book chapters) in different languages.",institutionString:"Jönköping University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Jönköping University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"194040",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asaad",middleName:null,surname:"Almssad",slug:"asaad-almssad",fullName:"Asaad Almssad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194040/images/system/194040.jpg",biography:"Associate Prof. Asaad Almssad has more than thirty years of experience in industry, academia, and research at Umeå University, Sweden; Karlstad University, Sweden; and various European and non-European institutions. His research focuses on building structures, materials, sustainable building, and energy efficiency in building systems. He has authored and co-authored more than fifty research papers and many books. Currently, he is employed as a docent at Karlstad University.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"188308",title:"Dr.",name:"Linh",middleName:null,surname:"Truong - Hong",slug:"linh-truong-hong",fullName:"Linh Truong - Hong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188308/images/system/188308.jpg",biography:"Dr. Linh Truong-Hong is a researcher at the Department of Geoscience & Remote Sensing, the Delft University of Technology after he finished a Marie Curie Fellowship at the same Department. He obtained BEng. and MEng. from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and a Ph.D. degree from University College Dublin. He was a senior researcher at University College Dublin (2013-2018) after finishing his post-doctoral research at the Dublin Institute of Technology (2011-2013). His research interests are to develop integrated frameworks to deploy LiDAR and Photogrammetry in 3D objection reconstruction and change detection for infrastructure inspection and assessment, construction management, and a smart city. Dr. Truong-Hong has published more than 60 scientific papers (with a total citation +1300) and filed 2 patents. His research activity has been recognized through 6 peer-reviewed international awards. His research projects were recently funded by Ireland and European Research Council.",institutionString:"University College Dublin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"871",title:"Urban Ecology",slug:"urban-ecology"}],chapters:[{id:"70567",title:"City Phenomenon between Urban Structure and Composition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90443",slug:"city-phenomenon-between-urban-structure-and-composition",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cities are not just a sum of buildings, but especially a set of social relations that their inhabitants develop. Cities are characterized by a wide variety of social groups and lifestyles. An urban composition represents a form of the city in which it gets a formal order, so that the shape of any urban ensemble is not linked to a random phenomenon, but to an intervention mastered and understood as such. For the city, the urban composition represents what the architectural composition represents for a building. This concept regarding the composition is common both to the architecture and to the city. The main property of the composition is that it transforms a possibly dispersed ensemble into a whole, resolving the contradictions that arise when the requirements and conditions of the project are numerous. Spatial forms and urban compositions are built over time, longer than that of architectural composition. On the other hand, “design of the urban environment” is understood by us as a complex formation of public spaces of the city, located on the ground floor level of the city building and ensuring the vital activity of the urban community. This chapter will study the city phenomenon on a large scale.",signatures:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70567",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70567",authors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"},{id:"194040",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asaad",surname:"Almssad",slug:"asaad-almssad",fullName:"Asaad Almssad"}],corrections:null},{id:"69045",title:"Future Planning of Global South Cities with Inclusive Informal Economic Growth in Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89145",slug:"future-planning-of-global-south-cities-with-inclusive-informal-economic-growth-in-perspective",totalDownloads:884,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current urbanization trends and projections clearly indicate that the global South cities, especially of Asia and Africa, would be at the receiving end of about 80% of the expected 2.7 billion increase in urban population between 2010 and 2050. These trends and projections make it imperative for the future planning of the global South cities to step out of the box, away from the traditional planning systems, and begin to adopt inclusive and innovative planning approaches that would efficiently tackle the current and emerging urban realities in these cities rather than sticking to rigid planning standards that ignore realities, generate continuous conflict, and fail to take advantage of the potentials of these urbanization consequences, especially the resilient informal economy. The chapter examines the urbanization trends and one of its major challenges in global South cities; informal economic activities, the planning implications of these informal economic activities, various approaches that have been adopted by different governments and the effectiveness or otherwise of the approaches in tackling the challenges of informal economy. The chapter also focuses on the successful planning approaches that have been implemented with a view to portraying the key lessons that can ensure its applicability in other global South cities facing similar challenges.",signatures:"Vincent Aghaegbunam Onodugo and Nkeiru Hope Ezeadichie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69045",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69045",authors:[{id:"304471",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",surname:"Onodugo",slug:"vincent-onodugo",fullName:"Vincent Onodugo"},{id:"304742",title:"MSc.",name:"Nkeiru",surname:"Ezeadichie",slug:"nkeiru-ezeadichie",fullName:"Nkeiru Ezeadichie"}],corrections:null},{id:"70410",title:"New Metrics for Spatial and Temporal 3D Urban Form Sustainability Assessment Using Time Series Lidar Point Clouds and Advanced GIS Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89617",slug:"new-metrics-for-spatial-and-temporal-3d-urban-form-sustainability-assessment-using-time-series-lidar",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Monitoring sustainability of urban form as a 3D phenomenon over time is crucial in the era of smart cities for better planning of the future, and for such a monitoring system, appropriate tools, metrics, methodologies and time series 3D data are required. While accurate time series 3D data are becoming available, a lack of 3D sustainable urban form (3D SUF) metrics, appropriate methodologies and technical problems of processing time series 3D data has resulted in few studies on the assessment of 3D SUF over time. In this chapter, we review volumetric building metrics currently under development and demonstrate the technical problems associated with their validation based on time series airborne lidar data. We propose new metrics for application in spatial and temporal 3D SUF assessment. We also suggest a new approach in processing time series airborne lidar to detect three-dimensional changes of urban form. Using this approach and the developed metrics, we detected a decreased volume of vegetation and new areas prepared for the construction of taller buildings. These 3D changes and the proposed metrics can be used to numerically measure and compare urban areas in terms of trends against or in favor of sustainability goals for caring for the environment.",signatures:"Sara Shirowzhan, John Trinder and Paul Osmond",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70410",authors:[{id:"267958",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Trinder",slug:"john-trinder",fullName:"John Trinder"},{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan"},{id:"295989",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Osmond",slug:"paul-osmond",fullName:"Paul Osmond"}],corrections:null},{id:"69098",title:"Reshaped Urban Mobility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89211",slug:"reshaped-urban-mobility",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The application of novel solutions in vehicle and information technologies and the need for sustainability result in significant change in urban mobility. Moreover, autonomous vehicles (AVs) are expected to contribute to this alteration as well. The mobility is considered not only a single trip from A to B anymore but a comprehensive service. Shared and demand-driven services are more and more available besides traditional transportation modes. Modes are presented, evaluated, and compared, giving a realistic scenario for upcoming changes and opportunities. The development of the passenger transportation system requires an integrated approach considering user expectations. It is facilitated by the concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), in which improvement of the quality has higher relevance than before. The impacts of the alteration are also summarized.",signatures:"Csaba Csiszár, Dávid Földes and Yinying He",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69098",authors:[{id:"308328",title:"Dr.",name:"Dávid",surname:"Földes",slug:"david-foldes",fullName:"Dávid Földes"},{id:"308329",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",surname:"Csiszár",slug:"csaba-csiszar",fullName:"Csaba Csiszár"},{id:"308330",title:"MSc.",name:"Yinying",surname:"He",slug:"yinying-he",fullName:"Yinying He"}],corrections:null},{id:"69305",title:"Improving Feature Map Quality of SOM Based on Adjusting the Neighborhood Function",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89233",slug:"improving-feature-map-quality-of-som-based-on-adjusting-the-neighborhood-function",totalDownloads:753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a study on improving the quality of the self-organizing map (SOM). We have synthesized the relevant research on assessing and improving the quality of SOM in recent years, and then proposed a solution to improve the quality of the feature map by adjusting parameters of the Gaussian neighborhood function. We have used quantization error and topographical error to evaluate the quality of the obtained feature map. The experiment was conducted on 12 published datasets and compared the obtained results with some other improving neighborhood function methods. The proposed method received the feature map with better quality than other solutions.",signatures:"Le Anh Tu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69305",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69305",authors:[{id:"303676",title:"Dr.",name:"Le Anh",surname:"Tu",slug:"le-anh-tu",fullName:"Le Anh Tu"}],corrections:null},{id:"68301",title:"Procedure to Prepare and Model Speed Data Considering the Traffic Infrastructure, as Part of a Cyber-Physical System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88280",slug:"procedure-to-prepare-and-model-speed-data-considering-the-traffic-infrastructure-as-part-of-a-cyber-",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter investigates the relationship between traffic control infrastructure (traffic lights and speed bumps) and the vehicles’ travel speeds, for certain hours and days of the week. The authors propose the following procedures: (1) street segmentation, (2) clustering and categorization of speed data, (3) histograms’ comparison analysis, (4) outlier detection, (5) modeling, and (6) delivering info to the users. Comparing speed histograms, segments with matching infrastructure presented similarities, regardless of the day of the week. Two techniques to model data were employed: polynomial regression and multinomial logistic regression. The algorithms to predict the travel speed category were also developed. The first technique yields on average 91.3% of data categorized correctly, and the second gets 90.09%. The traffic lights and speed bumps, located on the street segments under consideration, were identified as variables causing different travel speeds. The procedure allows to incorporate more traffic elements and can also be applied to other geographical locations.",signatures:"José Gerardo Carrillo-González, Jacobo Sandoval-Gutiérrez and Francisco Pérez-Martínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68301",authors:[{id:"305883",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose Gerardo",surname:"Carrillo Gonzalez",slug:"jose-gerardo-carrillo-gonzalez",fullName:"Jose Gerardo Carrillo Gonzalez"},{id:"306840",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo",surname:"Sandoval Gutiérrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",fullName:"Jacobo Sandoval Gutiérrez"},{id:"306841",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Pérez Martínez",slug:"francisco-perez-martinez",fullName:"Francisco Pérez Martínez"}],corrections:null},{id:"69685",title:"The Role of Public Spaces in Small Municipality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89881",slug:"the-role-of-public-spaces-in-small-municipality",totalDownloads:652,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Public spaces are a subspace of municipality space: they are its physical type, closely linked to permanent settlements, especially to cities. There are both social communication and movement of people, things and goods. These are classic, usually architecturally designed spaces between buildings: squares, agora, streets and parks. Public spaces in small municipalities have been crucial to the functioning of the community, their social, historically, and also economic life. In various types of rural municipalities, the function and formation of public spaces have changed over the course of history, often in relation to the geographical location of the municipality in terms of location or local conditions and customs. Nowadays, the tourist attraction of the place is also an important driving element in the form of public spaces. This chapter should show how public spaces have changed over time using examples of different types of municipalities and show examples of good and somewhat worse care for them.",signatures:"Jana Moravcová, Jiri Pecenka, Denisa Pekna, Vendula Moravcova and Nikola Novakova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69685",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69685",authors:[{id:"181059",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jana",surname:"Moravcová",slug:"jana-moravcova",fullName:"Jana Moravcová"},{id:"181580",title:"Mr.",name:"Jiri",surname:"Pecenka",slug:"jiri-pecenka",fullName:"Jiri Pecenka"},{id:"223949",title:"Mrs.",name:"Denisa",surname:"Pekna",slug:"denisa-pekna",fullName:"Denisa Pekna"},{id:"223950",title:"Ms.",name:"Nikola",surname:"Novakova",slug:"nikola-novakova",fullName:"Nikola Novakova"},{id:"223951",title:"Ms.",name:"Vendula",surname:"Moravcova",slug:"vendula-moravcova",fullName:"Vendula Moravcova"}],corrections:null},{id:"69862",title:"Retracted: Lessons From the Past, Visions for the Future: Generative Creating of Sacral Space in the Urban Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89330",slug:"retracted-lessons-from-the-past-visions-for-the-future-generative-creating-of-sacral-space-in-the-ur",totalDownloads:315,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Balts’ tribes for cult rituals chose energetically powerful places as Lielvārde located on the right bank of the Daugava River. An integral part of the existence of humanity are symbols. The Latvians have one of the most complicated symbolic sign systems in the world—the Lielvārde belt included symbols of strong energy and encoded ancient information that characterizes the special relation to Nature, the World and the Universe. The creation of sacral space and religious ritual is connected by concepts the Place, the Way and the Symbol. In a generative process, the main procedure is to identify a performing aim as a character. Poetic logic is the generative art of connection between a past and a future time. Now on an island on the Daugava River, there is a place near Koknese where the past, the present and the future of the nation merge to give solace to the past, strength to the present and inspiration to follow your dream in the future. Landscape artist Shunmyō Masuno from Japan has visualized the Garden of Destiny, which is an architectural ensemble of monumental landscapes that has been shaped as the metamorphosis of the choir suite and symbolizes eternity.",signatures:"Silvija Ozola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69862",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69514",title:"Human-Centered Approaches in Urban Analytics and Placemaking",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89675",slug:"human-centered-approaches-in-urban-analytics-and-placemaking",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Planning for resilience and enabling positive design outcomes require combinatory methods of working with data, in order to assist decision-makers to develop evidence-based methodologies and to communicate new knowledge. The staggering rise of technology and the integration of data-aided analysis tools in urban planning not only facilitates our understanding of socioeconomic flux but also attempts to actively involve users to participate in the creation of environments that are responsive and appropriate to their needs. This chapter aims to contribute to the discourse on user involvement in design-oriented fields, and specifically in urban planning, by analyzing two different approaches of user participatory design, those of indirect and direct participation.",signatures:"Eleanna Panagoulia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69514",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69514",authors:[{id:"302797",title:"M.A.",name:"Eleanna",surname:"Panagoulia",slug:"eleanna-panagoulia",fullName:"Eleanna Panagoulia"}],corrections:null},{id:"73079",title:"Urban Sprawl",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92383",slug:"urban-sprawl",totalDownloads:570,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Swift progress in urban areas can pilot to urban sprawl, where new components are urbanized around the external boundaries of urban areas, frequently taking up important farmland. Many tenants want better residence, comfortable space, and calm and safe environment, which they discover in the new suburban growth far separate from the center of the city. This kind of expansion requires the addition of utilities and the transport network, as well as the precautions of services such as education, amusement, medical facilities, and commercial services. A number of Indian cities, for example, have a “Delhi,” a “Mumbai,” and other cultural-based communities that reflect our multi-cultural people. Historical information said, many Indian immigrants who lived in these neighborhoods were poorly treated and subject to racism and discrimination by the general people. Urbanization is a truth of life in most cities in India and around the world.",signatures:"Balamurugan Paramasivam and Illanthirayan Arumugavelu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73079",authors:[{id:"316721",title:"Dr.",name:"Balamurugan",surname:"Paramasivam",slug:"balamurugan-paramasivam",fullName:"Balamurugan Paramasivam"},{id:"319498",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugavelu",surname:"Illanthirayan",slug:"arumugavelu-illanthirayan",fullName:"Arumugavelu Illanthirayan"}],corrections:null},{id:"71047",title:"Toward Practical Criteria for Analyzing and Designing Urban Blocks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90504",slug:"toward-practical-criteria-for-analyzing-and-designing-urban-blocks",totalDownloads:844,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The streets, blocks, lots, and buildings are the main elements of cities’ texture. Surrounded by streets and surrounding the buildings, urban blocks invariably interact with these components dialectically, in that it can connect the network of streets and buildings, hence its significance in urban design. However, affected by unsound formal and spatial changes of urban forms in modern and postmodern eras, space coherence reduction led to a loss of blocks’ identity. Therefore, we can barely find a comprehensive functional tool structured on a solid understanding to design this very component of the urban morphology. In this regard, this study seeks to define a practical tool for analyzing and designing this crucial element developing an operational, yet expandable, checklist for urban blocks including various factors, from concepts to indices. All these factors are classified under three main concepts: spatial balance, spatial continuity and integration, and durability. In fact, as a primitive step, this research can enable urban designers to understand urban blocks more effectively and use the framework to assess the current situation and design the future.",signatures:"Amir Shakibamanesh and Bita Ebrahimi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71047",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71047",authors:[{id:"314377",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",surname:"Shakibamanesh",slug:"amir-shakibamanesh",fullName:"Amir Shakibamanesh"},{id:"314378",title:"MSc.",name:"Bita",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"bita-ebrahimi",fullName:"Bita Ebrahimi"}],corrections:null},{id:"69101",title:"Adaptive Governance as an Avenue for Delivering Public Purpose in the Wake of Financialization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89270",slug:"adaptive-governance-as-an-avenue-for-delivering-public-purpose-in-the-wake-of-financialization",totalDownloads:535,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The demand for infrastructure and utility services is an acute challenge for countries in middle- and low-income countries undergoing high levels of urbanization, demographic shifts, and civil and political reorganization. The demand for utilities occurs alongside a trend toward increased financialization of the local state. A challenge for meeting demand for utility services is the shift toward increased financialization where the delivery of public purpose is challenged. This chapter aims to highlight governing arrangements that aid in understanding how public purpose can be delivered through utilities using the case study of Medellin, Colombia. Through examples of public infrastructure projects and the delivery of water by its utility-company, Empresas Publicas de Medellin, the paper discusses how this company achieved alignment of essential services with public purpose through adaptive governance structures that mitigate adverse effects of financialization and promote the integration of economic, environmental, and social goals. While this case does not propose a transferable model of governance, it highlights arrangements that enable a more mixed, adaptive, and nuanced understanding of how adverse effects associated with total financialization might be abated.",signatures:"Corina Shika Kwami and Nick Tyler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69101",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69101",authors:[{id:"303407",title:"Dr.",name:"Corina Shika",surname:"Kwami",slug:"corina-shika-kwami",fullName:"Corina Shika Kwami"},{id:"304198",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Tyler",slug:"nick-tyler",fullName:"Nick Tyler"}],corrections:null},{id:"70065",title:"Sustainable Design in Urban Green Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90026",slug:"sustainable-design-in-urban-green-space",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As a fundamental part of the urban function, urban green space faced a long-term maintenance requirement. The maintenance of urban green space (i.e., trimming, irrigation, fertilization, pesticide, and plant waste removal) can have environmental impacts, such as energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. This chapter focuses on the adjustment of the plant communities’ combinations in urban green space to reduce the environmental impacts in long-term maintenance. The plant communities in urban green spaces are a combination of four plant layers: woodland, shrubs, herbicides, and grassland. In this chapter, we will start to investigate the environmental impacts in the maintenance of urban green space. Then we introduced the quantitative method life cycle assessment (LCA), to quantify the environmental impacts of the maintenance tasks. We analyzed the maintenance environmental impact (MEI) index of 95 plant community samples (20 m × 20 m) in Zhengzhou (China) through LCA and sorted out the changing curves of the MEI index during the change of the combined amount in each plant layers. Finally, we sorted out the MEI strength of the plant layers and summarized the low MEI plant community model. The low MEI model can save energy consumption and GHG emissions of the maintenance tasks, to contribute to the sustainable development of the urban green space.",signatures:"Ning Li and Yang Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70065",authors:[{id:"306585",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",surname:"Liu",slug:"yang-liu",fullName:"Yang Liu"},{id:"312405",title:"Prof.",name:"Ning",surname:"Li",slug:"ning-li",fullName:"Ning Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"67130",title:"Urban Planning Using a Geospatial Approach: A Case Study of Libya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86355",slug:"urban-planning-using-a-geospatial-approach-a-case-study-of-libya",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Large scale developmental projects firstly require the selection of one or more cities to be developed. In Libya, the selection process is done by selected organizations, which is highly influenced by human judgement that can be inconsiderate of socioeconomic and environmental factors. In this study, we propose an automated selection process, which takes into consideration only the important factors for city (cities) selection. Specifically, a geospatial decision-making tool, free of human bias, is proposed based on the fuzzy overlay (FO) and technique for order performance by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) techniques for development projects in Libya. In this work, a dataset of 17 evaluation criteria (GIS factors) across five urban conditioning factors were prepared. The dataset served as input to the FO model to calculate weights (importance) for each criterion. A support vector machine (SVM) classifier was then trained to refine weights from the FO model. TOPSIS was then applied on the refined results to rank the cities for development. Experimental results indicate promising overall accuracy and kappa statistics. Our findings also show that highest and lowest success rates are 0.94 and 0.79, respectively, while highest and lowest prediction rates are 0.884 and 0.673, respectively.",signatures:"Bahareh Kalantar, Husam A.H. Al-najjar, Hossein Mojaddadi Rizeei, Maruwan S.A.B. Amazeeq, Mohammed Oludare Idrees, Alfian Abdul Halin and Shattri Mansor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67130",authors:[{id:"267005",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahareh",surname:"Kalantar",slug:"bahareh-kalantar",fullName:"Bahareh Kalantar"},{id:"267007",title:"Mr.",name:"Maruwan",surname:"Salih Abu Bakr Amazeeq",slug:"maruwan-salih-abu-bakr-amazeeq",fullName:"Maruwan Salih Abu Bakr Amazeeq"},{id:"267009",title:"Prof.",name:"Shattri",surname:"Manosr",slug:"shattri-manosr",fullName:"Shattri Manosr"},{id:"278529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Oludare",surname:"Idrees",slug:"mohammed-oludare-idrees",fullName:"Mohammed Oludare Idrees"},{id:"278534",title:"Mr.",name:"Husam",surname:"Abdulrasool H. Al-Najjar",slug:"husam-abdulrasool-h.-al-najjar",fullName:"Husam Abdulrasool H. Al-Najjar"},{id:"282942",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossein",surname:"Mojaddadi Rizeei",slug:"hossein-mojaddadi-rizeei",fullName:"Hossein Mojaddadi Rizeei"}],corrections:null},{id:"72059",title:"Digital Urban Administration Model for a Traditional City (Case Study of Ibadan, Nigeria)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92125",slug:"digital-urban-administration-model-for-a-traditional-city-case-study-of-ibadan-nigeria-",totalDownloads:414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Urban administration has been a challenge in the developing economy especially in historical traditional settlements. Growth of these cities often outstrips the capacities of urban managers to administer urban systems coupled with the fact that developments in the older parts and new areas require different strategies. Therefore it is often recommended that digital technologies be adopted to enhance administration of old and new areas in urban settings. The chapter evaluated the challenges of urban administration in Ibadan city, Nigeria from colonial period to recent urban planning systems. It advanced a model of municipal administration in a digital platform for efficient management of Ibadan city. The model is also applicable to any similar cities in the developing economy. The model recommended a replacement paper and maps approach administration to digital approach. The chapter highlighted the deficiency of the current paper and map approach and advanced efficient approach through digital technologies.",signatures:"Oluseyi O. Fabiyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72059",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72059",authors:[{id:"312883",title:"Prof.",name:"Oluseyi",surname:"Fabiyi",slug:"oluseyi-fabiyi",fullName:"Oluseyi Fabiyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70425",title:"The Rise and Decline of Car Use in Beijing and Shanghai",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90130",slug:"the-rise-and-decline-of-car-use-in-beijing-and-shanghai",totalDownloads:743,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Chinese cities have primarily evolved around walking, bicycling and public transport with their dense, linear form and mixed land use. The recent urban growth spurt has involved private motorisation, but because of land constraints and not fearing urban density, as in Anglo-Saxon cities, the same dense urbanism has been maintained. This means that automobiles do not easily fit into this traditional fabric and especially the historic walking fabric. Issues like congestion and air quality have become major constraints to further growth. Using Beijing and Shanghai as case studies, the next phase of urban and transport development now appears to be to reduce car use with the dramatic growth in urban rail as in most developed cities in the twenty-first century. This decoupling of car use from economic growth is consistent with other developed cities but is a first for emerging cities, hence the paper aims to explain this pattern from the cultural, political and especially urban fabric perspectives. The application to other Chinese cities and emerging cities is now possible following Beijing and Shanghai’s lead.",signatures:"Yuan Gao, Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70425",authors:[{id:"282103",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan",surname:"Gao",slug:"yuan-gao",fullName:"Yuan Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"72353",title:"Exploring the Prescriptive and Descriptive Lost Space in the Setting of Urban Fabrics of Kuala Lumpur",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89907",slug:"exploring-the-prescriptive-and-descriptive-lost-space-in-the-setting-of-urban-fabrics-of-kuala-lumpu",totalDownloads:756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the tension of urban uniformity and environmental setting, what emerges in most patterns of use in the city is lost space that usually ignored as insignificant. They emerge as if by accident during the design process, sometimes, the result of negligence or simply a feature of time flow in the city. To understand the phenomenon of lost space, this research seeks to identify the prescriptive and descriptive character of lost space from the local perception in Kuala Lumpur. This research also investigates the varied forces, circumstances, and the mechanisms that are responsible for their production. A qualitative analysis is made on selected parameters in the theory of lost space, activities, accessibility, connectivity, maintenance, and design. The result indicates that there were various new perceptions of descriptive lost space includes economic and social activity as these are an important strategy for maintaining the vitality and robustness of urban space. It is proposed in this paper the need of tools and effective ways of (re)designing a space to be applied in a new context and can act as a resource for urban life by hosting the intervention or alternative uses.",signatures:"Nurul Shakila Khalid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72353",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72353",authors:[{id:"306584",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nurul Shakila",surname:"Khalid",slug:"nurul-shakila-khalid",fullName:"Nurul Shakila Khalid"},{id:"306586",title:"Ms.",name:"Sabirah",surname:"Hilal",slug:"sabirah-hilal",fullName:"Sabirah Hilal"}],corrections:null},{id:"71196",title:"Integrated Approach towards Participatory Development of Urban Neighborhood Spaces: Chennai, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90832",slug:"integrated-approach-towards-participatory-development-of-urban-neighborhood-spaces-chennai-india",totalDownloads:708,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The social living of the urban households depends on the physical manifestation of spaces arranged to carry out their day-to-day activities of members including children, adult, women, men, old age, and differently able persons. Urban neighborhoods undergo changes in the spaces in house and building, places in a locality, and the overall built form. The city spaces experience transformation in the house spaces and common places, and the built form experienced the residential character change towards commercial and other nonresidential uses in the neighborhood. The impact of the spatial transformation demands to make redevelopment strategies to resolve the conflict between residential and commercial spaces in the neighborhood. So, the need for an integrated approach towards “Participatory Redevelopment” (PRD) of the urban neighborhood becomes a challenge for the city planners. The new planning model on PRD as an integrated approach developed by the author is followed in the redevelopment project hosted by the Corporation of Chennai. The PRD approach used “C-TC-C” model to follow participation as “Collective-Target Centered-Collective”. The PRD adopts the approach called the five-pillar system (FPS). These aspects are the main focus of this chapter within the context of T. Nagar, a residential neighborhood transforming into a busy retail commercial market area and residential living and parking spaces situated in the midst of Chennai City, the capital of the Tamil Nadu State in India.",signatures:"Abdul Razak Mohamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71196",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71196",authors:[{id:"306597",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abdul Razak",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"abdul-razak-mohamed",fullName:"Abdul Razak Mohamed"}],corrections:null},{id:"70224",title:"Assessing the Urban Design Quality of Turkish Cities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89779",slug:"assessing-the-urban-design-quality-of-turkish-cities",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The common characteristic of qualified urban spaces is that they offer an environment enriched with livability criteria, protecting and maintaining the elements of identity and offering flexibility and diversity compatible with the current conditions. Nowadays, the first condition of creating such qualified/successful urban spaces is to reflect the “urban design” processes on the urban spaces. Therefore, the present study aims to discuss the “urban design” quality (the level of success) of the Turkish cities shaped within the scope of urban plans. This discussion was performed using the urban design criteria determining and assessing the actors, which play an effective and relevant role in urban design and planning processes. The fuzzy multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method was used. By making use of the results of the present study, the conditions influencing the urban design aspect were re-discussed via current state analysis, and the foundation for a general assessment about the urban design quality of Turkish cities was established.",signatures:"Umut Doğan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70224",authors:[{id:"283474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Umut",surname:"Doğan",slug:"umut-dogan",fullName:"Umut Doğan"}],corrections:null},{id:"69561",title:"Jamaican Universities Aiding the Design of an Urban Public Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89448",slug:"jamaican-universities-aiding-the-design-of-an-urban-public-space",totalDownloads:593,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many governments are actively seeking solutions to address the economic crises bedeviling their countries. University/college towns have proven to be successful models of opportunities for attracting investments for economic development while at the same time promoting optimal health outcomes. Harvard, MIT and Newcastle universities provide examples of successful models of universities aiding in spatial design and planning of towns or neighborhoods where they are located to yield sustainable development. The Government of Jamaica has supported the proposal from the University of Technology, Jamaica, (UTech, Jamaica Ja.) to redesign the Papine area in St. Andrew into a university town, given its proximity to the two largest universities in Jamaica, UTech, Ja. and the University of the West Indies (UWI). Both institutions collaborated by using cutting-edge scholarly research and design approaches to propose workable solutions that can promote economic development and healthy lifestyle in an area designated as a university town. The research found that SOPARC was a feasible and reliable instrument for assessing park user variables and associated contextual variables. However, for the proposed design to be executed and maintained, the study recommends establishing a body such as a University District/Town Council with oversight responsibility for planning and land use management of the area.",signatures:"Carol Archer, Colette Cunningham-Myrie, Nadine Freeman-Prince, Marvin Reid, Brian Williams and Tamika Royal Thomas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69561",authors:[{id:"258764",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",surname:"Archer",slug:"carol-archer",fullName:"Carol Archer"},{id:"309045",title:"Prof.",name:"Marvin",surname:"Reid",slug:"marvin-reid",fullName:"Marvin Reid"},{id:"309046",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadine",surname:"Freeman-Prince",slug:"nadine-freeman-prince",fullName:"Nadine Freeman-Prince"},{id:"309686",title:"Mr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Williams",slug:"brian-williams",fullName:"Brian Williams"}],corrections:null},{id:"67907",title:"Approaching Urban Design through the Analysis of Structural Differences within Three Neighborhood Typologies in Basra City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87221",slug:"approaching-urban-design-through-the-analysis-of-structural-differences-within-three-neighborhood-ty",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recognizing the importance of physical environments as a major product of an urban design process for the livability of the built environment, this study focuses on urban planning and design characteristics within three different neighborhood typologies of Basra City. The aim of the study is to support future urban developments in the city based on evidences from the association between the current qualities of neighborhood design and the computed walking minutes of residents. These characteristics are determined from reviewed literature in urban design as reliable physical environmental perceived or objectively measured qualities. The methodology of this study describes four steps of analysis such as: (1) the use of the cadastral maps of the case studies as a source of raw information for objective measurement; (2) the use of objective and subjective measures as defining indicators that are utilized from previous studies; (3) the application of defined indicators for the selected neighborhoods through a comparative analysis; and (4) the conducting of statistical analysis to reveal the influence of the defined indicators on the walking. The findings of this study have led to conclusions on the importance of design attributes to future master planning of neighborhoods especially those of the traditional neighborhood, such as the Al-Saymmar neighborhood in Basra city.",signatures:"Qaaid Al-Saraify and David Grierson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67907",authors:[{id:"302327",title:"Dr.",name:"Qaaid",surname:"Al-Saraify",slug:"qaaid-al-saraify",fullName:"Qaaid Al-Saraify"},{id:"302328",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Grierson",slug:"david-grierson",fullName:"David Grierson"}],corrections:null},{id:"68452",title:"Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88599",slug:"lessons-from-baghdad-city-conformation-and-essence",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter aims to address the emergence of Baghdad and the phases of its morphology and transformation. The first era began with the Round City; this originated the first nucleus that later formed Baghdad. The historical parts of most Middle Eastern old cities usually occupy polar places in relation to the rest of their city zones. These historical centres can give a city its own identity and embody exceptional urban assets, if carefully maintained and managed. In this chapter, there are two significant periods, the Abbasid Empire and post-Abbasid Empire. One of the main concerns is the conflict between two trends, old fabric as a traditional pattern and modern thoughts and, consequently, how that could affect in formulating the development plan.",signatures:"Haider J.E. Al-Saaidy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68452",authors:[{id:"304091",title:"Dr.",name:"Haider",surname:"Al-Saaidy",slug:"haider-al-saaidy",fullName:"Haider Al-Saaidy"}],corrections:null},{id:"72713",title:"Urban Social Sustainability - Case Study; Gellerupparken–Denmark",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93124",slug:"urban-social-sustainability-case-study-gellerupparken-denmark",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Urban social sustainability represents a more specific part of urban development. Citizen involvement is a vital element of any future urban social development and helps to maintain the vision of human and diverse cities because it provides vibrant and sustainable cities in which everyone has a seat and can speak. Gellerupparken, as something new, also meets all five criteria for when an area is a ghetto during a given year. The criteria generally consist of income, ethnic origin, level of education, crime, and employment. The study’s aim is to present an objective means, to the reactivation of a passive multicultural zone in Aarhus city of Denmark to integrate it in the social life city by using the appreciative inquiry method by an introduction of new city functions. The study will assume the effect of sustainability in an urban social area, in a case study using the application of the pedagogical method, namely, the “appreciative inquiry” method.",signatures:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72713",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72713",authors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"},{id:"194040",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asaad",surname:"Almssad",slug:"asaad-almssad",fullName:"Asaad Almssad"}],corrections:null},{id:"69440",title:"Urban Design, Space Economy and Survival in the City: Exploring Women’s World of Work in Kumasi, Ghana",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89673",slug:"urban-design-space-economy-and-survival-in-the-city-exploring-women-s-world-of-work-in-kumasi-ghana",totalDownloads:372,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The nature of urban economic design in Kumasi, Ghana, is often reflective of neoliberal economic policies prescribed by Bretton Woods institutions during the economic reforms of the 1980s. The economic structure, which is characterized by uncertainties of formal jobs, has triggered people’s ingenuity to engage in novel occupations. One economic activity that has gained popularity in Kumasi is vending of roasted traditional food (RTF) by women. This chapter explores how women have used vending of RTF to overcome years of acute austerity in the “paid” job market. It concentrates on the economic, spatial, and social networks that sustain this informal activity. Drawing on multiple data sources, the results confirm how the structure of the city space has consigned RTF vendors to obscurity, yet their activities are responding to the economic realities of time—increasing urbanization, limited job opportunities, and accumulation of poverty. As a survival strategy, the vendors have developed social connections with clients and made their place comfortable in order to claim their rightful place in the urban space economy. We conclude that given their contributions, the vendors must be appreciated as agents of change and part of the urban system.",signatures:"Ebenezer Owusu-Sekyere and Samuel Twumasi Amoah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69440",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69440",authors:[{id:"307641",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebenezer",surname:"Owusu-Sekyere",slug:"ebenezer-owusu-sekyere",fullName:"Ebenezer Owusu-Sekyere"},{id:"307642",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Twumasi Amoah",slug:"samuel-twumasi-amoah",fullName:"Samuel Twumasi Amoah"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5124",title:"Insulation Materials in Context of Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ca203e467e6f6fc2ece46fab2da10bbc",slug:"insulation-materials-in-context-of-sustainability",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad 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Karlenius,\nGiovanna Di Trapani and Kathryn F. 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\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
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",isbn:"978-1-80356-732-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-731-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-733-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1b6073b9ff3f8f63004943bd263cd04e",bookSignature:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg",keywords:"Erythrocyte, Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte Aging, Pathways, Metabolites, Deficiencies, Membrane Changes, Band 3, Deformability, Hemolysis, Disease Conditions, Free Radical Initiators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah, Associate Professor, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore has 20 years of research experience in Oxidative Stress Physiology and Hematology and 16 years of teaching experience. She has authored numerous journal papers and book chapters and has one published patent. She has received CSIR research fellowship and is a Member of the Society for Free Radical Research, India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"352876",title:"Dr.",name:"Vani",middleName:null,surname:"Rajashekaraiah",slug:"vani-rajashekaraiah",fullName:"Vani Rajashekaraiah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/352876/images/system/352876.jpg",biography:"Teaching Experience: 16 years\n•\tAssociate Professor in Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Block I, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru from May 2018 till date. (Courses: Molecular Genetics, Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering). \n Research Experience: 20 years in the field of Oxidative Stress Physiology and hematology.\n Current Research focus: Blood Storage (erythrocytes, platelets) and Drug-induced Thrombocytopenia\n Total publications in SCOPUS / Web of Science: 27 and International book chapters: 04.\n Research guidance: 3 PhD students (completed); 3 PhD students guiding currently.\n \t \n Six years of research experience as JRF (CSIR) and SRF (CSIR) in the field of High Altitude Physiology and Biochemistry, specialization in Oxidative Stress Physiology, from August 2002 to 2008. \no\tPursued research under the guidance of Dr. S. Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Methods have suffered from low sensitivity, complicated protocols, or they were used only for a limited spectrum of cell types. The assay mostly used during the last three decades was first published by the Swedes Östling and Johanson in 1984 [1]; other versions followed, from N.P. Singh and R. Tice in 1988 [2], and Peggy Olive and co-workers [3]. These protocols are in principle quite similar but vary in their use of neutral or alkaline electrophoresis conditions and also in some other steps of the procedures, such as lysis cell conditions. The methods were initially given different names: microelectrophoresis [1], single cell gel electrophoresis [2], and Comet Assay [3]. The latter name—which we will mostly use in this chapter—stems from the comet-like image seen in micrographs of damaged cellular DNA as it stretches out after electrophoresis.
In the comet assay, cellular DNA embedded in thin layers of agarose (researchers choose different concentrations) are electrophoresed while placed in a horizontal electrophoresis tank. At this stage the cells are dead and devoid of most of their proteins—whether they originate from a live organism: human blood or a specific organ, an animal, a fish or a sea star, or a plant (there is in fact hardly no limitation)—or from cells or organ cultures treated with radiation, or chemicals in vitro.
The comet assay has often been used simply to show the formation or presence of DNA damage in cells in a relative scale, without any reference to a standardized output or a calibration. However, in various applications, there is a need for standardization and calibration of comet assay data. Examples are when results from different experiments, cell types, and laboratories are to be compared, or when different human cohorts are combined in international collaborative studies. In the EU COST action hCOMET, the main aims are to create a unified database of comet assay data relating to human health and disease that will be the base for pooled analysis on DNA damage and repair in humans; the ultimate purpose is to investigate the significance of comet assay results as prognostic markers of disease. Such comparisons do not make sense if the sensitivity of the assays used is very different.
Attempts have indeed been made to establish standardized protocols, and/or identifying the experimental steps that are most significant in determining the sensitivity and reproducibility of the comet assay. Validation studies and ring trials of various types have been described [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], involving, for example, distribution of treated cells to different laboratories followed by local comet assay analysis, or local treatment, and analysis of cells with chemical mutagens according to specific protocols. In spite of these attempts, no key factor explaining the observed rather large inter-laboratory differences has yet been identified [8]. It is concluded that there is hence still a need for further validation of the assay [5].
The separation of DNA fragments according to their size and structure—either single- or double-stranded—is in all versions of the comet assay based on electrophoresis at low-voltage (across the tank approximately 25 V) and short duration (20–30 mins). Cell isolation and manipulation, including long-time storage through freezing, are of uttermost importance for the final output measured by the assay; this concerns, in particular, the background level of DNA damage in “untreated” cells. We shall not deal with such issues here, but rather focus on technical aspects of the electrophoresis, including some of its physics and chemistry.
Analysis of charged molecules by means of an electric potential (or electric field) is a technique that has been known, understood and applied in experimental biology and biochemistry for decades. Electrophoresis separates charged molecules according to their mobility. The driving force is the electric potential; the mobility depends on the charge, size and shape of the molecules, and the movement is inhibited by viscous forces (depending on the medium including its pore size). Cellular DNA (in a diploid human cell) has a total size of approximately 2 *1012 Da, which in an intact cell is organized in 23 pairs of chromosomes. Under alkaline conditions, DNA from a lysed cell exists in stretches of single helixes, which may be of all sizes, either linear and free or more or less entangled with each other. When these negatively charged molecules are broken—either into discrete fragments or into a distribution of differently sized molecules—they are separated in size when subjected to an electric potential in a medium through which they have some freedom to move.
The charge per unit length of DNA is determined by its base composition, which is quite constant on a large scale. The movement (velocity per time) may be adjusted via the electric potential (V/cm) and the viscosity (related, primarily, to the agarose concentration), so that the separation of a distribution of differently sized DNA molecules may be optimized. This optimization may vary depending on the specific application of the assay. For most purposes, however, molecular sizes expected to be measurable in the comet assay would be in the range 2*108–1010 Da (i.e., from a few hundred to ten thousand breaks per cell). The DNA distribution after electrophoresis is determined with fluorescent micrographic imaging. Using various algorithms, characteristic parameters have been worked out to characterize the population of differently sized molecules, to give the medium, the average and the distribution of the molecular weight or size (denoted scoring).
Publications during the last 30 years specify experimental protocols often by referring to the early comet assay protocols. Quite often, however, the conditions are still undefined or confusing. This relates, in particular, to a lack of precise definition of the local electric potential; at the same time, there is a frequent—and surprising—specification of the current used (mostly 300 mA). We have attempted to understand the basis for the apparent misconceptions; it seems to reflect history rather than science. The electrophoresis step was described and specified somewhat differently in the three early publications [1, 2, 3]. Östling and Johanson [1] separated cellular DNA under neutral (non-alkaline) conditions, “… and electric potential of about 5 V/cm is applied for 5 minutes …”. The tank size, the current or the volume of liquid are not specified, which is in fact quite OK since the magnitude of the local electric potential is defined. Singh and co-workers, the first to describe an alkaline version of the assay, specify that electrophoresis is carried out for 20 mins at 25 V, at 300 mA, and a depth of liquid of 0.25 cm [2]. Since the tank dimensions are not known, the local electric potential is undefined. In a follow-up review paper, the electrophoresis is at 12 V and 100 mA, with the circulation of the electrophoresis solution at 100 ml/min of a total volume of 1 liter [10]; again, this implies an undefined electric potential. In a later publication [11], the same group describes electrophoresis at 12 V (0.4 V/cm), 250 mA, and a duration of 20 mins.
In guidelines from 2000 [12], R.T. Tice (who was also co-author of the 1988 protocol with N.P. Singh [2]) states that “… due to the large variability in the size of commercially available electrophoresis units, it is more accurate and useful to present the voltage in V/cm”. Concerning voltage, 0.7–1.0 V/cm and a duration of 5–40 mins are specified, and circulation (whereas current, liquid volume, and depth are not mentioned in these guidelines) [12]. In the comet assay later described by Peggy Olive [3, 13], electrophoresis was run at 1 V/cm for 20 min (nothing said about volume and current). In a follow-up protocol by Peggy Olive in 2006 [14], electrophoresis is conducted at 0.6 V/cm for 25 min; “The current should be about 40 mA if using 20 V. The distance in centimeters is measured between the negative and positive electrophoresis in the electrophoresis chamber.” There is a problem associated with this approach, which we will discuss later.
Among the early comet assay protocols, the most cited ones (by March 2018) are [2] (6522 citations) and [12] (2906 citations); citations for Östling & Johansson [1] are not available. Judging from these bibliographic data, and since the electrophoresis conditions in [2] are undefined with respect to electric potential but recommending a specific current (300 mA), it seems that much of the confusion in the literature stems from the uncritical reference to [2]. A more frequent use of the guidelines [12] might have avoided some of the unexpected comet assay results published during the last 20–30 years.
The current plays no direct role in electrophoretic mobility, but may indirectly affect the local distribution of the electric potential in a tank. The organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD) In vivo comet assay Test Guidelines protocol 489 [15] from 2014, correctly states that the “… level of DNA migration is linearly associated with the duration of electrophoresis, and also with the electric potential (V/cm).” However, there is still the recommendation of a “starting current of 300 mA (---), the depth should be adjusted to achieve these conditions, and the current at the start and the end of the electrophoresis should be recorded”. It is worth noticing, however, that attempts to control the current often lead to very shallow liquid levels. In [16] the level of the buffer is described as “… about 2–3 mm above the agarose on the slide”; in [2] the depth was 0.25 cm. It is often underlined in the protocols that the electrophoresis tank must be in the level, so that the depth above the gels is equal over the platform surface. However, keeping a large tank level in each run, within an error of, for example, 1 mm is hardly achievable. The implication is that the resistance of the liquid on the platform will vary relatively much, leading to potentially large differences in local electric potential. Specifying a much higher depth, for example, 6–10 mm solves this problem, although a larger current would put demands on the power supply. We will get back to this problem in the recommendations at the end of this text.
We have previously studied experimentally [17] the conditions which determine the level of migration measured in the comet assay. Cell cultures of two types were treated with genotoxicants and then assayed for DNA damage using different physical conditions during electrophoresis. Linear regression of the experimental data in [17] shows highly linear relationships for V/cm and time (Table 1) and an inverse relationship for agarose. Fitting straight lines to the figures in [17] results in the regression data (for human blood mononuclear cells) in Table 1.
Voltage (V/cm) (0.16–1.48) | 34.1 (*V/cm) | 0.964 | Linear, through zero |
Time (min) (5–40) | 1.42 (*min) | 0.950 | Linear, through zero |
Agarose (%) (0.4–0.95) | −30.29 (*% + 52.7) | 0.955 | Inverse |
Linear regression of data from [17], with goodness-of-fit. The regression curves for electric potential (V/cm) and time (min) were both forced through zero.
There was no effect of altering the electrophoresis current (between 210 and 400 mA), except for a slight downward trend which is explained as an indirect effect on the electric potential [17].
Since the local electric potential determines the mobility of DNA fragments in the comet assay, it is essential that the electric potential is defined at all positions of the electrophoresis platform. This may be particularly important if the comet gels are small in the surface. We have described a high-throughput comet assay with 96 minigels, each of 4 μl, placed in an array of Gelbond plastic membranes as substrate [18, 19]. The minigels give results which are highly similar to results obtained with standard glass slides. We also evaluated this revised comet assay with respect to variation in DNA damage levels measured within one electrphoresis. Based on preliminary studies [18], DNA damage measured in parallel samples depended significantly on the circulation of the liquid during electrophoresis. We now report on a series of measurements of local electric potentials, with the purpose of identifying possible time-dependent differences in electrophoresis between neighboring samples. A multi-electrode gauge was made (Figure 1) consisting of 20 evenly spaced (5 mm) platinum electrodes, each covered with a thin plastic tube except for 1 mm protruding free end.
Multi-electrode gauge connected to a multiplexing digital voltmeter (Agilent 34972A with Multiplexer 34901A) allowing the potential at up to 20 electrodes to be sequentially scanned at intervals.
This multi-electrode gauge was placed in an electrophoresis tank with the free electrode ends immersed in a thin layer of agarose of the same concentration (0.675%) as used to embed cells in the comet assay (Figure 2) [20]. The electrode ends were a fraction of a millimeter above the GelBond films. The dimensions of the tank are listed in Table 2. The electric potential of each minielectrode could be scanned and recorded automatically during 1 s, for every 10 s, using a multiplexer and a digital voltmeter with input resistance in the mega-ohm range. This also allowed continuous measurements of the temperature in the solution.
A schematic diagram illustrating the electrophoresis tank (1) with the platform (2) and the electrodes (3). During electrophoresis the tank was filled with liquid (4) and an electrode gauge (5) was connected to an electrode plate (6) and placed across the center of the platform with its electrodes covered in agarose (7) when performing the measurements of the electric potentials.
Tank | 290 | 262 | 70 |
Platform | 180 | 262 | 26 |
Side wells × 2 | 110 | 262 | 26 |
Electrode plate | 180 | 262 | 9 |
Physical dimensions of the electrophoresis tank and the electrode plate.
Systematic studies of the role of circulation were carried out, using external circulation at 21, 58, 109, 201, and 285 ml/min. With a total volume of 1640 ml, this compares to 1, 4, 7, 12, and 17% exchange of volume per min, respectively. Apparently, there were significant differences in electrode potentials at neighboring positions and also time-dependent changes (Figures 3 and 4, upper panels). With circulation, however, these variations were much reduced (Figures 3 and 4, lower panels; figures show graphs for 109 ml/min circulation). In Figure 4, the data from Figure 3 have been converted into local electric potentials.
Measured voltage across the platform during electrophoresis. The relative voltage at each electrode and temperature over time during an electrophoresis time of 25 mins from one representative experiment with (109 ml/min) and without circulation. The number of each electrode and the temperature are indicated to the right of the figure. The blue thick lines in both plots represent the temperature. The figures are from one representative experiment [
Stabilization of the voltage at each electrode position with circulation. Corrected voltage variations per cm (calculated from
The calculated total migration of DNA in each electrophoresis is derived from the time-integrated electric potential (dimension V/cm*min). Figure 5 presents these data for electrophoresis during 25 min, with and without circulation. Corrections due to some differences in the spacing between the electrodes were included in the calculations.
Voltage gradient at each electrode position during electrophoresis with circulation at different flow rates. The corrected electric potentials were time-integrated during an electrophoresis time of 25 mins, and are presented (V/cm) during one (average) mins. Data are from three experiments without circulation or with circulation at 21 ml/min (upper panel); the blue, green, and red bars correspond to each of the three experiments. For higher flow rates (58, 109, 201, and 285 ml/min), the data (lower panels) represent one representative experiment. Figure from [
These experiments were repeated several times; data averaged for all electrodes are presented in Figure 6. In total, there was a consistent and clearly reduced inter-experimental variation, when circulation was used (109 ml/min).
Average electric potentials measured in several experiments. Time-integrated corrected voltage per cm averaged for all electrodes during an electrophoresis time of 25 mins for each measurement with (109 ml/min, lower panel) and without (upper panel) circulation. The standard deviations are shown as red error bars and illustrate the degree of variation in voltage per cm for each measurement. Figure from [
The electric potential measurements were paralleled by analysis of DNA damage in cell samples from a batch of human blood mononuclear cells exposed to a fixed dose of ionizing radiation (X-rays) on ice. This dose (8 Gy) was established from a dose-response curve (Figure 7). Materials and methods used in the experiments were the same as in [18], based on our system of 96 minigels on GelBond films. For scoring of comets, a fully automated system (Imstar PathfinderTM, Paris, France) was used, for two reasons; (1) unsupervised scoring avoids errors introduced by operator interactions; (2) there were very large numbers of samples to be scored (384 samples per electrophoresis). To ensure that automated scoring gives comet results comparable to the standard semi-automated scoring (Comet IV, Perceptive Instruments Ltd., Bury St Edmunds, UK) we used both systems to generate the data in Figure 7; they gave highly similar rates of median DNA damage (denoted as Tail%DNA, i.e. the fluorescence of the comet tail divided by the total fluorescence of the comet), versus the dose of radiation. At 15 Gy the Tail%DNA is saturated and the dose response is no longer linear; this data was therefore omitted in the linear regression analysis. The dose 8 Gy which was used in cell exposures is in the linear part of the curve and is well below saturation.
Dose-response curves showing DNA damage versus radiation dose. One experiment; scoring of DNA damage in 96 samples with the semi-automated (Perceptives) and the automated scoring (IMSTAR Pathfinder) systems. Irradiation with X-rays (0–15 Gy) and circulation (109 ml/min) during electrophoresis. The Tail%DNA relative to the head is given as the median value of at least 50 comets in each sample. Linear regression lines are shown, with linear relations y = 3.99 + 4.37x and y = 0.1 + 4.30x, and coefficients of variation (CV) R2 = 0.72 and R2 = 0.96, for IMSTAR and Perceptives, respectively. The experimental points at dose 15 Gy were omitted from the linear regression.
A large number of comet electrophoresis experiments was carried out with irradiated (8 Gy) mononuclear cells. We studied differences in means between experiments, with and without circulation, and differences between samples belonging to different rows or columns in the array (8 columns × 12 rows) on each of four films in one electrophoresis.
The experiments included electrophoresis of either one film placed in the center of the platform, or 4 films totaling 384 samples covering the whole platform [18] (Figure 8).
Illustration of positioning of Gelbond films with one film (left; 96 minigels), or four films (right; 384 minigels) on a platform in an electrophoresis tank. Figure from [
The median (Tail%DNA) of all scored comets in each sample was used as the basis for further statistical analyses. In some calculations, the values were weighted, based on the number of comets scored in each sample. Normality of distribution of DNA damage in each cell sample was tested using a Lilliefors test, in MATLAB R2014b (significance level 5%). Differences between groups (rates of circulation, sample positions in rows and columns) were tested with one-way ANOVA. A structure of statistics obtained from the one-way ANOVA was used to perform the multiple comparison tests, which determined whether any group mean was significantly different; two group means were significantly different if their intervals were disjoint. A Wilcoxon rank sum test—not requiring the normal distribution of samples—was used when the Tail%DNA values were shown not to be normally distributed by the Lilliefors test.
We observed small differences in Tail%DNA levels in experiments using different rates of circulation. This is illustrated in Table 3 and in Figure 9, both based on weighted data (to avoid that low numbers of scored comets should be given too much weight).
The ultimate aim of this study [20] was to establish electrophoresis conditions that are optimal for the comet assay, hopefully contributing to reducing the unexplainable variations, which are often found both within and between experiments. A further aim is to establish correction factors, which may be used to translate data from laboratories using different electrophoresis conditions.
A systematic investigation of comet assay electrophoresis had not previously been carried out. Since the electric potential is known to be the major physical force causing charged molecules to move during electrophoresis, we recorded the electric potential at multiple sites on the platform of a standard horizontal tank used for comet assay electrophoresis. In a previous study, we had observed that variations in DNA damage levels among parallel samples were considerably reduced when the liquid was circulated during electrophoresis [18].
We made detailed measurements of electric potentials using a gauge containing 20 platinum electrodes coupled to a voltage recording device with input resistance in the mega-ohm range. Using this setup we could confirm that the measured local electric potential was highly affected by circulating the electrophoresis liquid; that is, time- and position- dependent variations seemed to be reduced by circulation. For a standard electrophoresis time of 25 mins, the time-integrated variation (Coefficient of Variation, CV) of the electric potential at electrode positions was more than 8% without circulation; this was reduced to less than 1% with circulation at more than 58 ml/min, i.e. 5% volume change per min (Table 4). We initially hypothesized this reduction to be due to a better stabilization of local temperature that could alter the conductivity; a further mechanism could be a build-up of local concentration gradients of electrophoresis liquid, which are likely to be reduced by an increased flow. A positive feedback loop could then possibly take place in the absence of circulation.
Flow rate (ml/min) | Mean tail DNA intensity (%) | Mean STD (%) | Mean CV (%) |
---|---|---|---|
0 | 39.53 | 4.15 | 10.50 |
21 | 42.75 | 4.31 | 10.07 |
58 | 34.83 | 3.89 | 11.18 |
109 | 34.75 | 3.28 | 9.44 |
153 | 36.27 | 2.28 | 8.14 |
Mean Tail%DNA in electrophoresed samples of cells irradiated with X-rays (8 Gy). Standard deviations of parallel samples and coefficients of variation are also listed. Data are from three experiments with or without circulation at different flow rates during electrophoresis. Data are weighted on the basis of the number of comets scored in each sample.
Flow rate | Mean corrected electrode voltage | Mean CV |
---|---|---|
ml/min | V/cm | % |
0 | 0.82 | 8.28 |
21 | 0.85 | 1.17 |
58 | 0.86 | 0.53 |
109 | 0.83 | 0.65 |
201 | 0.84 | 0.70 |
285 | 0.83 | 0.50 |
Electric potentials and their variation at electrode positions as a function of circulation flow rate. The corrected electrode voltage per cm averaged over 25 mins is shown, with CV averaged for all electrodes. Data from three experiments with and without circulation at different flow rates.
The logical extension of these observations was that the variations should be paralleled by variations in the level of DNA damage. We therefore examined populations of cells exposed to a genotoxic treatment (X-rays) under different electrophoresis conditions. The mean Tail%DNA of all samples in our minigel 4 × 96 array was remarkably constant, as concluded from three independent experiments (Figure 9). There was, however, a slight—but statistically not significant—tendency to a lower CV at the two highest rates of circulation (Table 3). This was unexpected in view of the markedly reduced variations in local electric potential with circulation. This is also unlike our preliminary findings [18].
Mean Tail%DNA in electrophoresed samples of cells irradiated with X-rays (8 Gy). DNA damage levels of data from three experiments are shown (+/− STD; error bars) as a function of circulation flow rate. Figure from [
A statistical analysis of Tail%DNA of samples in the row and column positions in the 4 × 96 array also did not reveal systematic differences that could be attributed to electric potential variations. However, for each film, there were clear indications of lower levels of median DNA damage in samples, which were applied late in each pipetting (data not shown). We interpret this as due to some rapid repair of radiation damage, during the short period when cell samples are heated to 37°C for mixing with agarose.
It is possible that variations in electric potentials are related to properties of the measuring gauge. The electric potential is dependent on the concentration gradient in a solution. Small differences in the concentration of reactants and products involved in the redox reaction occurring at each electrode surface during measurements may cause variation in the recorded electric potential. Circulating the electrophoresis solution may contribute to reducing the build-up of concentration differences, resulting in turn in less variation in the measured electric potential. A reference electrode should be used in order to determine the potential differences across the platform with higher precision. The reference electrode must have a well-defined and reproducible potential, that is, both reactants and products must be present with the kinetics of the reactions sufficiently fast for the species to be present at their equilibrium concentrations. Taken together, the measurements using the multi-electrode gauge were probably more representative for the local electric potential in the presence of circulation. Without circulation, however, these measurements are less reliable.
In conclusion, it seems that circulation of the liquid during electrophoresis has minor effects on the recorded level DNA damage. Even so, there are several arguments for using circulation in comet assay electrophoresis. Uncontrolled changes in temperature, not analyzed in this project but studied by Sirota and co-workers [21], may lead to heterogeneities in DNA damage expression. External peristaltic pumps combined with a spiral of stainless steel tubing placed in ice/water represent an efficient method to stabilize the temperature during electrophoresis, which also becomes more important with higher currents (more heat dissipation). Furthermore, standardization of data relies on the accurate determination of the electric potential. This should be determined using a suitable gauge; from our experiments, it appears that circulation stabilizes the measurement of the potential. It is stated in [16] that “A typical voltage for an electrophoresis chamber is determined by measuring the perpendicular distance in cm between the positive and negative electrodes in the electrophoresis chamber, and multiplying this distance by 0.6.” This simplified method to determine the electric potential (V/cm) may introduce errors and should not be used. Firstly, there is a voltage drop at each electrode (the electrode potential at standard state for platinum equals 1.18 V [22]). This electrode potential is evident from the measurement of the current at increasing electrode voltage (from the power supply) in a tank; see Figure 10. There is no current at voltages lower than 2.5 V; the curve extrapolates at zero current to 2.7 V, which is close to the electrode potentials at both electrodes (2.38 V). Furthermore, the side wells have higher conductivity (per length) than the platform. In a small tank, the electrode potential may introduce serious errors.
Current in an electrophoresis tank measured as a function of the applied voltage.
Care should also be taken concerning the resistance of the cathode and anode electrodes. There is a voltage drop along these electrodes, even with platinum (specific resistance 1.05 * 10−7ohm *m (at 20°C)). Depending on the electrode cross-section and the current, this could result in as much as 5–10% lower voltage at the far end of the tank (i.e. opposite to where the connecting leads are). This error can be reduced by using thicker (very expensive) platinum, but a cheaper solution is to connect both ends of each electrode to the power supply (4 leads). An alternative approach is to measure and/or calculate the electric potential (V/cm) along both sides of the platform and introduce correction factors to account for the difference in each position.
In summary, based on our experiments and the evaluations above, we suggest a number of simple recommendations:
When introducing a new tank: measure and record the voltage and the current of the electrophoresis tank, when containing different volumes of liquid.
Circulate the electrophoresis liquid during electrophoresis using an external pump (e.g., there are cheap peristaltic pumps made for aquariums). The advantages are (1) stable conditions allowing more precise measurement of the electric potential; (2) more stable temperature during electrophoresis; and (3) (probably) reduced variations in the local electric potential.
Use sufficient volume of electrophoresis liquid to cover the agarose samples with at least 5 mm.
Ensure that a power supply is used which can supply the output current at the constant voltage and with sufficient volume of liquid (two car batteries are a very cheap and useful alternative).
Use electrodes of sufficient size (cross section), to avoid a voltage drop due to high ohmic resistance. The overall resistance is reduced if both ends of each electrode are connected to the output cable from the power supply.
Measure the local potential on the platform, preferably using a gauge with platinum electrodes at defined positions. Measure in the presence of circulation.
Take great care in preparing the agarose used for embedding gel samples (avoid evaporation during heating).
Calculate the Electric Potential * Time (EPT) value (dimension: V/cm*min) for your setup. Use the EPT value in your publications and when comparing your results with those from other experiments and laboratories.
The authors are grateful to the COST Action CA15132, “hCOMET,” for support. This work was financed by the Research Council of Norway through its Centers of Excellence funding scheme, project number 223268/F50 CERAD Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD).
Streptococcal skin and skin-structure infection (SSTI) is associated with significant morbidity all over the world and the impact is felt predominantly in resource-poor areas with inadequate personal hygiene and over-crowded living conditions. While exact numbers are difficult to estimate on account of the lack of systematic reporting, a literature search conducted by Sims and colleagues [1] reported an estimated prevalence of 18 million cases, with an incidence rate of around 1.78 million cases per year of invasive
Skin infections have been variously classified based on different criteria like depth of infection or the bacterial agents causing the infections or as primary infection in contrast to infection of pre-existing wounds or skin conditions. A very practical classification of patients hospitalized with skin infections (cellulitis versus abscess versus skin infections with additional complicating factors) has been described by Jenkins et al. [6]. The authors found in their study that cutaneous abscesses were primarily caused by
The clinical features of common streptococcal SSTIs and the antibiotics used in the management of these conditions will be further elaborated in this chapter.
Superficial skin infection has been described as
Impetigo secondary to infected contact dermatitis.
Antiseptic soaks and antibacterial creams are the mainstay of therapy for impetigo. A wide variety of topical antimicrobial agents are available including silver-based products, iodides, hydrogen peroxide, zinc, chlorhexidine and potassium permanganate. There is very little data in the literature comparing benefits of one product versus the other [7, 8]. Antibacterial creams: mupirocin, Na-fusidate and bacitracin are also available for use in localized superficial skin infections [9]. Drawbacks of topical therapy include development of resistance, risk of irritant or allergic dermatitis (sensitization), and if used in high concentrations, these could cause burn injuries.
When skin infection results in erythematous (red in color), edematous (raised above the surface) and well demarcated (sharp boundary between involved and uninvolved skin) areas of involvement, it is referred to as
Erysipelas with sharply-defined edematous red skin lesions.
When streptococcal infection involves the skin as well as the subcutaneous tissue, it results in ill-defined areas of erythema that are rapidly spreading and this is called
Cellulitis with irregular and ill-defined borders.
Fungal infection in the webspace of the toes, also called “athlete’s foot.”
Lymphangitic streaking of the upper extremity.
Lymphangitic streaking (double) of the lower extremity.
In some patients there is an overlap between erysipelas and cellulitis and the clinical differences are not so clear. Importantly, management of both conditions is similar.
Mild localized infections are treated with oral antibiotics, while more extensive infections or infections with systemic symptoms are treated with parenteral (intravenous) antibiotic therapy [14]. Patients with signs of sepsis: fever or hypothermia, tachycardia and hypotension, and patients with underlying conditions like uncontrolled diabetes, liver cirrhosis, severe peripheral vascular disease or severe lymphedema and patients with immunocompromising conditions like HIV, or patients on chemotherapy should be admitted to the hospital for antibiotics as well as aggressive management of the underlying conditions. Penicillins and β-lactams are considered the antibiotics of choice for treatment of streptococcal cellulitis. The addition of a second antibiotic like trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) or clindamycin has been shown to provide no additional benefit [6, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Penicillins are available in the form of oral as well as intravenous preparations (Table 1). Extended spectrum penicillins: dicloxacillin, amoxicillin, ampicillin, oxacillin and nafcillin can be used if there is associated methicillin susceptible
Name | Dosage | Comments |
---|---|---|
Oral agents | ||
Penicillin VK | 250–500 mg, 4 times a day | |
Dicloxacillin | 250–500 mg, 4 times a day | Effective also against MSSA |
Amoxicillin | 500 mg, 3 times a day | Effective also against MSSA |
Intravenous agents | ||
Penicillin G | 2–4 million units, q 4–6 h | Also available as continuous infusion via pump |
Ampicillin | 2 g, q 4–6 h | Effective also against MSSA |
Oxacillin, Nafcillin | 1–2 g, q 4–6 h | Effective also against MSSA |
Piperacillin-tazobactam* | 4.5 g, q 8 h | Effective also against MSSA, |
Penicilins.
Require dose adjustment in patients with kidney disease.
Name | Dosage | |
---|---|---|
Oral cephalosporins | ||
1st generation | cephalexin | 500 mg, 4 time a day |
2nd generation | cefaclor | 500 mg, 3 times a day |
cefuroxime | 500 mg, 2 times a day | |
3rd generation | cefpodoxime | 200 mg, 2 times a day |
Intravenous cephalosporins | ||
1st generation | cefazolin | 1–2 g, q 8 h |
3rd generation | ceftriaxone | 1–2 g, q 24 h |
5th generation | Ceftaroline | 600 mg, q 12 h |
Carbapenems (Intravenous) | ||
Imipenem | 0.5–1 g q 6 h | |
Meropenem | 1–2 g, q 8 h | |
Ertapenem | 1 g, q 24 h |
β-Lactam antibiotics used for streptococcal skin infections.
Effective also against MSSA. Ceftaroline is also effective against MRSA.
All (except ceftriaxone) require dose adjustment in patients with kidney disease.
Name | Drug class | Dose | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Oral agents | |||
TMP/SMX* (160 mg/800 mg) | Sulphonamide | 1–2 tabs, 2 times a day | Effective also against MSSA, MRSA |
Watch for rash, monitor cbc, creatinine | |||
Doxycycline, Minocycline (100 mg) | Tetracycline derivative | 1 tab, 2 times a day | Effective also against MSSA, MRSA |
Risk for sunburn, pill esophagitis | |||
Linezolid (600 mg) | Oxazolidinone | 1 tab, 2 times a day | Effective also against MSSA, MRSA |
Avoid co-administration with SSRI, MAO inhibitors | |||
Risk for cytopenias, neuropathy | |||
Excellent oral-parenteral bioavailability | |||
Clindamycin (300 mg) | Lincosamide | 300–450 mg, 4 times a day | Effective also against MSSA, MRSA |
Highest risk for CDiff infection | |||
Ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin | Fluoroquinolone* | Different doses for different agents | Effective also against MSSA |
Risk for tendon injury, CNS side effects in the elderly, CDiff infection | |||
Intravenous agents | Effective also against MSSA, MRSA | ||
Vancomycin* | Glycopeptide | 15–20 mg/kg q 12 h | Close monitoring of levels to avoid nephrotoxicity. Red-man syndrome if administered too fast |
Daptomycin* | Cyclic lipopeptide | 4–6 mg/kg q 24 h | Risk of rhabdomyolysis, Esosinophilic pneumonia |
Linezolid | Oxazolidinone | 600 mg q 12 h | Avoid co-administration with SSRI, MAO inhibitors |
Risk for cytopenias, neuropathy | |||
Tigecycline | Tetracycline derivative (glycylcycline) | 100 mg X 1, then 50 mg q 12 h | Effective also against anaerobes |
Risk for Nausea |
Non β-lactam antibiotics used for streptococcal skin infections.
Require dose adjustment in patients with kidney disease.
Name | Drug class | Dose | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Dalbavancin | Lipo-glycopeptide | Intravenous: 1.5 g single dose | One dose IV provides 2 weeks of therapy |
Oritavancin | Lipo-glycopeptide | Intravenous: 1.2 g single dose | One dose IV provides 2 weeks of therapy |
Delafloxacin | Fluoroquinolone | Intravenous: 300 mg q 12 h Oral: 450 mg twice a day | Allows transition from IV to oral. Risks as with other FQ |
Omadacycline | Tetracycline derivative | Intravenous: 200 mg X 1, then 100 mg daily Oral: 450 mg once a day for 2 days, then 300 mg once a day | Allows transition from IV to oral. Gastrointestinal side effects. Effective also against anaerobes |
Tedizolid | Oxazolidinone | Intravenous: 200 mg, q 24 h Oral: 200 mg once a day | Allows transition from IV to oral. Risk for cytopenias, neuropathy |
Newer antibiotics approved for treatment of skin infections.
Effective also against MSSA, MRSA.
When streptococcal infection spreads deep beyond the subcutaneous tissue, it can result in extensive necrosis (gangrene) of the overlying skin and inflammation and necrosis of underlying fascia
Necrotizing fasciitis of the lower extremity.
Clinical photograph showing erythema, peeling skin, dusky hue and areas of necrosis.
Necrotic areas with skip lesions on leg of patient who is abusing self with injection drugs.
When infection spreads beyond the fascial planes into the underlying muscles it is called myositis.
Necrosis of skin, soft tissue and muscle with exposure of tendon.
Patients need admission to the hospital often to the intensive care unit. They require management by a team of experts involving medical, surgical, infectious diseases and critical care specialties. They often present with septic shock and require pressors like epinephrine, norepinephrine and vasopressin to maintain adequate blood pressure in order to perfuse critical organs. Patients require broad spectrum antibiotic coverage, aggressive fluid resuscitation, as well as emergent aggressive debridement of the infected areas. Surgical removal of infected/necrotic tissue is essential in order to reduce bacterial burden and hence remove the source of toxins. Often patients require a second or even third visit to the operating room because of extensive tissue necrosis not amenable to removal in a single operation [14]. Operative tissue is sent for microbiology (cultures) to help determine the infectious agent and obtain an antibiotic sensitivity profile to help guide appropriate antibiotic choices. While awaiting the results of cultures, the antibiotics chosen should cover Gram-positive bacteria including
TSS is associated with a dramatic widespread skin rash and severe systemic symptoms. This condition is not due to direct inoculation of the skin with
Clinical photograph of sheet of erythema seen in acute phase of toxic shock syndrome.
Toxic shock syndrome with desquamation in the recovery phase.
As with other severe streptococcal infection, patients with TSS require admission to the hospital. If they are hypotensive or experience multi-organ failure, management is in the intensive care unit where patients are treated with aggressive fluid resuscitation, broad antibiotic therapy (choices similar to that as described for management of necrotizing fasciitis) and pressor support. Surgery may be required if a deep focus of infection is identified. Rarely patients do not respond to standard therapy and may require intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) [36].
Streptococcal SSTIs respond very well to antibiotic therapy. A wide range of antibiotics with excellent skin penetration are now available as noted in Table 1–4. All antibiotics carry the potential for side effects like allergic reactions and gastrointestinal disturbances. There are some side effects that are unique to certain antibiotics and patients need to be monitored for these toxicities. For example: β-lactam antibiotics have the potential for hepatotoxicity, vancomycin is associated with nephrotoxicity, daptomycin can cause rhabdomyolysis and eosinophilic pneumonitis and clindamycin is one of the most common antibiotics associated with
Mild infections should be treated with oral antibiotics.
Severe infections (severe local skin infection with systemic symptoms like fever, tachycardia, hypotension or leukocytosis and bacteremia, or more extensive skin infections even without systemic symptoms) will require parenteral therapy, with step-down to oral therapy as the patient improves [40]. Antibiotics like the floroquinolones: ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, delafloxacin [41, 42], moxifloxacin [43], the oxazolidinones: linezolid, tedizolid and the new tetracycline: omadacycline [44] have excellent oral bioavailability and allow early conversion from intravenous to oral therapy.
In the most serious cases: sepsis, septic shock, necrotizing fasciitis, myositis, toxic shock syndrome: broad-spectrum antibiotics are required initially (most often with more than one antimicrobial agent) to cover
Duration of antibiotics: This depends on the severity of the infection as well as the clinical response to therapy. Mild infections or even severe infections in an otherwise healthy host that respond rapidly to antibiotics could be treated for as short as 5 days [14, 45, 46]. More severe infections or infections with a delayed response to therapy may need longer courses like 7, 10 or 14 days, depending upon the clinical picture. Shorter courses may be possible with some of the newer antibiotics including single dose antibiotics like dalbavancin [47] and oritavancin [28]. Relapses are found to be more common in patients with shorter courses of therapy [45]. Patients with bacteremia are usually treated for 14 days.
Dose adjustments: Antibiotics are cleared by the liver or kidney and hence dosage needs to be reduced in patients with liver or kidney disease in order to avoid toxicity. Conversely, patients who are obese require a higher dose of the antibiotic to achieve therapeutic levels in the skin [25, 48].
Suppressive therapy is attempted for patients with multiple recurrences [45, 49, 50]. Oral penicillin twice daily showed a 70–80% reduction in episodes—but recurrences occurred after discontinuation of prophylaxis. Treatment of underlying factors like athlete’s foot, chronic lymphedema, peripheral vascular disease and uncontrolled diabetes is also very important in the prevention of recurrences [11, 44, 45, 51]
Streptococcal skin infections cause significant morbidity all over the world, and severe infections like necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome can be fatal. There is a wide spectrum of manifestations of skin infections ranging from mild superficial disease to deep necrotic and life-threatening infections. Skin infection is one of the most common reasons for prescriptions of antibiotics in the community as well as in hospitalized patients. Some of the most commonly used antibiotics have excellent skin penetration and hence the armamentarium to treat skin infections is quite large. Over the last few years there have been multiple new antibiotics approved for the treatment of skin infections and these should be reserved for treatment of severe infections not responding to the common antibiotics and for infections with multi-drug-resistant organisms. A thorough understanding of the different types of skin infections, as well as a detailed knowledge of the different antibiotics are essential for the early diagnosis and selection of the most appropriate antibiotic for the management of simple as well as complex skin infections.
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Implantology",slug:"guided-bone-regeneration-technique-using-hyaluronic-acid-in-oral-implantology",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Guided bone regeneration is a term used to describe the use of the barrier membranes to enhance complete osteogenesis by preventing the rapid ingrowth of fibroblasts into a bony defect and promoting the migration of osteogenic cells from adjacent bony edges or bone marrow into the defect in an unimpeded fashion. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a glycosaminoglycan of the general formula (C14H22NO11)n and is an essential component of the extracellular matrix in connective tissue, which is found in abundance in the alveolar environment. The most important function of HA is its involvement in tissue healing and repair. It has been shown that HA stimulates cell proliferation, migration and angiogenesis, re-epithelialization and proliferation of basal keratinocytes and reduces collagen and scar tissue formation. This text presents our clinical experiences and outcomes following HA applications in various implant surgery procedures. According to our clinical outcomes, HA is a highly promising material for improving therapeutic outcomes for oral implantology.",book:{id:"5112",slug:"a-textbook-of-advanced-oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery-volume-3",title:"A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",fullTitle:"A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Volume 3"},signatures:"Fatih Özan, Metin Şençimen, Aydın Gülses and Mustafa Ayna",authors:[{id:"29060",title:"Dr.",name:"Aydin",middleName:null,surname:"Gulses",slug:"aydin-gulses",fullName:"Aydin Gulses"},{id:"68607",title:"Dr.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Sencimen",slug:"metin-sencimen",fullName:"Metin Sencimen"},{id:"177645",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatih",middleName:null,surname:"Özan",slug:"fatih-ozan",fullName:"Fatih Özan"},{id:"177975",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ayna",slug:"mustafa-ayna",fullName:"Mustafa Ayna"}]},{id:"44958",doi:"10.5772/55018",title:"Diagnosis and Management of Temporomandibular 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Odontogenic infections and emergencies are a significant part of an oral and maxillofacial surgeon’s daily practice. On a daily basis, an oral surgeon needs to be prepared to deal with any infection-related emergencies ranging from a toothache, localized vestibular abscess to deep head and neck abscesses. Management of these odontogenic infections could propose a challenge due to complex microbiology of the odontogenic infection and the potential for advancement to a life-threatening emergency. It is crucial that the oral and maxillofacial surgeon has knowledge of anatomic boundaries and fascial spaces to be able to make an accurate diagnosis and perform prompt surgical management. For the patient, odontogenic infections may carry high incidence of morbidity and mortality if not treated promptly. Management of patient with an odontogenic infection is a multifaceted approach involving (1) an examination and assessment of the patient, (2) identifying the source of the infection, (3) anatomic considerations, (4) surgical intervention, (5) administration of the appropriate antimicrobial therapy, and (6) referral to an appropriate provider if indicated. This chapter provides the clinician with a better understanding of diagnosis and pharmacological management as well as surgical treatment of patients with odontogenic infections.",book:{id:"5112",slug:"a-textbook-of-advanced-oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery-volume-3",title:"A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",fullTitle:"A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Volume 3"},signatures:"Robert Pellecchia, Curtis Holmes, Golaleh Barzani and Francesco R.\nSebastiani",authors:[{id:"177670",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Pellecchia",slug:"robert-pellecchia",fullName:"Robert Pellecchia"},{id:"185973",title:"Dr.",name:"Golaleh",middleName:null,surname:"Barzani",slug:"golaleh-barzani",fullName:"Golaleh Barzani"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1149",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic Effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity Loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs Adequate Practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human Activity, Pollutants, Reduced Risks, Population Growth, Waste Disposal, Remediation, Clean Environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"