\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5922",leadTitle:"Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering - Materials, Technologies and Clinical Applications",title:"Materials, Technologies and Clinical Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Biomaterials are often designed to act as scaffolds, i.e., 3D porous templates that support and stimulate the growth of healthy tissue and then safely dissolve once they have performed their functions. This book provides a picture of the current state of the art in the field of scaffolds for tissue engineering, highlighting the potential associated to the latest scientific and technological advancements. The former part of the book focuses on the repair of "hard" tissues (primarily bone) by means of bioceramic/glass scaffolds, and the latter deals with the applications of polymeric scaffolds for regenerating "soft" tissues and structures including the peripheral nerve, heart, gastric mucosa and pancreas. Special emphasis is given to the challenges associated to scaffold manufacturing, biomimetic properties and cell-scaffold interactions.',isbn:"978-953-51-3642-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3641-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4572-1",doi:"10.5772/66016",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"scaffolds-in-tissue-engineering-materials-technologies-and-clinical-applications",numberOfPages:332,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"6fe31fadb436b2596163e60fd63dedbd",bookSignature:"Francesco Baino",publishedDate:"December 13th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5922.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12182,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:29,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 23rd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 13th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"188475",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Baino",slug:"francesco-baino",fullName:"Francesco Baino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188475/images/6418_n.jpg",biography:"Francesco Baino is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino (Italy). He received his M.S. degree in Biomedical Engineering (summa cum laude) and his PhD degree in Materials Science and Technology from Politecnico di Torino. Dr. Baino has published more than seventy-five peer-reviewed journal articles and ten book chapters and is the author of four patents. His current research interests include bioceramics, bioactive glasses and composite biomaterials for tissue engineering and medical implants, as well as processing and testing of advanced ceramics. He is an associate and guest editor of prestigious international journals including the International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology (Wiley), Materials (MDPI), the Journal of Functional Biomaterials (MDPI), and Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology (Frontiers).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"919",title:"Tissue Engineering",slug:"biomaterials-tissue-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"56968",title:"Fabrication Methodologies of Biomimetic and Bioactive Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70707",slug:"fabrication-methodologies-of-biomimetic-and-bioactive-scaffolds-for-tissue-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:1232,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Mythili Prakasam, Madalina Popescu, Roxana Piticescu and Alain\nLargeteau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56968",authors:[{id:"46006",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana Mioara",surname:"Piticescu",slug:"roxana-mioara-piticescu",fullName:"Roxana Mioara Piticescu"},{id:"205083",title:"Dr.",name:"Mythili",surname:"Prakasam",slug:"mythili-prakasam",fullName:"Mythili Prakasam"},{id:"205089",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",surname:"Largeteau",slug:"alain-largeteau",fullName:"Alain Largeteau"},{id:"210553",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura Madalina",surname:"Cursaru",slug:"laura-madalina-cursaru",fullName:"Laura Madalina Cursaru"}],corrections:null},{id:"56625",title:"Glass and Glass-Ceramic Scaffolds: Manufacturing Methods and the Impact of Crystallization on In-Vitro Dissolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70242",slug:"glass-and-glass-ceramic-scaffolds-manufacturing-methods-and-the-impact-of-crystallization-on-in-vitr",totalDownloads:1090,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Amy Nommeots-Nomm and Jonathan Massera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56625",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56625",authors:[{id:"205555",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Massera",slug:"jonathan-massera",fullName:"Jonathan Massera"},{id:"213341",title:"Dr.",name:"Amy",surname:"Nommeots-Nomm",slug:"amy-nommeots-nomm",fullName:"Amy Nommeots-Nomm"}],corrections:null},{id:"56907",title:"Bioceramic Scaffolds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70194",slug:"bioceramic-scaffolds",totalDownloads:977,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Amira M. 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Ausseil, John R. Dymond and Emily S. Weeks",authors:[{id:"60671",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Dymond",fullName:"John Dymond",slug:"john-dymond"},{id:"60673",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne-Gaelle",middleName:"Elsa",surname:"Ausseil",fullName:"Anne-Gaelle Ausseil",slug:"anne-gaelle-ausseil"},{id:"60674",title:"Ms.",name:"Emily",middleName:null,surname:"Weeks",fullName:"Emily Weeks",slug:"emily-weeks"}]},{id:"23611",title:"Limited Bio-Diversity and Other Defects of the Immune System in the Inhabitants of the Islands of St Kilda, Scotland",slug:"limited-bio-diversity-and-other-defects-of-the-immune-system-in-the-inhabitants-of-the-islands-of-st",signatures:"Peter Stride",authors:[{id:"62425",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Stride",fullName:"Peter Stride",slug:"peter-stride"}]},{id:"23612",title:"Native Tree Species Regeneration and Diversity in the Mountain Cloud Forests of East Africa",slug:"native-tree-species-regeneration-and-diversity-in-the-mountain-cloud-forests-of-east-africa",signatures:"Loice M.A. Omoro and Olavi Luukkanen",authors:[{id:"50626",title:"Mrs",name:"Loice Mildred Akinyi",middleName:null,surname:"Omoro",fullName:"Loice Mildred Akinyi Omoro",slug:"loice-mildred-akinyi-omoro"},{id:"98930",title:"Prof.",name:"Olavi",middleName:null,surname:"Luukkanen",fullName:"Olavi Luukkanen",slug:"olavi-luukkanen"}]},{id:"23613",title:"Destruction of the Forest Habitat in the Tatra National Park, Slovakia",slug:"destruction-of-the-forest-habitat-in-the-tatra-national-park-slovakia",signatures:"Monika Kopecka",authors:[{id:"55526",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Kopecka",fullName:"Monika Kopecka",slug:"monika-kopecka"}]},{id:"23614",title:"Modern Methods of Estimating Biodiversity from Presence-Absence Surveys",slug:"modern-methods-of-estimating-biodiversity-from-presence-absence-surveys",signatures:"Robert M. 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N’Guessan",authors:[{id:"50690",title:"Dr.",name:"Mpika",middleName:null,surname:"Joseph",fullName:"Mpika Joseph",slug:"mpika-joseph"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73271",title:"Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93322",slug:"social-media-and-its-effects-on-beauty",body:'\nSocial media refers to the use of websites and applications to create and share content or to participate in social networking [1]. Technological developments have given rise to various gadgets including smart-phones, tablets, and laptops to robots too. Living in a digitized era, communication has now become easier and faster with the emergence of various social applications available at the click of a button. While many may agree that social media has connected individuals globally, it has also been used to set standards of beauty for males, females as well as the third gender. This in turn has been known to affect the self-esteem of individuals with regards to body image, body modification and how they view themselves in society. In order to be accepted in society females have to battle body image issues from a very young age, where thin is considered to be the ideal body type [2].
\nThis chapter focuses on the effects of social media on standards of beauty. We review the literature on the role of social media and how they affect the physical and psychological beauty of individuals in society.
\nToday, Social Media is one of the most important factors contributing to the mental, emotional, physical and spiritual health of an individual. With the media constantly portraying ideal beauty and body image comparisons, the decisions of men and women’s beauty choices are globally affected.
\n“Body image refers to a person’s perception of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings, positive, negative or both, which result from that perception” [3]. Social media has had a major impact on the perceptual, affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of body image [3] by encouraging lean body patterns and delivering anti-obesity messages [4]. Eating disorders determine a distorted relationship between the individual, their eating behavior and body shape [5]. Adolescence being a crucial age for positive and negative development of body image, the self-esteem and body dissatisfaction adolescents feel are known predictors of eating disorders [6]. Continuous pursuit for the perfect slender lean body may generate negative feelings which can result in a change in eating behavior, thereby increasing the chances of weight issues and eating disorders [4, 7]. Social media portrays women who are slim as being more beautiful and successful compared to overweight women [8]. Body image misperception and dissatisfaction with body weight highlight an association between body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing [9].
\nBody image concerns are common in women and men globally, but social media has now increased these concerns through advertising, videos and the use of social media. Milkie [10] conducted in-depth interviews on 60 white and minority girls to examine the effect of media on self-esteem. Results indicated that most girls felt that the images shown in media were unrealistic and not real. White girls felt that boys evaluated them on the basis of the images found on media platforms whereas the minority girls felt that the images portrayed on media did not meet the expectations of the reference group they oriented themselves with. The evolution from adolescence to adulthood has seen 12–16 teenage girls experience emotional changes in interpersonal and intrapersonal development as well as bodily changes such as sudden weight gain and transition from a young girl to a fully grown woman [11, 12]. In today’s world, the self-presentation of beauty and perceptions of others plays an important role in developing identities in girls [13, 14]. New interactive platforms present in social media demonstrate how self-presentations and peer influences are interrelated with the standards of beauty [15]. Many women may imitate their ideal media personality due to the social, psychological and practical rewards associated with this ideal and the belief that their life would change for the better [16].
\nSocial media comprises of social networking sites, image sharing sites, video hosting sites, community blogs, bookmarking sites and gaming sites. Fellow comparisons about self-image and appearances in teenagers have resulted due to social networking sites (SNSs) such as Instagram and Facebook [17]. Teenage girls engage in online self-presentation of posting selfies and sharing the outfit of the day pictures to differentiate themselves with their peers [18]. Media images of ideal beauty standards influence the content and sharing of pictures teenage girls’ post [19]. Individuals are constantly seeking feedback on SNSs through likes, followers and comments to uphold a perfect and stable image of themselves [20]. Teenage girls are vulnerable to the upward comparison as it means that they need to improve their beauty standards, thereby leaving them dissatisfied with their physical bodies, having doubts about their self-worth and also driving them to self-harm behavior [20, 21].
\nTaking selfies and sharing them on popular social platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat has increased at an alarming rate during the recent years. A recent study compared selfie takers and non selfie takers and their perceptions of their selfies versus photographs clicked by others. Results indicated that selfie takers perceived themselves as more attractive and likable in their selfies as opposed to pictures taken by others leading to positive distortions of the self [22]. Biases in self-face recognition were seen in men and women in selecting the most attractive modified pictures of themselves [23]. Selfies are no harm per se. But obsession with physical features reveals a lack of holistic perception of self-generated sub-consciously, following an “outside” standard of beauty not defined by the “inner self” of the receiver.
\nPopular socialites Kim and Khloe Kardashian have been slammed with media reports of them using photoshop to edit Instagram selfies by making unrealistic alterations to look thinner and more toned. Emily Bryngelson, an associate designer struggling with an eating disorder, admitted to deleting pictures if they did not receive enough “likes.” The time spent on Facebook photos was linked to self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction, thin idealization and pursuit of thinness [15].
\nThere are multiple factors that affect the beauty standards in the world today, which involve women and men and the third gender individuals trying new trends to be socially accepted. The purchasing decisions of millennials are influenced majorly by social media [24]. 72% of millennials procure beauty products based on Instagram posts and other social networks [25]. Makeup consists of the application of cosmetic products to beautify or change the way one looks either artistically or to conceal flaws. Jang-Soon and Hye-Jin [26] investigated 240 teenage males’ preferences for makeup use. Results indicated that their appearance was one of the major reasons for their social success. The male respondents who were young, unmarried and city residents had an overall positive perception about cosmetics [26]. With bloggers constantly advertising on social media, cosmetic products, have gained popularity.
\nThe images on social media sites are idealized and unreal, due to digital alteration thereby setting high expectations from individuals in society. Imperfections are removed by airbrushing and using other digitized apps to whiten teeth, slim waists and reduce sizes in order to be accepted as beauty ideals [27]. These techniques may further lead to negative consequences of increased body dissatisfaction, body modification and low self-esteem issues. Unrealistic images of feminity, beauty, success and body shape promoted through social media images are associated with development of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction disorders [28, 29].
\nFilters and beauty apps represent another area in which social media has a major influence. Beauty apps encourage women to see and surveil themselves within a “pedagogy of defect” [30]. They include filters and modification apps, surgery try out apps, and esthetic benchmarking apps which help individuals visualize how they will look after certain changes such as teeth whitening, eye bag removal and also whether the individual looks old or young [31].
\n“Body modification refers to the deliberate or permanent altering of an individual’s human anatomy or appearance” [32]. They involve two aspects: the processes that modify form or contours of the body such as metabolic manipulation (weight lifting, extreme dieting, use of drugs/steroids, hormones), cosmetic surgeries and procedures (liposuction, face-lifts, rhinoplasty, botox, eye lash extensions), genital surgery and sex reassignment surgery, restriction or compression (waist training, foot binding), abrasion (teeth filing, scourging, flagellation), elongation (neck, lips, earlobes), partial or full removal of body parts (breasts, penis, ribs, nose etc.), implantation of foreign objects (silicone implants, decorative items under the skin), and prosthetics (false limbs, finger nails, lenses) and processes that mark the surface of the body such as tattooing, piercing, tanning/bleaching, scarification, branding and hair removal [32].
\nYoung women and teenage girls following fitness boards on Pinterest were likely to have intensions to engage in extreme crash dieting or extreme exercising as a result of social comparison leading them to feelings of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction [33, 34].
\nFrom professional athletes to celebrities, contouring, tattooing and body piercings has gained popularity in today’s society [35]. Individuals who get tattooed refer to it as a piece of art and piercing as fashion accessories, for the purpose of embellishment or as a self-healing effect after having being abused [36, 37, 38, 39]. A survey conducted at an American University found body piercings in 42% of men and 60% of women with piercings involving tongue, lips, nose, navel, genitals, nipple and eyebrow besides the earlobe piercing. Bacterial infections, bleeding and local trauma were common complications faced. “Tattoos were present in 22% of male students and 26% of female students” [40].
\nAnother reason why individuals engage in body modifications is to maintain self-identities and be distinctive from others [41, 42]. Physical endurance, lust for pain, spirituality and cultural traditions, addictions, resistance, sexual motives, group commitments are reasons why individuals adopt modification procedures [43]. Social Media has had a tremendous effect on how individuals perceive and endure painful tattooing and body modifications after viewing popular Instagram and Pinterest handles. Brief exposure to body modifications on popular social networking sites has seen an increase in tattoo searches and body modification procedures in young as well as older individuals, proving the impact of Social Media on Beauty trends in society.
\nSocial media has a robust influence on the beauty, health and hospitality industry with women and men engaging in weight loss and diets to avoid gaining fat identities that impacted their wellbeing in the long run [44, 45, 46]. Women and men have turned to waxing, shaving and removal of unwanted facial and body hair in order to meet the beauty standards of societal acceptance [47, 48]. Women who did not engage in hair removal were negatively evaluated as being dirty or gross [49, 50]. In 2010, a concept of living dolls emerged online with women practicing the art of appearing “doll like.” These women would engage in usage of wide rimmed contact lenses, hair extensions, corsets, photo editing and surgery including, eye widening, breast implants, liposuction and rib removal to enhance their beauty [31]. Even though women knew the risks in false eyelashes and acrylic nails, they still reported to be continuing to engage in it to feel socially accepted [31].
\nSocial networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and other networking sites have the potential to influence positive beliefs and attitudes in individuals [51]. The online platform has given many individuals a feeling of a “sense of belonging.” Men and women are obsessed with images on social media portals and often search for esthetic body types which are not similar to their own body. Instagram and Facebook often have stories of individuals who have fought hard to change beauty standards through sheer dedication and hard work, be it exercising, eating healthy or building self-esteem and body acceptance through support groups and communities found online. Blocking body shamers can help reinforce confidence in men and women globally. Promoting videos on life struggles with weight motivate others to believe in never giving up and taking charge of their lives. Today social media includes individuals of different race, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation, thereby focusing more on breaking stereotypes and building communities to support each other.
\nWith technology advancing by the minute and newer apps surfacing online, social media has an immediate effect on beauty. Due to the ever changing body images depicted online, individuals are turning to social media handles for acceptance and support. The selfie culture has brought about a positive and negative change in how individuals perceive themselves. While most research today focuses on the negative impacts of social media on beauty, more interest should be laid on body positivity and using social media as a medium for self-acceptance whether beautified or not.
\nOpen Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\nWe are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n