Satellite bus subsystems decomposition and potential KOSS.
\r\n\tSome of them are potential hazards caused by novel (bio)technologies, such as nanoparticles or process-related toxicants. Others are well-known hazards that climate change and new trends in food consumption have now moved under the spotlight. Some are due to the deliberate adulteration of food for economic reasons, that is strongly affecting the global market.
\r\n\tFood scientists are strongly involved in tackling this global challenge, supported by novel technologies and ICT-based tools. On one hand, innovative analytical approaches, mainly based on omics science and big data, may offer a great support for hazard characterization and risk assessment. On the other hand, early warning tools are strongly needed to efficiently support risk management and avoid food losses.
\r\n\tAlthough many contaminants are regulated worldwide and routine control plans ensure the compliance of food before entering our plate, scientists are now focusing their research not only on single compounds, but mainly on a cocktail of toxicants thanks to biomonitoring and imaging techniques. This change in the approach will lead to a new design of risk assessment within few years.
\r\n\tBesides traditional players, like scientists and policy-makers, also agro-food companies are investing efforts and resources in the identification and assessment of emerging risks, to meet consumer’s demand of safer food and prevent misleading communication.
\r\n\tIt is clear that the food safety scenario is rapidly changing, driven by innovation and big data. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview on the methodological advances the scientific community has brought about to face emerging risks and new trends.The main emerging risks will be covered, and methodological improvements will be outlined. Strategies in management and communication will be described. New market trends and consumers’ behavior leading to a change in the future scenario, will be discussed.
Pain treatment and management remains one of the biggest challenges to modern medicine today. A recent Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report found that 25 percent of U.S. adults reported experiencing a full day of pain within the past 30 days and one in 10 said their pain lasted one year or more. The most common complaints were low back pain followed by migraine or severe headache and joint pain[1].
Current research efforts to understand pain mechanisms have revealed a complex picture in which the biological mechanisms of pain reach beyond the nervous system to other areas and systems associated with depression, anxiety, and sleep, areas of the mind and psyche. A recent nationwide survey found that one in five Americans say their pain has resulted in major lifestyle changes in employment, residence, or personal freedom and mobility. Participants viewed the medical community as being only partially successful in helping patients manage their pain[2].
New, multi-disciplinary approaches to pain management have been developed and many therapies exist, however the dominant component of these approaches continues to be prescription and over-the-counter medications. While the use of medications is necessary and often effective, it does present the risk of overreliance, misuse, and abuse. Over the last decade there have been a number of reviews highlighting not only a significant rise in prescription medication, but also a sharp climb in abuse particularly for those between the ages of 18-25[3].
Military medicine is faced with similar challenges to successful pain management and treatment. However, many factors such as work cycles, organizational structure, mission and patient population of the military generate unique issues when formulating a strategy for pain management[4]. While the adequate and appropriate management of pain is a daunting issue for the military, recent engagements have put the issue of pain front and center.
The Global War on Terrorism and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have produced an increasing number of combat veterans returning with complex multi-trauma. Most of these injuries are caused by roadside, vehicle-mounted, and variously concealed improvised explosive devices (IEDs) that cause extensive direct and indirect concussive, blunt and projectile-induced damage. Due to significant improvements in individual body and vehicle armor, more sophisticated and responsive emergency medical and surgical care, and advanced air evacuation system capabilities, these injuries have become more survivable. In some cases, the very body armor that saves lives may contribute to head, neck, and extremity injuries, which in turn often progress to long-term disability and/or pain. Added to the physical wounds of war are the psychological and emotional sequelae associated with civilian and guerilla warfare, mass casualties and asymmetric warfare. As a result, large numbers of combat veterans experience a trauma spectrum response that includes pain, sleep and other somatic disorders, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, and other symptoms.
Due to the stigma associated with being taken out of the fight and away from their battle team, it is common for U.S. combatants to delay seeking medical help unless the injuries are significantly debilitating. It is variously reported that 15 to 20 percent of combat veterans returning without obvious physical injury have some degree of persistent mild traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder. For others being treated for life-threatening injuries due to combat trauma, the sometimes hidden symptoms of repetitive concussive injury and combat stress are also present. These multiple overlapping injuries typically lead to chronic, more severe multi-system disorders well after the crisis of initial injury subsides. In many cases, the primary presenting problem is “depression, anxiety, or chronic pain” without other obvious physical manifestations. But upon further investigation, a profile of Wounded Warriors has been identified. These soldiers have had one or more concussive, blunt or projectile- induced injury, seek help several months to years after that injury, and describe persistent, multi-system symptoms of varying degrees and severities. This is reminiscent of “Gulf War Syndrome” or “Chronic Multi-symptom Illness” defined in the first gulf war.
All levels of the U.S. military medical departments and the Department of Defense engaged in a strategic reassessment of how to best respond to the needs of these Wounded Warriors in a way that also helped alleviate delayed deployments due to ongoing medical problems, the rising costs of medical care with fewer positive outcomes, and increasingly adverse and costly effects of drug and procedure-oriented solutions to treatment.
To more fully understand the complexity inherent in addressing the pain caused by poly-trauma it is necessary to consider how the expression of pain is dictated by a number of factors in addition to direct tissue injury. Those who have experienced pain of any kind would attest it is not a pleasant experience and one they would happily do without. However from an ontogeny perspective, pain serves a preservation purpose.
The primary role of pain is aptly summarized by Nikola Grahek in his book titled “Feeling Pain and Being in Pain”:
Grahek further explains that the pain system, at its fundamental level, can be viewed as serving two purposes – as a system of avoidance and as a system that promotes restoration or repair. As an avoidance system, pain warns us to stay clear of dangerous stimuli by assisting us in detecting the danger before any serious bodily damage befalls us. Its genius is in its preventative capacity which serves to protect and maintain survival. In instances in which damage has already occurred, the restorative system that promotes healing is facilitated by movement-limiting pain.
While typically functioning as it should – prevention and repair – the pain system has the potential to be overwhelmed. Instead of being triggered by painful stimuli, the system becomes overly sensitive to non-harmful stimuli (allodynia) or it may register an increased sensitivity to stimuli (hyperesthesia) or register pain sensation in non-damaged tissue (hyperalgesia). When this occurs, the perceived pain is no longer directly tied to the injury, and is thus maladaptive.
Recent scientific research indicates that a patient’s psychological state may significantly influence their experienced pain, and that the perception of pain involves multiple factors beyond the direct physiological injury. Such factors contribute to the persistence of pain experience even after an injury has healed, and to the sensation of pain in an area devoid of any injury. Pain is now understood as a bio-psycho-social phenomenon rather than a strictly physiological one[6]. [See Gatchel for a more complete summary of the changing theories of pain]
The interplay of psycho-social factors and biology is strikingly on display in poly-trauma injuries. The persistent and chronic nature of pain associated with traumatic injuries has been well documented[7]. Additionally, there is a high incidence of concurrent Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety with these injuries. The overlapping and multi-component nature of traumatic injuries, both psychological and physical, has been recently characterized by Jonas et al. as war-related, trauma spectrum response (wrTSR). They propose mind-brain/body injuries, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI), are more appropriately addressed by a constellation (whole systems) view of the impact of that injury[8]:
The assessment of these components in complex interaction with each other and not as separate problems provides a more comprehensive picture of traumatic injury, and one that is more in line with the actual bio-psycho-social experience of the pain caused by the injury. To the extent that this is true, combat related pain has the potential to be exacerbated by the psychological aspects of war fighting. Addressing this constellation with approaches that impact them collectively will provide a more logical and likely efficient and effective framework than isolating them as “co-morbidities” each with their own specific treatments.
Combined physical, psychological, and social injury is not limited to injuries that are a result of a blast or combat. The majority of injuries from Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), and Operation New Dawn (OND) are not directly related to battle injuries. An evaluation of medical evacuations over the course of the nine years of OIF/OEF/OND found that most medical evacuations were not directly related to battle injuries. Instead, musculoskeletal disorders and mental disorders accounted for more than half[9]. This data is also supported by another evaluation that found non-battle injuries as the single largest category responsible for medical evacuations (approximately 36 percent) with fracture, inflammation/pain, and dislocation as the leading diagnosis. The leading body regions where the injury occurred were back, knee, and wrist/hand[10].
There is evidence suggesting that injury severity and functional recovery are similar across all groups – combat injury related to a blast exposure, injury due to combat, and injury in a noncombat zone. Not surprisingly blast exposure is associated with broader physical injuries, use of oral analgesics, and higher rates of PTSD and other psychiatric diagnoses when compared to non-blast injuries[11]. Whether blast related, combat related, or non-combat related, the majority of injuries resulting from OIF/OEF/OND are associated with psychological and social injuries that further complicate the successful management of pain regardless of its etiology.
Most clinicians and investigators find that pain, when viewed as a constellation of traumatic physical, psychological, and social injury, is quite different from that of multi-system trauma sustained in civilian circumstances and unrelated to combat operations. The additional significant family, relationship, and community factors are also aggravated as a result of the increased operational tempo of multiple combat-related deployments. The stress of repetitive deployments and rigorous training schedules even in the absence of combat-related trauma takes service members away from the family, and the family away from their normal support systems.
Initiated by combined “mind-brain-body” injury the array of wrTSR manifestations and behaviors probably share common pathophysiological and recovery mechanisms. One would therefore expect the need for an integrated, patient and family-centered, multi-disciplinary (body, mind, spirit, social, professional, and community), co-located team approach to evaluation, collaborative problem prioritization, intervention, monitoring, reconditioning, and reintegration back to military duty or to a productive civilian lifestyle.
However, the traditional approach to helping service members and their families recover and reintegrate into functional and meaningful military or civilian lifestyles is focused on pathology, disease and illness identification. Treatment is sought at separate medical departments and clinics (medical, mental health, and surgical specialties), military installations, and community programs. Each program independently evaluates and treats individuals (usually service and family members separately) in an asynchronous, non-integrated process. And, each typically deconstructs each separate problem affecting a particular body part or system in isolation, and prescribes a particular medication or procedure for that specific problem. Frequently these various and separately prescribed treatments interact and cause additional adverse effects. Even when chronic pain is managed as the primary problem, traditional measures focus on poly-pharmacy and localized procedures.
Although physical therapy, ultrasound, cold and heat applications, electrical stimulation, and chiropractic adjustment are applied, these modalities are usually added to a traditionally heavy medication load. This adds to the complexity of management and further increases risks of adverse or counterproductive interactions. When employed, psychological evaluations and counseling occur separately, and may add other drugs and treatments to the load.
Pharmacological agents go a long way in addressing acute pain and, when properly used, potentially preventing the development of chronic pain[12]. However, the use of pain medication comes at a high cost to the patient[13]. Recent studies and media reports have documented the risks (drug addiction, abuse, and overuse) associated with addressing the bio-psycho-social manifestations of pain with a poly-pharmacological approach[14],[15]. A 2008 Department of Defense (DoD) survey of health-related behaviors among active duty personnel revealed approximately 25 percent reported abusing prescribed medications within 12 months prior to the survey. Pain relievers were reported to be the most abused medication. The report also highlighted that prescription drug abuse within the military is significantly higher than among civilians[16].
The military has recently begun to recognize the limitations and risks associated with a primarily pharmacological approach to pain and psychological injury.
COL Galloway, Chief of Staff, U.S. Army’s Pain Management Task Force
Spurred by the challenges of treating complex, overlapping physical and psychological injuries the military has begun to open the door to non-traditional approaches to pain management particularly acupuncture.
Complementary and integrative (CI) therapies have existed for centuries albeit more so among consumers than the medical community. However, the shift of CI therapies from the periphery to a more mainstream position in conventional medicine began in the U.S. in the 1960s and 1970s and has continued ever since[18]. Spurred by compelling effectiveness evidence and documentation of its popularity among the public[19] CI therapies have increasingly become integrated into traditional medical care. More than other CI therapies, acupuncture has undergone a significant integration particularly as a complement to traditional pain management approaches.
The preferred use of acupuncture for pain can be explained by a number of factors including its underlying theory, evidence base, and delivery. The theory and approach of acupuncture is guided by a different underlying assumption than conventional medicine. In conventional medicine it is assumed the expression of symptoms such as pain is directly tied to a disease or dysfunction in the physiological system. However in acupuncture, all aspects of a patient – physical, psychological, symptoms, and other characteristics – are understood to contribute to a pattern of imbalance[20]:
The theories that guide acupuncture are precisely what make it an ideal complement to the bio-psycho-social model of pain management. The resolution offered in an acupuncture treatment not only acknowledges the interplay of the internal and external factors involved in the manifestation of pain in the patient, but it utilizes those factors to generate a holistic, healing approach that goes beyond symptom management. Note, however, that this holistic framework means that simply adding acupuncture as another add-on, asynchronous modality in the same manner other isolated treatments are provided may not optimize its effectiveness for the entire spectrum of illness in wrTSR.
The underlying theory of acupuncture makes it an ideal candidate for inclusion into an integrative approach to pain management and the current effectiveness evidence goes even further in strengthening the justification of its integration. Over the past decade and a half there has been a significant increase in both the quantity and quality of acupuncture studies. A number of significant findings and consensus statements have confirmed and further elucidated the effectiveness of acupuncture and its mechanistic underpinnings[21],[22].
More recently a number of reviews summarizing and evaluating the evidence of acupuncture for chronic pain conditions have been conducted. A systematic review evaluating 51 randomized controlled trials (RCT) for varying pain conditions found that the majority of high-quality studies that produced positive findings involved musculoskeletal pain[23]. A meta-analysis, examining systematic reviews of acupuncture for chronic pain from 2005-2008, found acupuncture to be effective for chronic osteoarthritis of the knee and headache. Improvement was maintained for both short term (defined as less than three months after randomization) and long term (three months or longer). Consistent with previous literature, the results for back pain were mixed – true acupuncture was superior to sham in the short term, but the evidence for the long term was mixed[24]. Further, a review evaluating and summarizing Cochrane reviews of acupuncture for chronic pain conditions found that four reviews concluded acupuncture was effective for neck disorders, tension-type headaches, and peripheral joint osteoarthritis[25].
While the current evidence of acupuncture for depression and anxiety remains mixed due to many factors[26] it is still regarded as a promising therapy. A number of RCTs evaluating acupuncture for generalized anxiety disorder or anxiety neurosis have demonstrated positive results[27]. Additionally acupuncture, particularly ear acupuncture, has shown benefit in addressing peri-operative anxiety[27]. Regarding depression, a recent systematic review concluded that while the quality of studies examining acupuncture for depression had improved, there was still insufficient evidence to draw a firm conclusion either in support for or against acupuncture[28]. Although the research evaluating acupuncture for PTSD is still in its infancy, the evidence so far indicates acupuncture could be very effective. In 2007 a three-arm RCT comparing acupuncture to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to a wait-list control found that acupuncture provided treatment effects similar to CBT that were maintained three months post-treatment. Additional studies are needed to confirm these initial findings.
A discussion of acupuncture effectiveness would not be complete without mention of the non-specific effects of acupuncture. Much attention has been given to the fact that in many cases the effectiveness of true acupuncture has been found to be no greater than sham or placebo acupuncture. While often viewed in a negative light, this observation only serves to further illuminate the effects of acupuncture. From a reductionist, disease treatment framework, non-specific effects are to be isolated and minimized in favor of specific effects. However from a more holistic and healing oriented framework being suggested here, they become core mechanisms to enhance and maximize – facilitating the self-healing mechanisms not associated with a single disease or illness syndrome. Acupuncture is more than the act of needle insertion. It is embedded in a ritual that includes a narrative interaction and trusting relationship between the patient and acupuncturist. This interaction and relationship have been shown to activate immune markers and specific neurotransmitters associated with symptom improvement[29]. In many cases, especially for patients with a wide spectrum of problems, as in wrTSR, these effects may be just what are needed.
Taken together, the underlying theory of acupuncture and the current evidence of its effectiveness support its inclusion into an integrative pain management strategy and the adoption of a holistic model similar to one on which it is based. The U.S. military has come to a similar determination and through a number of recent initiatives has made significant strides in integrating acupuncture into its pain management paradigms.
Each of the United States Armed Forces provides the manpower, equipment, and facilities to organize and sustain required capabilities, including health readiness, in order to maintain a ready force across a range of military operations. By doctrine the Army, Navy and Air Force are responsible for the force health protection, health service delivery, and health systems support in alignment with Department of Defense policy and guidance.[30] The Navy is the primary health readiness provider for the Marine Corps. The U.S. Coast Guard under the Department of Homeland Security is the fifth armed service and, when directed by the appropriate authority, deploys with the U.S. military. The uniformed U.S. Public Health Service supports the Coast Guard for health readiness and it receives additional support from other branches of the Department of Defense when deployed with them.
Traditionally the United States Army, Navy/Marine Corps, Air Force and Coast Guard (when assigned to the Department of Defense) have approached health readiness somewhat differently because of differences in mission capabilities, practices, and culture. In 2007 the medical departments of the armed forces, under the purview of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs, developed the Joint Force Health Protection Concept of Operations to improve joint war fighting capabilities.[31] This was the first time the health and medical requirements for U.S. troops irrespective of branch of service were codified.
The Department of Defense revised this policy in 2010 and 2011 expanding Joint Force Health Protection into a hierarchy of health and medical requirements documents. At the topmost level was the new overarching Health Readiness Concept of Operations policy that spelled out the optimal health service that would go “anytime, anywhere” in support of military operations consistent with the then newly expanded Military Health System Strategic Plan composed of four mission elements: casualty care and humanitarian assistance/disaster response; fit, healthy, and protected force; healthy and resilient individuals, families, and communities; education, research, and performance improvement.[30] While some capabilities critical for military medical operations are explicitly delineated, complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), integrated medicine and acupuncture are not mentioned.
In the United States and on permanent overseas bases and stations, in-garrison medical and preventive health services are generally provided to service members by their own military medical department. Under United States Code, Title 10, Chapter 55, family members, retirees, and in special cases others are entitled to receive a broad-based healthcare benefit that is part of the Defense Health Program under the policy direction of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs in the Military Healthcare System.
In 2011 the Department of Defense provided a medical benefit to 9.7 million people for a total cost of $52 billion. The vast majority of the money covered the cost of actual care. In 2011, 17,476 active duty medical personnel medically supported 321,751 service members deployed overseas, and medically evacuated 6,943 casualties including 221 amputees. “TRICARE” is the military medical system for the health care of its active and retired service members and families. The Department of Defense Health Service Delivery Concept of Operations describes an ability “to build healthy communities by managing and delivering the health benefit, through the use of military treatment facilities, and the TRICARE network of healthcare providers.”[32]
The former Army Surgeon General, LTG Eric B. Schoomaker, chartered the Army Pain Management Task Force in August 2009 to develop and recommend strategies for “comprehensive pain management that is holistic, multidisciplinary, and multimodal in its approach, utilizes state of the art/science modalities and technologies, and provides optimal quality of life for Soldiers and other patients with acute and chronic pain.” The Task Force included a variety of medical specialties and disciplines predominantly from the Army but included representatives from the Navy, Air Force, TRICARE Management Activity, and Veterans Health Administration (VHA) as well.
The Task Force reviewed pain management in the United States, concluding that variability is common depending on provider and medical care delivery system factors. The report found that pain can be effectively managed by over the counter and prescription medications but that there are unintended consequences to the overreliance on them, with abuse highest in the 18-25 year old age demographic that encompasses many war casualties. The report acknowledged patients’ interest in treatments other than or in addition to medication, with CAM a popular option.
Many of the Military Health System’s (MHS) challenges with pain management are very similar to those faced by other medical systems, but the MHS also faces some unique issues because of its distinctive mission, structure and patient population. For example:
The nation expects the MHS to provide the highest level of care to those carrying war’s heaviest burdens.
The transient nature of the military population, including patients and providers, makes continuity of care a challenge for military medicine.
Pain management challenges associated with combat polytrauma patients require integrated approaches to clinical care that cross traditional medical specialties, not all of which are universally available across the MHS.
[The Army Medical Command] and MHS lack a comprehensive pain management strategy that addresses current deficiencies. As a result, pain management initiatives are fragmented - often driven by local champions and subject to retirements, changes of command, and annual budget priorities for their continued existence.[33] (page E-2)
The Army Pain Management Task Force concluded that “improving pain management across the DoD will require a significant reorganization, education, and training effort that will be most effective if pursued as a part of a DoD and [Veterans Health Affairs] partnership.” Additional pain medicine specialists would be needed as would support teams. The teams would manage pain employing a biopsychosocial model of care evolving the standard of care pain management to one not excessively rely on medication and creates a collaborative interdisciplinary approach among providers from differing specialties.
The Task Force encouraged the DoD to responsibly explore safe and effective use of advanced and non-traditional approaches to pain management and to “support efforts to make these modalities covered benefits once they prove safe, effective and cost efficient.” 5 (page E-2)
The Army urged DoD to “establish pain as a priority, with an urgency that leads to practice changes” with attention of prevention, prompt and appropriate treatment to relieve acute pain and eliminate progression to chronic pain when possible. Cooperation between the DoD and VHA would lead to shared common educational materials, venues, protocols, and formularies providing “a standardized DoD and VHA vision and approach to pain management to optimize the care for Warriors and their Families.”5 (page E-3)
In the body of the Task Force Report, acupuncture is specifically identified among 109 recommendations. The recommendation for standardized minimum training, skill attainment and credentials includes acupuncture, spinal manipulation and an expansion of treatment modalities to include CAM and integrative medicine. 5 (page 19). Training, skills and credentials are necessary preconditions to a holistic integrative multi-modal patient-centered care plan. Acupuncture, Yoga/Yoga Nidra, non-allopathic chiropractic care, therapeutic massage, biofeedback, and the mind-body techniques of meditation and mindfulness, combined active and passive modalities, are recommended Tier 1 modalities: the highest level of supporting scientific evidence. 5 (page 44).
The Army Medical Command issued a directive to the Army direct medical care system to engage in a comprehensive pain management campaign plan. The issuance took the format of an Army operational order.[34] The campaign plan included acupuncture and yoga as modalities to reduce overreliance on medication. The operational order provided the mechanism and authority to make acupuncture available in Army military treatment facilities, for credentialing acupuncturists and or other providers to add acupuncture as a privilege when trained and skilled.
In a June 2011 meeting to discuss improving pain management for Warriors and Veterans through the use of integrative medicine General Schoomaker remarked, “This is a unique, historic moment to capitalize on what we know works to effectively treat pain. It marks the beginning of a cultural shift in how health care is practiced in the military.”[35]
The Army Surgeon General’s establishment of the Pain Management Task Force coincided with the U.S. Congress’ passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2010. The final version of that bill, signed into law by the President, included Section 711, which required the Secretary of Defense to develop and implement a comprehensive pain management policy for the Military Health System and to report on its progress to Congress.
While each service has introduced integrative medicine therapies into their pain management paradigm, the U.S. Army Medical Command currently has the strongest mandate for integration with unequivocal support in terms of policy, procedures and resources for acupuncture, yoga, and other alternative pain management modalities that have an adequate base of evidence. The goals of the Army campaign are to meet patient demand for complementary and alternative medicine that is integrated holistically into the lives of Soldiers and family members, and to reduce excessive use, or supplement judicious use of pain medications. The Army Task Force recommended changing the paradigm of pain management to include patient activities in addition to therapy delivered passively by a provider.
The military health benefit continues to evolve, and is based on evidence of efficacy and cost effectiveness. Traditional Chinese Medicine and acupuncture are not yet covered benefits of the TRICARE military health system, but acupuncture in one form or another is available to some beneficiaries on a limited basis within some military treatment facilities. The challenge for proponents of acupuncture and those who seek its benefits is that access is dependent on local factors: i.e., acceptability of the practice in the eyes of local military medical leaders, local credentials and privileging policies, referral mechanisms, and most importantly the availability of acupuncture practitioners.
The challenge of access to acupuncture services is also a challenge of training. Increasing the number of providers trained in acupuncture will in turn increase the availability of acupuncture. Within the last decade, the U.S. Air Force has committed a number of resources to increasing acupuncture availability and training.
The impetus for increased acupuncture availability began with establishment of the first ever, full-time, medical acupuncture clinic at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland in 2002. Through the efforts of two medical acupuncturists Col (Ret) Richard Niemtzow, MD, PhD, MPH and Col (Ret) Stephen M. Burns, MD the clinic offered acupuncture treatments aimed at addressing pain in a more holistic way. The clinic, due to growing demand for acupuncture and reported benefits [36] recently transitioned into an Acupuncture Center (AC).
In addition to the direct offering of acupuncture through the AC, and because of the success of the AC, the Air Force in 2009 sponsored the training of 44 active duty military physicians in medical acupuncture. Representatives from all three services – Army, Navy, Air Force, and a variety of medical specialties participated in the training. The Navy’s Bureau of Medicine and Surgery offered a similar training program in 2009-2010 to Navy participants [37].
These training programs generated a cadre of military physicians now capable of offering acupuncture services. However the time constraints of current clinical practice (approximately 10 to 20 minutes per patient) presents a challenge to physicians offering a more traditional acupuncture treatment that includes a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation and treatment [37]. Additionally, military physicians practice in a number of austere training and combat-operational environments that are not always conducive to a traditional acupuncture treatment; and the frequent deployments and military household moves render a transitory nature to patients, making follow-up more difficult. In response to these clinical challenges, a number of simple, standardized acupuncture protocols have been developed [37]. While these approaches may not take advantage of the complete holistic models needed, they do offer new, non-drug and non-stigmatizing options for pain and are scalable to a large population. The Samueli Institute is currently testing the effectiveness of this standardized approach compared to a more holistic acupuncture model and conventional care on pain in service members with TBI. This research will help determine the “dose” and framework needed for delivery of acupuncture in the most efficient manner.
In addition, the military is using other acupuncture approach models. These include the Helms Medical Institute auricular trauma protocol (ATP) [38] which is an ear acupuncture protocol in which needles are administered sequentially to the following points: hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, Master Cerebral, and Point Zero. The needles are typically left in for 30-120 minutes. The rationale for this protocol is based on the concept that the three affected neurological structures in traumatic stress – amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex – are correlated with somatotopic reflex zones found on the ears. The “Koffman Cocktail” is a bilateral, 4-point acupuncture protocol developed by U.S. Navy Capt Robert L. Koffman, MD which has been suggested to be a calming and centering treatment [37]. The best known of these standardized protocols is battlefield acupuncture (BFA). BFA is a bilateral, 5-point ear acupuncture protocol aimed at addressing a number of pain conditions [39]. The following acupuncture points are sequentially administrated: Cingulate Gyrus, Thalamus point, Omega 2, Point Zero, and Shen Men. Either the left or right ear is chosen for the placement of the needles, or the needles are administered bilaterally until pain attenuation is reached. BFA was developed by Dr. Niemtzow and has demonstrated preliminary success for a number of refractory pain conditions [40], and has been associated with improved quality of life [36].
The additional expressed appeal of these simple, standardized acupuncture protocols lies in the ability to teach a variety of providers who have no formal acupuncture training. The Air Force Medical Service, through the Acupuncture Center, has begun to teach “mini-courses” in BFA. The course is conducted by medical acupuncturists who have been trained in BFA and have used it extensively in their own practice. The BFA course is typically conducted over a one or two day time period and instruction includes background on the mechanistic theory of BFA and a supervised clinical practice [37].
While these initiatives represent a profound change in military medicine in terms of approach and delivery, how they are affecting acupuncture availability and utilization across the military is unclear. Currently there has been no formal analysis of acupuncture availability or utilization. However a number of media reports have documented the availability and use of acupuncture throughout the military. These reports detail stories of both the front line and state side use of acupuncture for PTSD, mild TBI, and pain.
On the front line, acupuncture has been used to treat PTSD and mild TBI at the Concussion Restoration Care Center (CRCC), Camp Leatherneck, Afghanistan. The CRCC is part of a joint Navy-Marine Corps effort, Operation Stress Control and Readiness Program, in which psychiatrists and psychologists are placed within combat teams to provide mental health care to troops in Afghanistan[41]. The former director of CRCC reported that, of the troops he personally treated, a majority of them experienced improvements in sleep and decreases in anxiety levels and frequency of headaches. Another story details acupuncture being used by a military physical therapist to treat service members at the Courage Clinic, Camp Victory, Iraq[42]. More recently acupuncture has begun to be offered to patients and crewmembers aboard the Military Sealift Command hospital ship USNS Mercy in Vietnam for pain and associated ailments[43]. Acupuncture was also used for pain management and stress relief aboard the hospital ship USNS Comfort as part of a humanitarian and civic assistance mission[44].
In the U.S. acupuncture has been used at a number of military treatment facilities (MTFs) as a part of holistic, multi-disciplinary programs. As mentioned earlier, the Acupuncture Center at Joint Andrews Base has utilized acupuncture for a number of pain conditions, sleep, and psychological issues[36]. At Walter Reed National Naval Medical Center (WRNNMC) acupuncture has been used for phantom limb pain and it is used in the Specialized Care Program (SCP) at the Deployment Health Clinical Center. The SCP is a three-week, multidisciplinary, therapy program for service members with post-deployment health concerns[45]. At the National Intrepid Center of Excellence in Bethesda, Maryland acupuncture is used for treating stress and psychological disorders such as TBI and post-traumatic stress[46]. In Texas acupuncture is part of the medical care offered to the Warrior Transition Brigade at Ft. Hood for pain management and stress relief[47] and it is part of the Integrative Medicine Center (IMC) at Ft. Bliss. The IMC was the first physical health and integrative medicine clinic in the Department of Defense when it opened its doors approximately six years ago[48]. Also, the Naval Medical Center San Diego (NMCSD) has been offering acupuncture since 1999 for the treatment and management of pain[49] and just this year acupuncture was reported to be one of the complementary therapies offered in the Wounded Warrior Program at Naval Hospital Camp Pendleton[50].
An unpublished paper[51] examining the differences in the amount of services utilized between non-acupuncture and acupuncture patients for the same diagnosis within the DoD provides information, albeit preliminary and limited, on acupuncture availability and impact on cost from the perspective of a military treatment facility (MTF). The paper reports that in 2008 the DoD had more than 40 licensed acupuncturists and that acupuncture was offered at 40 different MTFs. Data on acupuncture utilization revealed that in 2008 there were 12,209 clinical encounters that received an acupuncture code (Common Procedural Terminology (CPT code). The majority of this patient population was between the ages of 20 and 49 and active duty personnel. The top three diagnoses accompanying acupuncture codes were for low back pain, fibromyalgia (myalgia), and neck pain. The author highlighted possible reasons for the increased encounters by patients receiving acupuncture: 1) those who receive acupuncture usually do so as part of a program of other therapies that would result in more encounters and 2) patients who elect to utilize acupuncture usually tend to do so as a last resort therefore their conditions are usually more difficult to treat and are associated with increased encounters.
The paper concluded that patients who received acupuncture had more encounters resulting in an increase of “revenue” for MTFs of approximately $2 million as calculated in the study[51]. The fact that the study did not address per patient per year government costs or opportunity cost for the MTF prevents definitive conclusions to be drawn. While the limited analysis reported in this paper sheds some preliminary light on the cost impact of acupuncture on the military health system, there has yet to be a rigorous, comprehensive assessment of cost analyses of acupuncture across the DoD. Recent economic analyses of acupuncture within civilian health care systems have found it to be cost-effective for chronic pain[51], low back pain[52],[53], headache[54], and neck pain[55].
The integration of any new therapy into an existing system of care requires continued evaluation and assessment. While there has been a considerable amount research examining the effectiveness of acupuncture conducted in the civilian population, there has been a paucity of acupuncture research conducted in the military population. A review conducted to assess the quantity and quality of acupuncture research within the military and veteran populations found a total of only two RCTs, two observational studies, and four descriptive studies[56]. The mixed quality of these studies did not allow the authors to draw any definitive conclusions regarding the effect of acupuncture. However the review did note that there are indicators pointing to an increase in acupuncture research within these populations. A quick search of the clinicaltrials.gov database (a database that provides the public with information about current ongoing clinical research studies) found approximately a dozen trials examining the effectiveness of acupuncture for a wide range of conditions including sleep, quality of life, sore throat, gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), Gulf War Illness, and acute pain.
Additionally the review highlighted a select number of completed or ongoing studies that examined acupuncture for pain and stress disorders. Studies included an observational trial conducted in 2005 evaluating the benefits of acupuncture offered through the Acupuncture Center at the Joint Andrews Base for acute and chronic pain in active duty military personnel, dependents, and retirees. Significant reductions in pain and improved quality of life scores were reported[36]. A number of studies have been completed however the results have yet to be published. They include a pilot study evaluating the feasibility of integrating BFA into the aeromedical evacuation system from Ramstien Air Base, Germany to Joint Andrews Base and another pilot study examining acupuncture for phantom limb pain that yielded promising preliminary data. In 2006 a RCT evaluated acupuncture for PTSD in a cohort of service members and the results were presented at a symposium in 2008. Finally the review mentioned an exploratory, randomized study to examine the effectiveness of acupuncture for TBI related headache in an active duty population at Walter Reed National Naval Medical Center that began in 2011[56]. Of particular interest is the design of this study which will compare a standardized ear acupuncture technique (developed by a medical acupuncturist) to an individualized, semi-standard acupuncture protocol (developed by a licensed acupuncturist and psychiatrist)[57]. While headache is the primary outcome of this study additional secondary measures examining sleep, stress, depression, and anxiety will be collected.
While these reports of current and ongoing research will add valuable information in terms of acupuncture effectiveness, a significant gap remains between how acupuncture is being utilized and the amount of acupuncture research that has been conducted in military populations. An increase in research efforts will be required to determine if these military initiatives are successfully being translated into improved health outcomes and cost savings.
The initiatives discussed in this chapter represent recognition by the military health system that successful pain management requires a more comprehensive, holistic approach. They also represent a clear commitment by the military to augment the current health care system to allow for the inclusion of these therapies as complements to conventional pharmacological and multi-disciplinary approaches.
As it has been noted here and elsewhere [58] many barriers still exist and will need to be addressed before full integration is realized. They include increasing the availability of acupuncture through changes in credentialing and privileging polices for those already trained and increasing acupuncture training opportunities; developing curricula to educate medical students and current providers in integrative therapies; and to develop assessment tools that capture effectiveness outcomes and impact outcomes (utilization and cost/benefit analyses). As of August 2012 evidence-based complementary modalities are not yet a TRICARE (health care program for Uniformed Service members, retirees and their families worldwide) benefit.
The authors would like to thank Doug Cavarocchi for his assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. This work is supported by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command under Award No. W81XWH-06-1-0279 to Samueli Institute. The views, opinions and/or findings contained in this work are those of the author(s) and should not be construed as an official Department of the Army position, policy or decision unless so designated by other documentation.
Typical commercial and civilian satellite systems take about 2–3years to build and launch [1, 2, 3, 4], while military systems take between 7 and 10 years [5, 6]. A typical production flow for assembling and launching of a space vehicle is presented in Ref. [6] and redrawn in Figure 1 as introduction steps for better understanding of the design, build and launch of a satellite system. This chapter focuses on practical design issues for satellite Bus’ and mission PL’s system/subsystem components builds, and corresponding interface-design’s challenges associated with satellite Bus integration, mission PL integration, and satellite system integration. A survey of existing commercial, civilian and military satellite systems revealed that a typical satellite Bus includes the following modular components [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]:
Bus Subsystem 1—Bus TX/RX Antenna Subsystem (BAS): Provide Bus’s Receive (RX)/Transmit (TX) antennas and associated Bus’s antenna beam control functions;
Bus Subsystem 2—Bus Communication RF Front-End-Back-End Subsystem (BCom-RFS): Provide Low Noise Amplifier (LNA), High Power Amplifier (HPA), satellite Bus Down/Up Radio Frequency (RF)-to-Intermediate Frequency (IF) conversion, and Analog-to-Digital/Digital-to-Analog conversion functions—Note that typical HPAs are Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) and Solid State Power Amplifier (SSPA), and some advanced satellite transponders use Linearized TWTA (L-TWTA) or L-SSPA in the RF Back-End Subsystem;
Bus Subsystem 3—Bus Command & Data Handling Subsystem (BC&DHS): On-board computer that interfaces with all Bus components;
Bus Subsystem 4—Bus Telemetry-Tracking & Command Subsystem (BTT&CS): Process uplink satellite Bus command data, perform satellite tracking functions and provide downlink Bus telemetry reporting satellite Bus’s heath and conditions;
Bus Subsystem 5—Bus Electrical Power Subsystem (BEPS): Provide and regulate Bus power;
Bus Subsystem 6—Bus Thermal Control Subsystem (BTCS): Maintain Bus’ thermal environments;
Bus Subsystem 7—Bus Altitude and Determination Control Subsystem (BADCS): Provide satellite stabilization, control and positioning;
Bus Subsystem 8—Bus Propulsion Subsystem (BPS): Provide propulsion functions for satellite maneuvering;
Bus Subsystem 9—Bus Communication Security Subsystem (BCOMSEC): Provide Bus data encryption and decryption functions to protect data from intruders. Typically, BCOMSEC is tightly coupled with BTT&CS;
Bus Subsystem 10—Bus Structure & Mechanism Subsystem (BS&MS): Provide structure and mechanism to mount all satellite Bus components.
A typical satellite system production flow (redrawn from [
Similarly, our survey also revealed that a typical mission PL consists of the following modular components [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]:
PL Subsystem 1—PL PAS: Similar to BPAS but for mission PL;
PL Subsystem 2—PL Com-RFS: Similar to BCom-RFS but for mission PL;
PL Subsystem 3—PL Digital Processing Subsystem (PDPS): Provide mission specific processing functions. For SATCOM missions, specific processing functions can be dynamic resources control, channelization processing, etc. For PNT missions, the functions can be time transfer processing functions. For imaging/sensing missions, the functions can be image preprocessing functions;
PL Subsystem 4—PL C&DHS: Similar to BC&DHS but for mission PL;
PL Subsystem 5—PL TT&CS: Similar to BTT&CS but for mission PL;
PL Subsystem 6—PL EPS: Existing PLs use power supply from satellite BEPS;
PL Subsystem 7—PL TCS: Maintain PL’s thermal environments;
PL Subsystem 8—PL ADCS: Existing PLs use ADCS from the satellite BADCS;
PL Subsystem 9—PL PS:: Existing mission PLs use PS from the satellite BPS;
PL Subsystem 10—PL COMSEC: Similar to BCOMSEC but for mission PL;
PL Subsystem 11—PL Frequency & Timing Subsystem (PFTS): Provide reference frequency and timing functions to meet specific mission requirements;
PL Subsystem 12—PL Transmission Security Subsystem (TRANSEC): Provide security functions to combat unintentional and/or intentional Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) (e.g., frequency hopping/de-hopping, frequency spreading/de-spreading);
PL Subsystem 13—PL Specific Mission Suite (SMS): Provide specific mission PL processing functions depending on whether the mission is Satellite Communications (SATCOM) mission or Position Navigation and Timing (PNT) mission or Imaging/Sensing mission [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16];
PL Subsystem 14—PL Structure & Mechanism Subsystem (BS&MS): Provide structure and mechanism to mount all mission PL components.
In practice, the above satellite Bus modular components can be found in the following typical satellite Busses [7, 11, 14]:
Loral Satellite Bus 1300 or Loral 1300
Lockheed Martin (LM) A2100A/AX-Land Mobile/AX-High Power
Boeing 702HP/HP-GEM/MP/702SP and 502.
For achieving optimum weight and power, existing satellite Bus and mission PL are tightly coupled together with customized interface design. The industry trends for the design and build of future satellite systems are moving toward OSA using MOSA principles, in which the satellite Bus is loosely coupled with the mission PL using “Open” and widely accepted interface standards. The key communication linkage between a satellite Bus and a mission PL is the communication data Bus. Currently, majority of satellite Busses employ the standard 1553 data Bus for data communications among Bus components, and between the satellite Bus and mission PL components. The communications over 1553 data Bus is limited to 1 Mega bit per second (Mbps). Recently, there was an advanced development effort that was funded by the U.S DOD to develop new 1553 standards called 1553 Enhanced Bit Rate (EBR–1553) increasing the speed to 10 MB/s [17]. The EBR-1553 requires a star/hub topology to provide the higher data rate and additional components to implement the architecture. For data rates larger than 10 Mbps, space industry trend is moving toward SpaceWire data Bus that was recently developed in Europe for use in commercial satellites and scientific spacecraft [18].
The objective of this chapter is three-fold: (1) Provides an overview of existing modular satellite Bus, mission PL architectures and related communication data Busses, (2) Discusses future trends on the modular and open design and build of satellite Bus and mission payload using MOSA principles, and (3) Addresses the practical design challenges associated with “Modular” and “Open” design for future satellite Bus and mission PL. The chapter is organized as follow: (i) Section 2 describes existing modular satellite Bus and mission PL architectures and related communication data Busses; (ii) Section 3 presents industry view on “Open” and “Close” interfaces for connecting satellite system components and existing popular standards; (iii) Section 4 discusses the interface design challenges and provides an overview of MOSA and related DOD Guidance and assessment tools for MOSA implementation; (iv) Section 5 provides examples how to transition modular satellite Bus and mission PL architectures to modular-and-open architectures using MOSA implementation approach and tools in Section 4; and (v) Section 6 concludes the chapter with remarks on the benefits associated with the proposed approach.
Figure 2 describes an overview of existing satellite systems, consisting of a satellite Bus, a mission PL and a typical set of interfaces between the Bus and PL using a standard data Bus. A typical set of interfaces between the satellite Bus and a mission PL includes seven interface types, namely: (i) Physical & Mechanical Interface, (ii) Electrical/Power/Cable Interface, (iii) Grounding Interface, (iv) Software & Data Interface, (v) Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)/ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)/Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) and Electro Static Discharge (ESD) Interface, (vi) Thermal Interface, and (vii) Frequency & Timing (F&T) Interface. This section focuses on satellite Bus and mission PL architectures and the data interfaces between them. Subsections 2.1 and 2.2 describe existing satellite Bus and mission PL architectures along with related interfaces and industry standards, respectively. Subsection 2.3 discusses existing standard 1553 data Bus and the pushes from space industry moving toward military standard 1553-B data Bus (MIL-STD-1553-B) and high-data-rate SpaceWire data Bus.
Overview of existing satellite Systems using standard 1553 data bus.
As described in Section 1, existing satellite Bus architecture includes typical 10 modular components, namely, BAS, BComRFS, BC&DHS, BTT&CS, BEPS, BTCS, BADCS, BPS, BCOMSEC and BS&MS. A functional description for each of these modular Bus components is also described in Section 1. Figure 3 illustrates a notional block diagram for existing modular satellite Bus architecture. The figure shows that space industry has used the modular design concept to architect the satellite Bus, where common functions are group together and then isolate or separate from the other group of functions. As an example, BAS consists of a group of antenna components and control functions (e.g., antenna pointing, beamforming, etc.), which is separated and isolated from BComRFS. It is important to note that the figure also shows how these satellite Bus components are connected together, i.e., the lines with arrows connecting them. These lines represent the interfaces among the Bus components, where the interface can be any of the seven interface types described above. Below is a list of some of the existing interfaces and associated standards for existing satellite Bus based on National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), U.S. DOD and international Consultative Committee for Space Data System (CCSDS) standards [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]:
Typical NASA Electrical/Power/Cable Interface Standards [19, 20]:
Satellite Bus shall protect its own electrical power system via overcurrent protection devices on its side of the interface.
Satellite Bus shall deliver a maximum transient current on any Power Feed Bus of 100% (that is, two times the steady state current) of the maximum steady-state current for no longer than 50 ms.
Bus Survival Heaters, which are elements of the Bus thermal subsystem, shall be required to have power to heat certain satellite Bus components during off-nominal scenarios when the BEPS power is not fully energized.
Typical U.S. DOD EMC/EMI/EMP/ESD Interface Standards [21]:
Power line conducted emissions for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Section 6, 6.01, 6.02, 6,03, 6.04, 6.05, 6.06, 6.07, and 6.08.
Power line conducted susceptibility for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Sections 6, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18 and 6.19.
ESD susceptibility for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Section 6, 6.43.
EMP susceptibility for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Section 6, 6.45.
Typical NASA Grounding Interface Standards [20, 22]:
Satellite Bus EPS should ground in a way that reduces introducing stray currents or ground loop currents into the satellite Bus components.
Satellite Bus ground interface shall follow NASA single-point ground or multiple-point ground architecture.
Typical NASA Thermal Interface Standards [19, 20]:
A conductive heat transfer of 15 W/m2 or 4 W shall be considered small enough to meet the intent of being thermally isolated.
Typical Software & Data Interface Standards [19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26]:
Satellite Bus command and telemetry data formats shall be NASA Unified S-Band (USB)/CCSDS standards or U.S. DOD Space-Ground Link Subsystem (SGLS) standards. Note that (i) most of NASA and ESA standards are CCSDS compliance for interoperability purpose, and (ii) some military systems have both USB and SGLS capabilities.
Satellite Bus “Safe Mode” is a combined satellite Bus components hardware and software configuration that shall be designed to protect the components from possible internal or external harm while making minimal use of satellite Bus resources (e.g., power).
Satellite Command SAFE Mode shall be required to protect and preserve satellite Bus components under anomalous and resource constrained conditions.
Satellite Bus components shall respond to uplink commands from the Satellite Operation Center (SOC) to suspend and resume the transmission of the Components’ telemetry data. For commercial satellite systems, SOC can also control the mission PL.
Existing notional modular satellite bus architecture.
For military applications, majority of satellite Busses are usually designed using contractor’s custom designed interfaces and very tightly couple together to reduce weight, size and power. It is for this reason, current military satellite BTT&CS component also include the COMSEC component. For commercial applications, satellite developers are also concerned with weight, size and power reduction, but they are also concerned with component refresh and upgrade without redesigning the satellite Bus, hence commercial satellites tend to use modular Bus components and widely accepted interface standards to connect the internal Bus components. Industry views on the “open” and “close” interfaces will be addressed in Section 4.
As pointed out in Section 1, existing mission PL architecture consists of 14 modular components, but there are three PL components that rely on the satellite Bus’ design, namely, PL EPS, PL ADCS and PL PS. Therefore, the mission PL architecture usually has 11 modular components, including PL AS, PL Com-RFS, PDPS, PL C&DHS, PL TT&CS, PL TCS, PL COMSEC, PFTS, PL TRANSEC, PL SMS and PL S&MS. A functional description for each of these mission PL modular components is also provided in Section 1. Figure 4 presents a notional block diagram for existing modular mission PL architecture. Similar to the satellite Bus design, the space industry has also applied the modular design concept to architect the mission PL. Below is a list of some of the existing interfaces and associated standards for existing mission PL leveraged from NASA, ESA, U.S. DOD and international CCSDS standards [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]:
Typical NASA Electrical/Power/Cable Interface Standards [19, 20]:
Sizing all components of the mission PL power harness, such as the wires, connectors, sockets, and pins to the peak power level shall be required by the mission PL equipment in addition to satellite Bus to prevent damage to the power harnessing.
PL Survival Heaters shall be required to have power to heat certain mission PL components during off-nominal scenarios when the BEPS power is not fully energized.
Typical U.S. DOD EMC/EMI/EMP/ESD Interface Standards [21]: Similar to satellite Bus discussed above but for mission PL.
Typical NASA Grounding Interface Standards [20, 22]: Similar to satellite Bus discussed above but for mission PL.
Typical NASA Thermal Interface Standards [19, 20]:
The mission PL thermal design should be decoupled from the satellite Bus at the mechanical interface between the satellite Bus and neighboring mission payload to the maximum practical extent.
A conductive heat transfer of 15 W/m2 or 4 W shall be considered small enough to meet the intent of being thermally isolated.
Typical Software & Data Interface Standards [19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26]:
Mission PL command and telemetry data formats shall be NASA USB/CCSDS standards commercial applications or U.S. DOD SGLS standards for military applications. Some military systems have both USB and SGLS capabilities.
PL “Safe Mode” is a combined mission PL components hardware and software configuration that shall be designed to protect the PL components from possible internal or external harm while making minimal use of satellite Bus resources (e.g., power).
PL Command SAFE Mode shall be required to protect and preserve mission PL components under anomalous and resource constrained conditions.
Mission PL components shall respond to uplink commands from Mission Control Center (MCC) to suspend and resume the transmission of the mission PL components.
Mission PL shall be responsible for on-board mission data storage capabilities.
Existing notional modular Mission payload architecture.
For most commercial applications, the MCC can be merged with the SOC, and the mission PL TT&CS (PTT&CS) and PL CD&HS (PCD&HS) components can be incorporated into satellite (i) Bus TT&C (BTT&CS) and (ii) Bus CD&HS (BCD&HS) components, respectively. Similar to the satellite Bus interfaces design, for military applications, the mission PL components are tightly coupled using contractor’s custom designed interfaces. For commercial applications, the mission PL components are loosely coupled using widely accepted open interfaces.
Subsections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 provide an overview of standard 1553 and SpaceWire communication data Busses, respectively.
Existing commercial, civilian and military satellite data Busses have been using Military Standard 1553B (MIL-STD-1553B) data Bus for communications among satellite Bus and mission PL components. Figure 5 describes a typical MIL-STD-1553B System [17, 27, 28]. This figure uses MIL-STD-1553B terminologies: (i) the Bus Controller (BC) is considered as an Intelligent Terminal (IT) that is located in the satellite mission computer, which is usually referred to as a Satellite Bus C&DH component, and (ii) Remote Terminal (RT) is considered as a slave terminal that is located in satellite platform components, which can be located in any satellite Bus or mission PL components.
Typical civilian and commercial MIL-STD-1553B satellite Systems.
Figure 5 shows a typical commercial satellite system with RTs located in both satellite Bus and mission PL components. As an Example, the RTs located in satellite components are BAS, BADCS, BTCS and BTT&CS; and RTs located in the mission PL components are PAS, PTCS, PDPS, PTRANSEC, and PFTS. For military applications, the Mission Computer (MC) can be located in both satellite Bus and mission PL, where the MC in the satellite Bus is responsible for all control functions associated with the satellite operations and MC in the mission PL is responsible for all control functions related to the mission PL operations.
SpaceWire (SpW) is an industry standard with protocol derived from IEEE-1355 and ECSS-E50-12C managing by the international SpW working Group [18, 29, 30]. The SpW standard is a self-managing serial protocol that provides a high-speed data rates from 2 to 400 Mbps, and low power serial interface using LVDS1 Drivers with distances up to 30 feet while offering a flexible simple user interface. Figure 6 illustrates typical uses of SpW data Bus with a PCD&HS, a SpW Router and SpW cables for connecting mission PL components. Some examples of existing satellite programs employed SpaceWire standard are: TacSat (part of the U.S. Operationally Responsive Space Program), NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (Orbiting the Moon taking high resolution images), ESA Sentinel-3 (a pair of satellites providing operational Earth observation services using optical and microwave instruments), and Japanese NEC NEXTTAR (one of the first spacecraft designed using SpW for all of its onboard communications).
Typical civilian and commercial SpaceWire satellite Systems.
Figure 7 presents the space industry view on open and close interface design. This view separates the interface design into two categories, namely, Contractor Proprietary Interface and Contractor Non-Proprietary Interface. Under this view, the interface standards are then classified into two categories, namely, Preferred and Non-Preferred Interface Standards. Based on this view, Section 3.1 defines open interface design, and Section 3.2 defines close interface design. Section 3.3 provides a list of existing popular open standards widely accepted by space industry.
Industry view on open and closed interfaces design.
From Figure 7, the open interface design falls into the contractor non-proprietary design category. For the interface design to be open, the interface design shall not be contractor proprietary and that the interface shall use either popular open interface standards widely accepted by space industry or open interface standards with little market support and narrowly used by space industry. Thus, a popular open interface design is a non-proprietary design that uses popular open interface standard that is widely used by space industry. The benefits of open interface design for the satellite buyers are (i) improving competition allowing various space vendors (or contractor) to build open satellite Bus and mission PL subsystem components, (ii) ease of refresh and technology upgrade allowing to swap subsystem components without impacting the overall system, (iii) ease of adapting to new requirements and operational threats, (iv) incorporating innovation by allowing operational flexibility to configure and reconfigure a mission PL quickly to meet rapidly changing operational requirements, (v) enabling cost saving and cost avoidance during the design and sustainment phases by reusing technology and Software/Hardware/Middleware (SW/HW/MW) components, and using existing standardized HW/SW/MW parts and modules, and (vi) improving interoperability where severable HW/SW/MW modules can be changed independently.
As shown in Figure 7, the close interface design shall fall into contractor proprietary category. For an interface design to be close, it shall be contractor proprietary and that the interface shall use either close interface standards with little market support narrowly used by space industry or popular closed interface standards widely used by space industry. Thus, a popular close interface design is a contractor proprietary design that uses popular closed interface that is widely used by space industry. The key benefits of close interface design are the potential reduction of weight, size, power and manufacturing cost.
Based on Figure 7, the criteria for popular open standards are (i) publicly available and widely used by both satellite Bus and mission PL vendors, (ii) community and/or industry consensus-based that are matured and stable, and (iii) technically adequate for all future commercial, civilian and military satellite systems. Following is a list of current popular standard organizations and widely adopted open standards [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]:
Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) Standards: is a multi-national forum for the development of communications and data systems standards for spaceflight. The goal is to enhance governmental and commercial interoperability and cross-support, while also reducing risk, development time and project costs.
AIAA Space Plug-and-play Avionics (SPA) Standard: SPA is a set of AIAA standards developed for spacecraft platform, subsystem, and component (including payload) developers for integrating plug-and-play characteristics into spacecraft structures, avionics, and hardware and software components to promote their rapid integration. The SPA community anticipates adding protocols (e.g., Ethernet as SPA-E) as the PnP capabilities are normalized.
MIL-STD-1553 Standard: is a military standard published by the United States Department of Defense that defines the mechanical, electrical, and functional characteristics of a serial data Bus.
SpaceWire Standard: is a spacecraft communication network standard based in part on the IEEE 1355 standard of communications. It is coordinated by the European Space Agency (ESA) in collaboration with international space agencies including NASA, Japanese Space Agency (JAXA) and Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA).
NASA/SMC/Aerospace Hosted Payload Interface Design (HPID): this design guideline provides a prospective Instrument Developer with technical recommendations to assist them in designing an Instrument or Payload that may be flown as a hosted payload on commercial satellites flown in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), or Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO).
SQL for databases specified in ANSI ISO/IEC 9075–1, ISO/IEC 9075–2, ISO/IEC 9075–3, ISO/IEC 9075–4, ISO/IEC 9075–5.
HTML for presentation layer specified in XML 1.0 www.webstandards.org.
XML for data transfer.
Web Services for remote system calls.
U.S. Space and Missile Systems Center (SMC) approved a project for developing Common Payload Interface Specification (CoPaIS) standard for satellite-to-payload Command and Data Handling (C&DH) interface intended for all future SMC procured medium to large satellites [31].
Other popular standards: MIL-STD-1553B, CAN Bus, RS-422 (TTC-B01 Protocol)/EIA/TIA-422, RS-422 (PC-Protocol).
This section addresses the design challenges and is divided into four subsections, including: (i) Subsection 4.1 discusses interface design and practical design issues; (ii) Subsection 4.2 introduces MOSA concept; (iii) Subsection 4.3 presents DOD MOSA guidance and the U.S. Naval Open Architecture (NOA); and (iv) Subsection 4.4 discusses MOSA tools and approach for MOSA implementation that addresses the design issues identified in Subsection 4.1.
The interfaces between satellite subsystem components can be SW, HW or MW interfaces. The design and build of these interfaces are well incorporated into any satellite subsystem components “Design Product” and associated “Design Process”.
The Design Product includes System Architecture, Interface Product, Independent Verification and Validation (IV&V) Test Plan, Schedule, Design Approach, Acceptance Criteria, and System-Built Product.
For MOSA, the Design Process is expected to incorporate MOSA into: Architecture Process, Interface Management, IV&V Process, and System Engineering and Integration (SE&I) Process. The Interface Product and its open interface design using MOSA along with the Interface Management are the key challenges in the development of open-and-modular satellite systems. The key design challenges for the design and build of open-and-modular satellite systems are:
Challenge 1: Determination of Key Open Subsystem (KOSS): This is also known as KOSS Selection. Ideally, all modular subsystem components should be made open. But this is not practical, because some interfaces need to be customized using close interface design due to weight, size and power reduction requirements. The key challenge here is to identify a set of criteria that can be used for KOSS selection. Subsections 4.3 and 4.4 will address this challenge.
Challenge 2: Designation of Key Interfaces for the Selected KOSS: Satellite system designers need to identify a subset of selected set of KOSS components that can be designated as key interfaces. The key challenge here is to identify a business case for the designated key interfaces. Subsections 4.3 and 4.4 will describe selection criteria and tool to address this challenge.
Challenge 3: Selection of Open Standards for the Designated Key Interfaces: Selection of the popular and open standards for the designated key interfaces is also a potential challenge for the designers. The selection should be based on the cost, required technical specification and availability of “open” products in the market and their usage by space industry. SubSection 3.3 above provides a list of some existing open and popular standards. Subsection 4.4 will discuss how to resolve this challenge by developing a business case to justify the selection of key interfaces and associated open standards.
Challenge 4: Management of Key Open Interfaces: Not all identified key interfaces in Challenge 2 can be designated an open interface standard at the initial system design phase due to market unavailability. Hence, managing these interfaces can be a potential challenge ensuring that they will be “open” by the time of Full Operational Capability (FOC) deployment. Section 4.3 discusses DOD guidance for managing key interfaces for military satellite system development.
U.S. DOD recommends OSA design using MOSA principles for future military satellite system development with a goal to achieve a balance between business and technical objectives that make a business sense in terms of (i) increase competition and lower system acquisition cost, and (ii) lower sustainment cost over its life cycle. MOSA design approach requires to implement five MOSA principles, including two Business (B) and three Technical (T) principles [1, 2]. Figure 8 captures these five B and T principles. Recently, U.S. Navy augmented MOSA principles with addition five Naval Open Architecture (NOA) principles, including two business and three technical principles as shown in Figure 8 [3].
MOSA and U.S. NOA approach.
Subsections 2.1 and 2.2 provide current implementation of the Technical principle 1 (T1) for the modular design of satellite Bus and mission PL, respectively. The remaining Subsections 4.3 and 4.4 discuss the implementation of T2, T6, Business principle 3 (B3), and B4 using DOD guidance for addressing the challenges presented in Subsection 4.1.
MOSA mandated the space system technical requirements be based on the maximum extent practicable on open standards as indicated in Section 3.2 of the U.S. DOD Guidebook for Program Managers [1]. The book provides MOSA2 guidelines and contract language for generating a Request for Proposal (RFP) [1]. At the minimum, the RFP shall incorporate the following MOSA tasks that can help to minimize the MOSA implementation risk in the design, build and test of new satellite systems:
Design the open system architecture using open interfaces. Implement the open interfaces using open standards for connecting HW-to-HW, and SW-to-SW.
The satellite system design shall accommodate growth and provide open interface standards to allow future reconfiguration and addition of new capabilities without large-scale redesign of the system.
Develop a capability roadmap for the system covering the life of the system following the completion of the rapid prototyping contract phase.
Address “Commercial Off the Shelf/Non-Developmental Item and Open System Software Licenses,” including Open Source Software, Verification of Open Architecture, Modular Open Systems Approach Metrics to be Reported, Modular Open System Approach Analysis Report.
Generate Open System Management Plan (OSMP) to capture all MOSA activities, technology roadmaps; Define and track MOSA metrics; Update roadmap. Following is a list of MOSA metrics that should be used to demonstrate an open satellite system:
Number and location of private extensions on open interfaces;
Contractor use of company private extensions on open standard middleware;
Open Software Design Tool Kits/Component Design Tool Kits (OSDTK/CDTK) will be provided with a minimum of Government Purpose Right (GPR); Minimal license fees may apply for COTS items;
Percentage of Chief Engineers, IPT Leads and program team members on architecture, software, logistics and Test & Evaluation trained in Open Systems Architecture and the MOSA tools;
Future Competition Strategy included in the OA Business plan within the OSMP;
MOSA (or OSA) requirements flowed down to sub-tier suppliers and recorded in IBM Rational® DOORS® requirements database or an MBSE digital model.
Design a system that consists of hierarchical collections of software, hardware, and firmware Configuration Items (CI’s). Document in the MOSA Analysis Report its modularization choices for the system design and any tradeoffs performed in accordance with the OA verification plan.
Document any processes or applications necessary to support MOSA in the MOSA Analysis Report.
The above U.S. DOD’s guidance encourages the satellite system designers to consider the above MOSA items in the design and build of the modular and open satellite Bus and mission payload for future space systems. The following section presents a proposal for assisting the satellite system designers to implement these MOSA items along with assessment tools provided by U.S. DOD.
It is observed that the U.S. DOD, U.S. civilian agencies (e.g., NASA, NOAA, etc) and U.S. satellite manufacturers/suppliers (e.g., LM, Boeing, Northrop Grumman (NG), Raytheon, L3, etc) are investigating approaches for the modular and open design and build of satellite Busses and mission PL’s using MOSA modular and open design principles. Figure 9 proposes an approach to design and build of future modular and open satellite Busses and mission PLs, and allowing the satellite buyers to: (i) Buy the satellite Bus (see Path A of the figure) and mission PL (see Path B) from different satellite manufacturers/suppliers, (ii) Have an option to choose a third satellite vendor to integrate the satellite Bus and mission PL (see Path C).
Proposed implementation approach for design and build of satellite Systems allowing buyers to acquire satellite bus and Mission PL independently.
The proposed MOSA implementation approach shown in Figure 4 consists of six basic steps that are incorporated into three execution paths, namely, Path A, Path B and Path C:
Path A is for the satellite Bus manufacturer/supplier. This path has three basic steps:
Step I-A: Develop Modular satellite Bus Architecture (MoBA). The MoBA subsystem components are described in Sections 1 and 2 (see Figure 3).
Step II-A: Designate KOSS’s and select open standards for all internal satellite Bus subsystem components. Open interface standards selection and designation of KOSS are discussed in Sections 3 and 4.
Step III-A: Design and build Open Modular satellite Bus System (OMoBS). This step is achieved by identifying all potential KOSS’s from the satellite Bus to any mission PL’s, i.e., the selected KOSS’s should be independent of mission types. The satellite Bus manufacturer is responsible for integrating all Bus components and have the satellite Bus ready for sale.
Path B is for the mission PL manufacturer/supplier. This path also has three basic steps that are similar to Path A:
Step I-B: Develop Modular Mission PL Architecture (MoPA). The MoPA subsystem components are also described in Sections 1 and 2 (see Figure 4).
Step II-B: Designate KOSS’s and select open standards for all internal Mission PL subsystem components. Open interface standards selection and designation of KOSS for mission PL are also discussed in Sections 3 and 4.
Step III-B: Design and build Open Modular Mission PL System (OMoPS). This step is achieved by identifying all potential KOSS’s from the any mission PL’s to satellite Bus, i.e., the selected KOSS’s should be independent of mission types. The mission PL manufacturer is responsible for integrating all mission PL components and have the PL ready for sale.
Path C is for the satellite system integrator. This path has additional three new steps:
Step IV: The system integrator works with satellite Bus and mission PL manufacturers to develop a satellite system interface specification specifying all “open” and “close” interfaces between the mission PL-and-satellite Bus. All open interfaces between the mission PL-and-satellite Bus shall be selected to meet the business and performance objectives approved by the buyer. The system integrator performs satellite Bus and mission PL integration using the approved interface specification.
Step V: System integrator performs system test and verification subject to buyer’s approval.
Step VI: System integrator delivers the satellite system to the buyer.
DOD has also developed MOSA tools to assist MOSA implementation and assessment of military satellite Bus and mission PL “Openness”. These tools can also be used for civilian and commercial applications. The DOD tools include MOSA Program Assessment and Rating Tool (PART), Open Architecture Assessment Tool (OAAT), and Key Open SubSystem (KOSS) Tool:
MOSA PART3: It is being used by DOD as the standard MOSA program assessment and rating tool for DOD space system programs.
MOSA OAAT4: Assist U.S. Navy program managers in assessing the “openness” of their programs. It aligns to the Open Architecture Assessment Model (OAAM) as approved by Assistant Secretary of The Navy (ASN) for Research, Development and Acquisition (RDA), which serves as the Navy Acquisition Executive. Other DOD agencies have also been using OAAT since the tool can provide a reproducible and objective method of conducting program assessments.
MOSA KOSS Tool5: One of the key MOSA principles is the Business Principle number 4, namely, Designate Key Interfaces (see Figure 8, B4). The identification of KOSS’s is an important task in realizing open systems. This MOSA principle requires the system designers to compromise between cost and performance by selecting a set of KOSS’s with their associated interfaces that can be assigned widely used open standards allowing for easy and affordable update and frequent refresh. MOSA KOSS tool provides guidance for KOSS’s identification and selection. The tool makes use of system capability road map, system requirements and Subject Matter Expert (SME), program’s sponsor and warfighter knowledge to identify the system/subsystem components expected to have a high volatility over the system life cycle. The tool specifies the key interfaces as those either side of volatile components. The tool will help the satellite system designer to identify and rank KOSS’s components that will meet both programmatic and technical requirements.
This section demonstrates how to use Steps II-A and II-B of the proposed MOSA implementation approach presented in Section 4.4 for the design and build of future resilient and robust satellite systems. Subsections 5.1 and 5.2 present potential modular-and-open satellite Bus and mission PL architectures, respectively.
To demonstrate how to transition the notional modular satellite Bus system architecture presented in Figure 3 to a modular-and-open satellite Bus architecture, this subsection provides an example for the transition of three modular Bus subsystems, namely, BC&DH (Bus Subsystem 3), BTT&C (Bus Subsystem 4) and BEPS (Bus Subsystem 5). These modular Bus subsystems are decomposed to subsystem component-level and analyzed for consideration as potential KOSS’s for open interface standardization. Table 1 summarizes the decomposition and analysis results for these three satellite Bus subsystems.
Modular satellite Bus subsystem component | Modular satellite Bus subsystem and component description | Recommendation for open interface Standardization (potential KOSS) |
---|---|---|
BC&DHS Component No. | Bus Command & Data Handing Subsystem (C&DHS) | |
BC&DHS-1 | Command Authentication Processing Unit (Sync Word Frame Lock, Unparsed Command) | Recommend for Interface standardization |
BC&DHS-2 | System Timing Unit | |
BC&DHS-3 | Fault Management Processing Unit (Execute Stored CMD Sequence, Monitor System Health) | Not recommended for interface standardization due to many variations between systems |
BC&DHS-4 | Bus Resource Management Processing Unit (Managing Internal and External Bus Data) | Recommend for open interface standardization |
BC&DHS-5 | Memory Storage Unit | |
BC&DHS-6 | Spacecraft Control Processor | |
BC&DHS-7 | Bus Telemetry Conditioning Processor | Not required; software driven functions. Should be considered in software interface analysis. |
BC&DHS-8 | Bus Cyber Security Unit | Recommend for open interface standardization |
BTT&CS Component No. | Bus Tracking-Telemetry & Command Subsystem (TT&CS) | |
BTT&CS-1 | TT&C Waveforms/MODEM | Recommend for open interface standardization |
BTT&CS-2 | TT&C Antenna Assembly for S-Band/L-Band | Not recommended for interface standardization. |
BTT&CS-3 | TT&C RF Front-End and Back-End Assembly | Recommend for open interface standardization |
BTT&CS-4 | Unified S-Band (USB) RX/TX Assembly | |
BTT&CS-5 | SGLS S-Band RX/TX Assembly | |
BTT&CS-6 | SGLS Base Band Signal Processing (USB Mode1, 2) | Recommend for open interface standardization |
BTT&CS-7 | In Band TT&C Processor Located at Private Station | Not recommended for interface standardization due to many variations between systems |
BTT&CS-8 | Power Controller Assembly | Recommend for open interface standardization |
BEPS Component No. | Bus Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) | |
BEPS-1 | Solar Array (SA) | Recommend for open Interface standardization. |
BEPS-2 | Battery Assembly (BA) | Not recommended for interface standardization; Battery size will vary depending on the mission profile. Additional batteries could potentially require customized interfaces to tie all batteries to power bus. |
BEPS-3 | Solar Array Drive Assembly (SADA) | Recommend for open Interface standardization. |
BEPS-4 | Transient Filter Unit (TFU) | Not recommended for interface standardization |
BEPS-5 | Bus Power Regulation Unit (BPRU) | Recommend for open Interface standardization. . |
BEPS-6 | Fuse Box Assembly (FBA) | |
BEPS-7 | Pyro Relay Assembly (PRA) |
Satellite bus subsystems decomposition and potential KOSS.
In practice, the preliminary KOSS analysis results shown in Table 1 should be finalized by the system designer using DOD KOSS tool discussed in Section 4.4. As shown in Table 1, standardizing the BC&DH data interfaces will probably provide the biggest return on investment since the BC&DH subsystem interfaces with each onboard system. Incorporation of the timing interface along with the data interface will minimize the amount of connections, thus reducing overall system mass. Any interfaces that require a significant amount of analysis or Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) hours is not a good candidate for standardization. The fault management processing interface is in this category, and it is not recommended for standardization.
This subsection provides an example for the transition of the notional modular mission PL architecture presented in Figure 4 to a modular-and-open mission PL architecture. Table 2 summarizes the decomposition and KOSS analysis results for four mission PL subsystems, including PAS (PL Subsystem 1), CPCom-RFS (PL Subsystem 2), PDPS (PL Subsystem 3) and PFTS (PL Subsystem 11).
Modular mission PL subsystem component | Modular mission PL subsystem and component description | Recommendation for open interface standardization (potential KOSS) |
---|---|---|
PAS Component No. | PL Antenna Subsystem (PAS) | |
PAS-1 | PL RF Antenna Configuration (PRAC) | Not recommended for interface standardization due to many variations between systems |
PAS-2 | Beam Forming Unit (BU) | |
PAS-3 | Antenna Controller (AC) | Recommend for Open Interface standardization |
PCom-RFS Component No. | PL Com RF Front-End/Back-End Subsystem (CPCom-RFS) | |
PCom-RFS-1 | PL LNA Component | Not recommended for interface standardization due to many variations between systems/subsystems |
PCom-RFS-2 | PL HPA Component | |
PCom-RFS-3 | Multi-RF Wideband Receiver (RX) | |
PcCm-RFS-4 | PL Up/Down Converters | Recommend for Open Interface standardization |
PCom-RFS-5 | Tunable IF Down Converters | |
PDPS Component No. | PL Digital Processing Subsystem (PDPS) | |
PDPS-1 | PL ADC/DAC | Not recommended for interface standardization due to many variations between systems |
PDPS-2 | FPGA Processor | |
PDPS-3 | PL MOD and DEMO (Optional) | |
PDPS-4 | Digital Network Switch (Optional) | |
PDPS-5 | PL System Controller | |
PTFS Component No. | P/L Frequency and Timing Subsystem (PFTS) | |
PFTS-1 | Atomic Clock Unit (ACU) | Not recommended for interface standardization; ACU and CM&CU will vary depending on mission type and mission requirements |
PFTS-2 | Clock Monitoring & Control Unit (CM&CU) | |
PFTS-3 | Frequency Generation & Up conversion Unit | Recommended for Interface standardization. |
PFTS-4 | Timing Variation and Frequency Stability | Not recommended for interface standardization |
Mission payload subsystems decomposition and potential KOSS.
The mission PL digital processing system is not recommended for interface standardization due to many variations between systems and subsystems. Multi-RF Wideband RX Up/Down Converters and Tunable IF Down Converters require a significant amount of analysis or NRE hours and are also not a good candidate for standardization. Again, DOD KOSS tool should be used to finalize the KOSS analysis results presented here for actual design and build of the satellite systems.
The chapter provides an overview of existing modular satellite Bus and mission PL architectures and associated standards for communication data Busses. The chapter defines open and close interfaces along with industry approved popular standards and discusses the interface design challenges. Moreover, the chapter provides an overview of MOSA and related DOD guidance and assessment tools to address the interface design challenges. Examples for the design and build of modular-and-open satellite Bus and mission PL architectures are also presented. The intent of this chapter is to provide an innovative approach for the satellite system designer to design and build of the next generation satellite achieving a balance between business and technical objectives that make a business sense for both the satellite manufacturers and buyers in terms of lower system acquisition and sustainment costs over its life cycle. The MOSA implementation approach presented here allows the satellite manufacturers to build the satellite Bus and mission PL separately for more production, flexibility, and market competition. Concurrently, the approach also allows the satellite buyers to buy satellite Bus at high volume with reduced unit costs and less schedule risk. Another benefit for the satellite buyer is the adaptability of changing the requirements on the mission PL without impacting the satellite Bus.
Although the preparation of this work was not funded by The Aerospace Corporation, but the author acknowledges the work presented in this chapter was based on his knowledges accumulated over the years from many space programs at The Aerospace Corporation, Raytheon and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In addition, the author would like to express his appreciation to Aerospace’s manager, Ms. Navneet Mezcciani, for her professional support.
The preparation of this chapter was not funded by the Aerospace Corporation, and it was done by the authors using his own time and resources, thus it does not represent the Aerospace Corporation’s view on the DOD guidance for MOSA implementation and the proposed system architecture solutions.
The author wishes to thank his wife, Thu-Hang Nguyen, for her enormous patience and boundless support during the preparation of this chapter.
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