Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"690",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gamma Knife Radiosurgery",title:"Gamma Knife Radiosurgery",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Gamma knife radiosurgery is a minimally-invasive treatment alternative for intracranial disorders, including tumors, vascular malformations, facial pain and epilepsy. 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1. Introduction
It has been shown that the apparent source width (ASW) for one-third-octave band pass noises signal offers a satisfactory explanation for functions of the inter-aural cross-correlation (IACC) and WIACC, which is defined as the time interval of the inter-aural cross-correlation function within ten percent of the maximum (Sato and Ando, [18]). In this chapter, the binaural criteria of spatial impression in halls will be investigated by comparing with ASW for the auditory purpose assistant to visual attention, which is called source localization. It was proposed that the ASW could properly define directional impression corresponding to the inter-aural time delay (τIACC) perceived when listening to sound with a sharp peak in the inter-aural cross-correlation function (ICF) with a small value of WIACC. We supposed that the ASW would be sensed not only with regard to the relative amplitudes between reflections in a hall, but the total arrived energies at two ears through the A-weighting network in the brain, termed as listening level (LL) and the temporal characteristics of sound sources. This hypothesis is based on the fact that the spatial experience in a room will be varied by changing the center frequency of one-third-octave band pass noise signal, and the ASW decreases as the main frequency goes up. For the purpose of this chapter, we shall discuss the relationship among some factors, the geometric mean of sound energies at two ears, the reverberation, IACC, τIACC, and WIACC, and whether they are independently related to the sound source on a horizontal plane. Finally, we have discussed that the ASW impression varied in accordance with the acoustic characteristics of sound intelligibility.
2. Effects of reverberation time and sound source characteristics to auditory localization
2.1. Physical properties of source signals regarding sound localization in a hall
According to the reports by Morimoto [1] regarding the influences of sound localization of spatial perception in a hall, the reverberation energy (RT60 = 0.3, 0.9 s) may be treated as the first reflection energy (delay time = 80, 160ms). However, the selection of music is exclusively limited to using Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Symphony No. 41, Movement IV as a music source. We intended to prove that the sensitivities on the spatial impression of sound localization will vary depending on the structural characteristics of music. Therefore, the other three sound sources: Motif A (Royal Pavane by Gibbon, τe = 127 ms), Motif B (Sinfonietta, Opus 48; IV movement; Allegro con brio by Arnold, τe = 35 ms) and Speech (female, τe = 23ms) were adopted. According to the sound field design theory described by Ando [2], the determining factor of an ideal reverberation time length lies in the effective delay of autocorrelation function (τe) of sound sources illustrated in Figure 1. The reverberation time of our experiments was set at: short (0.3 s), medium (0.9 s) and long (2.0 s) respectively. The judgments of the apparent sound localization were responded from 12 participants by way of scaling using a normal distribution between two horizontal stimuli angles. The primary analyses of correlations between sound source and auditory localization will presumably the different τe proposed by Ando [2]; namely, the significant difference sensation of reverberate image between Motifs will have an influence on human auditory spatial perception of sound sources.
2.2. Analyses of source signals in a hall
The experiences of visual interaction with the direction of sound source at the stage of opera or a classical orchestra have sometimes failed to catch the scene of the performance with respect to the distance or width of the stage. However, it is important and cheering for the audiences to trace and immediately respond to the present player on the stage as if the source directional sensitivity in a diffusing sound field were accurately installed. In this paper, we have tried to compare the source directional sensitivity of spaciousness as caused by early reflections with different azimuth angles. Morimoto [1] reported that of early reflections at the point of subjective equality (it was termed PSE) of spaciousness shows that they are comparable, but early reflection levels seem to be generally slightly lower than the reverberation. That is, the reverberation level correlated well with the early reflections level at the PSE. This means that both energies are fairly proportional to each other and that the average difference is 1.27dB. Barron and Marshall [3] described that the value of lateral energy fraction, as calculated for a series of reflection sequences for two rectangular halls gave virtually identical values no matter whether 80 ms or 100 ms was used as the limiting delay value for the early lateral reflections. Inoue et al. [4] recently reported that the preference of sound impression did not increase with spaciousness throughout, but may have a maximum value at certain spaciousness, that is, the audience does not prefer excessive spaciousness. Hasegawa et al. [5] reported the sound image width was perceived as narrower or wider than the actual presentation region when the sound source width was decreased or increased, respectively by using two loudspeakers were semi-circularly arranged. Ando [2] reported the most preferred delay time of early reflections after the direct sound differs greatly between the two Motifs. It is found that this corresponds to effective durations (τe) of the autocorrelation function (ACF) of source music of 127 ms in Motif A and 35 ms in Motif B. To obtain a degree of similar repetitive features of the sound signals, τe values of ACF were analyzed as a phenomenon of stationary random processing (SRP) strictly defined with an infinite length observation (Marple [6]). Concerning SRP for music signal, the estimation of finite length data (2 s) will only obtain an estimation of ACF as Equation (1). As τ << N, the estimation of ACF are almost equal to the ACF only in an initial range. Thus, a linear sum of music shows an initial decline of envelope of ACF, and it can be fit to a straight line regression of the power of the normalized ACF (Figure 1). The τe values of ACF of music is defined as it crosses to -10 dB to that of delay.
Φ(τ)=1N∑n=1NxN(n)xN(n+τ)E1
Figure 1.
Definition of the effective durations (τe) of the autocorrelation function
Figure 2.
Measuring set-up
In order to represent the geometrical size of a similar room, the delay time of subsequence reflection is introduced as Δt2 = Δt1 + 0.8 Δt1. In this study, the term “auditory localization” was defined as the detection of sound image edge perceived by the auditory event using two loudspeakers as Hasegawa et al. [5].
2.3. Subjective judgments of sound localization
A method of adjustment using LED unit by the subject was employed in this experiment. The subjects could switch the edge direction carefully with a LED unit equipment (Figure 2), as they were asked to answer the angle of edge direction to the maximum possible under the auditory spaciousness they perceived.
Apparatus
Figure 2 shows the experimental arrangement. Seven loudspeakers were arranged in the semi- anechoic chamber of the acoustical studio at the Chaoyang University of Technology. The first loudspeaker was in front of the subject at a distance of 1.5m. This 1oudspeaker was used to radiate the direct sound. One further loudspeaker stood at azimuths of +108°, also at a 1.5m distance, used to radiate reverberation. The direct sound was played by digital system controlled on desktop PC derived from a DAT tape recorder (TEAC R-9) and delivered directly to the front loudspeaker. The single early reflection and the reverberant signal with time delay of preferred gap were listed in Table 1. The reverberation time (RT60) was created by a digital reverberator (YAMAHA Pro R3). They were directly delivered to the left horizontal plane by loudspeakers (-18°, -36°, -54°, -72°, -90°) and to the right plane (+108°). Mehrgardt and Mellert [7] measured the transfer functions of the ear canal using the impulse response technique from ten directions of the symmetry plane in a free sound field. The peaks of these functions yield about 8% of the different amounts of the shifted curves at these ten directions from 0° to 180°. The curves of 20 subjects overlap closely, if they are shifted along the logarithmic frequency scale. The angles of the early reflection are in five directions of the frontal symmetry horizontal plane (Figure 2). We could simulate five kinds of sound fields, which all consisted of the direct sound plus reverberation and plus early reflection with arbitrary five azimuth angles. The levels of the early reflections and the reverberant signals relative to the direct sounds which were measured by a noise meter (ONO SOKKEI LA-5110) placed above the head of the subject. For the level measurements (SLOW, A weighting, peak), pink noise was used as a source signal. The LED unit could display each 3.0° azimuth angle; the results of these experiments were scaled using normal distribution function as below, the score was 100 as the answer is absolutely right to the present angle, and 0 showed that the answer was a different angle to the present one.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tMotif\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tΔt1\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tΔt2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tτe\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tTempo\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
127 ms
\n\t\t\t
229 ms
\n\t\t\t
127 ms
\n\t\t\t
slowly
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B
\n\t\t\t
35 ms
\n\t\t\t
63 ms
\n\t\t\t
335 ms
\n\t\t\t
quickly
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
S
\n\t\t\t
23 ms
\n\t\t\t
41 ms
\n\t\t\t
227 ms
\n\t\t\t
quickly
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Experimental arrangements for the three Motifs
Figure 2 simultaneously shows that the level and time delay structure of each signal was constantly arranged for three Motifs respectively for all situations in our experiments. All the data for three Motifs are shown in Table 1.
Musical Motif and Subjects
The Motifs used for the experiments were all initial 5s section of Symphony music; they are: (A). Royal Pavane composed by Orlando Gibbons, (B). Sinfonitetta, Opus 48, IV movement composed by Malcolm Arnold, and (S). Speech “In language infuse the T many words become read the small set later.” Poem read by a female, recorded by Burd [8] in the anechoic chamber of BBC. Twelve experienced males, ages 25 ± 2 years, with normal hearing sensitivity served as subjects.
Procedures
The subject could switch at will between five azimuth angles using LED unit equipment. After each angle adjustment, the experimenter recorded the results from the LED unit to calculate the score with Equation (2). Reverberation times RT60 of 0.3, 0.9 and 2.0s, and the source signal Motif A, B and S were used for the experimental sound field. The early reflection was radiated at different azimuth angles of -18°, -36°, -54°, -72°, and -90° throughout the three Motifs. Each measurement was repeated three times, yielding a total of 135 experimental results altogether for each subject.
SCORE=12πe−(angle)22E2
2.4. Analyses of perception on source localization
All data for the twelve subjects are shown together in Figure 3. A three-way (Motif * RT60*Angle) factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicates significant individual difference between three Motifs and five angles(p < 0.001, p < 0.001) for all experimental conditions. However, the three-way factor analysis of variance indicates less significant difference (p = 0.029) between three conditions of RT60. In addition, there is no interference between the three factors for all experimental conditions. This means that all test sound fields could make the subjects perceive spaciousness after the direct sound field no matter what the reverberation time was in the situation of 0.3, 0.9 or 2.0 s. Therefore, the averaged tendency is obvious for three Motifs are obviously higher (p < 0.001) as τe of ACF of the source signal is longer itself (Figure 4). Especially, in the case of angle = -54°, scores are quite consistent; the Motifs are clearly independent with the reverberation time. In the case of angle = -36°, the scores were least since subjective diffuseness could be most intense, the source width image was blurred. We conducted a further observation on the measurements of inter-aural cross-correlation coefficient measured by Ando [2] for three Motifs. The measured values of the magnitude of ICF (IACC) for five azimuth angles from -18° to -90° of early reflections are shown in Figure 5. The results of measurements of IACC measured at both ears for music. Especially for Motif A and B, they are noteworthy in connection with the results of source localization in this study.
Figure 3.
Scores of auditory source directional sensitivity were obtained by changing the coming azimuth angle of early reflection for the three Motifs and different reverberation times. The tendency shows that Motif A obtained the highest accuracy level while speech hit the lowest (p < 0.01).
Figure 4.
The scores of source width’s detection sensitivity function as effective delay of ACF of source in several angles (-18°, -36°, -54°, -72°).
Figure 5.
Source directional detection (Left) functions similarly as the tendency of measurements of cross- correlation (фlr(0)) (Right) for five azimuth angles from -18° to -90° (contra- clockwise) of early reflections.
3. Relationship between the envelope of sound image and source characteristics in median plane localization
To design an indoor sound field, Ando [9] proposed there are three temporal components involved. They are direct sound, first (initial) reflection and subsequent reverberation. This section was further compared with the spatial perception of a media plane in attempt to detect the edge of the sound envelopment composed by such three components. The relationship between source temporal characteristics and apparent source width (ASW) of spatial impression found in above section were reconfirmed, too. The experiment was arranged the direct sound located in front of the subject (η = 0°, ξ = 0°), and the first reflection came from different vertical angles (η = 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, 90°); and reverberation came with energy at a fixed angle (ξ = 90°). The subjects were instructed to judge the angles of sound image outline in the sound field by keeping attention on some 5 s duration dry sources of the parts of classic music. The purpose of these arrangements is to confirm that whether subjective judgment of image boundary is affected by reverberation time or not. Secondly, is the ability of edge localization independent with the angles of first reflection in media plain?
3.2. Studies reviews of apparent source width at the median plane
We have experienced in edge detection of the sound image envelope in relation to the localization of sound sources on a horizontal plane in an indoor sound field (Chen [10]). According to several reports by Morimoto ([11, 12] and [13]),they confirm that the localization accuracies almost always depend on the presence of spectral cues of median-plane localization, and that most sound images are recognized by both binaural disparity cues and spectral cues at a certain biased direction. However, Morimoto applied only white-noise through a band-pass filter as a sound source, but not a contribution to the aid of building acoustic design. We referred to the results as Morimoto reported [14] on the energy setup of whole reflections within a horizontal plane for apparent source width (ASW) in a hall, and found that source temporal cues have a strong influence on the edge detection of the sound image envelope using the auto- correlation technology proposed by Ando [9]. The purpose of this study focused on the problem of whether or not the localization tests of source images in the upper hemisphere in a median-plane need both binaural cross-correlation cues and dynamically temporal cues. Temporal cues mean that the spaciousness of a sound field depends upon not only on inter-aural cross–correlation but source characteristics themselves. After all, the coming orientations of initial reflections to the audience in a hall indicate an important design theory which is to be improved by source image creation.
Barron and Marshall [15] identified the arrival time of reflections by 80-100 ms after the direct sound. In terms of Morimoto et al. [16], spatial impression comprises of at least the following two components. One is an auditory source width (ASW) which is defined as the width of the sound image fused temporally and spatially with a direct sound’s image and the other is listener envelopment (LEV) which is the degree of the fullness of sound images around the listener, excluding the sound image composing ASW. The auditory spaciousness was inquired under initial reflection and reverberation in a concert hall by Morimoto et al. [16]. The difference limen applied to subjective auditory perception. The sound pressure of direct sound as the standard made that of initial and reverberation noticeable. The point of subjective equality (PSE) applied to identify the least sound pressure level under the timing of just-noticeable difference of direct sound energy. The outcomes show that the listener’s auditory spaciousness is not affected by delayed reflections and reverberation time at the sound pressure level (SPL) by 1.27 dB between the two reflections.
Room shape, reverberation time and first delay time are often taken into account in designing an indoor sound field; therein, the sidewall planning influential to reflections is valued in particular. However, the azimuth reflection is overlooked. From the reports of [10, 18], there is a correlation between the apparent source width (ASW) and the direct sound, initial reflection and subsequent reverberation of Motifs of which a sound field comprised might compose varied spaciousness of apparent sound source or edge detection of sound image envelopment. The experiments were conducted after validating and verifying the accuracy of the temporal and spatial components to prevent the spatial split. By Chen [10], the temporal characteristics of music do affect the auditory spaciousness of apparent sound source whereas how reverberation time impact on spaciousness is in need of further verification. The human auditory system is sensitive to sounds at frequencies between 1000-4000 Hz pursuant to an equal loudness contour. Asahi and Matsuoka [17] failed to explain how human ears discern the frequencies. Morimoto et al. [13] employed white noise as the binaural stimuli by 4800 Hz since the azimuth localization depends on the high-frequency sound source in contrast to the low-frequency one. However, the author finds such statement in need of more verification.
This focus of the study is whether or not the localization tests of the source image in the upper hemisphere (Figure 6) in a median-plane need both binaural cross-correlation cues and dynamically temporal cues. Temporal cues mean that the spaciousness of a sound field depends upon not only inter-aural cross-correlation but source the characteristics themselves.
Figure 6.
Demonstration of a sound field
3.3. Subjective judgments of source envelope at the median plane
Figure 7 shows how the subject perceived the sound. There were direct sounds in front of the subject (ξ=0°) with first reflection at vertical angles (η = 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, 90°) and second reflection (reverberation) in front of the subject at 90° (ξ= 90°).
Figure 7.
The block diagram of the simulation system for direct sound and two early reflections and the diffused reverberation is attached on the second reflection, which was used in all subjective judgment experiments. Sound pressure levels of the three components were illustrated simultaneously. The direct sound was located in front of subject (ξ=0°) with first reflection at the median plane from η = 18°to 90° and reverberation at clockwise horizontal plane 90° (ξ= 90°, η = 0°).
Arrangement
The spaciousness consisted of the three components which involved direct sound, initial reflection and reverberation and was surveyed to identify the degree of edge detection on sound envelopment in the upper hemisphere in a median-plane excluding other unwanted factors. First, the subject reported that the perceived angle seated at a specified chair of a semi-anechoic chamber by a semi-round LED device with intervals by 3° across 60 LED lamps within a radius of 1.5m in order to determine the angles of subjective edge detection on sound envelopment.
Parameters
According to Ando [9], the temporal and spatial parameters of a sound field cover sound pressure level (SPL), first reflection, reverberation time and inter-aural cross-correlation coefficient (IACC) by which the parameters of the three components were set up. Figure 7 simultaneously shows the setting up of sound energy in compliance with spatial components of sound energy in a common indoor sound field by the SN ratio of direct sound and first reflection by 15 dB and SPL of direct sound and the other two by 75 dB(A) and 60 dB(A). By the report on the auditory perception in a concert hall by Morimoto [8], reverberation can compose a full image of spaciousness as the second reflection with energy more than the first reflection by 1.27 dB. This is the so-called point of subjective equality (PSE). Thus, the energy of early reflections was reduced to 58.73 dB (SLOW, A weighting, peak). Figure 7 shows the equality. The time gap between direct and first reflection sound (Δt1) was determined pursuant to research by Morimoto [16] under early reflection sound at 50 (ms) and reverberation at 80 (ms) in compliance with the gap by 1.8 times between early and subsequent reflections by Ando [9]. Also, the author arranged the experiments under RT60 = 0.3s (short), 0.9s (medium) and 2.0s (long) to enhance the impact of reverberation time on spaciousness in a sound field.
Determination
Split judgment (Preliminary)
To prevent image split in a sound field, 36 sound fields randomly comprising of the three Motifs (Motifs A-C with time: 5s) under 3 directions of early reflections (η = 18°, 54°, 90°) and four reverberation times (0.0s, 0.3s, 0.9s, 2.0s) were judged by 15 subjects for 3 times respectively. In this procedure, the subjects confirmed that sound envelopment was perceived as an integrated image without split.
Edge detection (Primary)
To obtain sound image outline of respective angles, reverberation times and Motifs, 45 sound fields randomly comprising of three Motifs (Motifs A-C with time: 5s) under five directions of early reflections (η = 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, 90°) and 3 reverberation times (0.3s, 0.9s, 2.0s) were judged by subjects through the sensory threshold of adjustment method for three times respectively. In this procedure, the subjects were asked to answer regarding how the location of the edge of sound envelopment was perceived.
Subjects and samples
The subjects of two procedures were 15 male students with normal hearing aged 25±2. In terms of the signal autocorrelation functional theory by Ando [9], a sound source is featured with varied dynamically temporal characteristics critical to spaciousness of a sound field in addition to spectral cues that are called autocorrelation or temporal cues. Table 2 shows details of Motifs A-C.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSource\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTitle\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tComposer, writer\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTone\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tτe:ms\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Motif A
\n\t\t\t
Royal Pavane
\n\t\t\t
Orlando Gibbons
\n\t\t\t
Andante Downcast
\n\t\t\t
127
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Motif B
\n\t\t\t
Sinfonietta, Opus 48; IV movement
\n\t\t\t
Malcolm Arnold
\n\t\t\t
Light Vivid
\n\t\t\t
35
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Motif C
\n\t\t\t
Symphony No.102 in B flat major; II movement
\n\t\t\t
Franz J. Haydn
\n\t\t\t
Adagio
\n\t\t\t
65
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Details of Motifs A-C. Source: BBC (Burd, [8])
3.4. Analyses of subjective source envelope at the horizontal and the median plane
Subjective integrity of sound image
The subjective integrity of sound image outline is independent of the angles of first reflection (η = 18°, 54°, 90°) (three-way ANOVA, P = 0.900). Motifs A-C are independent as well (three-way ANOVA, P=0.322). Through the ANOVA, subjective integrity is dependent with the reverberation time (three-way ANOVA, p < 0.001) and Table 3 shows the results of a Latin Square Design (LSD) analysis of reverberation times. Results indicate that the subjective integrity of the sound image is not affected by the variation of the reverberation time, but both with and without reverberation time.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMeans followed by the same letters are not significantly different at 5% level.\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tt Grouping\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMean\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRT60\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
2.9333
\n\t\t\t
45
\n\t\t\t
0.3
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
2.8667
\n\t\t\t
45
\n\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
2.8444
\n\t\t\t
45
\n\t\t\t
0.9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B
\n\t\t\t
0.5333
\n\t\t\t
45
\n\t\t\t
---
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
LSD of reverberation times
First reflection and edge detection on envelopment
Figure 8.
Results of edge detections on Motifs A-C oriented by lateral reflections at the median plane (Left: RT60 = 0.3s ; Right: RT60 = 2.0s)
Figure 9.
Results of edge detections for Motifs A-C oriented by lateral reflections on the horizontal plane as a reference to Figure 3 (Left: RT60 = 0.3s ; Right: RT60 = 2.0s)
Figure 10.
Results of averaged subjective edges values for the significant differences between Motifs A-C oriented by the lateral reflections on the horizontal plane (upper) for mean values at all RT60 conditions, and the source width associated with the τe, ACF of the music sources. However, the source width is independent of the reflections on the median plane (see below).
4. Relationship between speech articulation of monosyllable and inter-aural cross-correlation
4.1. An approach on speech intelligibility regarding binaural sensation in a hall
The speech intelligibility for the monosyllables of Chinese in Taiwan area are in agreement with the effective duration of autocorrelation function (τe) of the syllable itself in the same reverberation levels were found (Chen and Chan [21]). On the contrary, it was found (Chen [22]) that they are opposite between speech transmission index (STI proposed by Steeneken and Houtgast [23]) and magnitude of inter-aural cross- correlation (IACC) where the slope of ceiling were changed in the hall. However, the range of STI (0.5 ~ 0.7) was quite constricted in this study. Takaoka and et al. [24] once used noises and Japanese language to examine the influence of a sound field’s reverberation time and IACC (magnitude of inter-aural cross-correlation function) on speech articulation. It was found that under an IACC condition where SN (signal-to-noise ratio) was between -10dB ~10dB and reverberation time varied between 0.5s ~ 4.0s, no obvious changes were noticed in speech articulation, and that only when SN was lower than -10dB, IACC affect speech articulation within the range of IACC limited in between 0.5 ~ 1.0. Accordingly, this section focuses on a broadened IACC range (0.34 ~ 0.87), and adopted the paired comparison to identify the relationship between speech articulation and IACC with or without reverberate energy in a hall.
4.2. A generalized theory of biaural measurements in a concert hall
The IACC of a sound field
In the field of room acoustics, Ando [9] adopted the magnitude of inter-aural cross-correlation function (IACC) to elucidate human ear’s spatial impression on sound field, and also determined main diffuse grades and perception of horizontal directionality of acoustic source in a sound field. Tessier and et al., [25] stated that directionality of acoustic source was a physically front-end mechanism of cocktail effect. They researched on voice articulation in noisy environment through acoustic source separation. But the purpose of study would not feed to the systematical hall design. Ando [9] hypothesized that impulse response of each ear on the path of sound transmission was hnl(t) and hnr(t) respectively. Their inter-aural cross-correlation function can represent human’s subject sound localization or spatial impression against sound field. The signals fl (t) and fr (t) of sound’s arriving in the ears can serve to express that IACC represents brain’s spatial treatment mode, which is defined as follows:
Both f′l(t)=fl(t)*S(t) and f′r(t+τ1)=frl(t)*S(t) refer to signals passing through the A-weighting filter which corresponds to hearing perception S(t). Standardized IACC can be modified to Equation (4) from Equation (3) as follows:
φlr(τ)=Φlr(τ)Φll(0)Φrr(0)E4
Φll (0) and Φrr (0) are monaural autocorrelation functions when delaying τ at the original point (autocorrelation function equals to the average sound intensity of both ears when τ = 0), and total energy arriving both ears is:
Φll(0)Φrr(0)E5
However, standardized cross-correlation function in a real room sound field can be modified as follows based on number of reflected sounds and their difference in energy:
whereΦlr(n) (τ) is the cross-correlation function forming in both ears by the nth reflected sound; Therefore, the grade of inter-aural cross-correlation function can be defined as Equation (7):
IACC=|φlr(N)(τ)|maxE7
and the maximum delay of signals between both ears is limited to |τ|≦ 1ms.
Moreover, when point source defuses on plane angle ξ(with the front ξ= 0 as datum point) and if the source signal is broadband noise between low and high cut-off frequencies, f1 and f2, the inter-aural cross-correlation function can be modified to:
where H represents power value of each function, τξ represents the left and right delay caused by horizontal angle ξ, and ω is frequency of filter.
where
ΔωC=2π(f2+f1),Δω=2π(f2−f1)E9
Figure 11 explains relationship between inter-aural cross-correlation function and various reference factors, while variation width (WIACC) of cross-correlation is as follows when Δωc2 is minimal:
WIACC≈Δωc4cos−1(1−δIACC)E10
where δ is the percentage of human ear that can serve to judge change existing in IACC, which is 0.3 normally; Equation (10) shows that maximum WIACC generates the maximum directional perception against acoustic source at horizontal angle ξ. On the contrast, when IACC < 0.15, subjective diffuseness can be perceived.
Figure 11.
The eigenvalues of standardized IACC can be modified by Equation (4).
Sato, Mori and Ando [26] proposed magnitude of inter-aural cross-correlation function (IACC) and variation width of cross-correlation function can determine magnitude of acoustic sound width (ASW). Since the source used in the experiment was 1/3-octave noise, they found perception of ASW was lessened when center frequency (125Hz – 2kHz) width was enlarged. Therefore, they proposed to define WIACC as a span during which IACC was within 10% of profile scope of cross-correlation figure’s maximum, which corresponds to ASW. Schroeder et al [27] found correlation between IACCt (t = 50 ~ 140ms) and listing preference. Therefore, IACC indeed increases its applicability to subjective diffuse of sound field. As stated in section 2., Chen and Chang [28] used sound field of two reflected sounds to investigate directional perception of subjective source with musical samples, and he found IACC was the dominating factor and inhibited by magnitude of total reflected sound and length of reverberation. Ohnisi and et al., [29] utilized metro station to research transmitting articulation of sound and found that under influence of 1/3-octave background noise, IACC of the diffuse sound field decreased with increase of sound frequency, and articulation of sound transmission was lowered too. Thus property of spatial sound transmission in sound field is related to variation of IACC.
Subjective word intelligibility in sound field
As early as the age when telecommunication devices, such as telephone, were first invented, articulation test has been adopted to test perceptibility of auditory sense against language. Such test was employed to test communicating quality between transmitter and receptor. But now, it is applied to test articulation of telecommunication. Licklider and Kryter [30] conducted objective physic and subjective psychological experiments for speech intelligibility (STI) in Bell Telephone Laboratories and Harvard University’s Psychological Sound Laboratory respectively in order to establish a set of effective mono-syllabic test lists, known as Harvard P.B.50 word score (Phonetically Balanced Word List, PB). To expel suggestive factors of other speech voice signals during process of measurement from influencing identical accuracy of STI, articulation test lists were composed of a series of common mono-syllables, with each syllable made up of consonant and vowel. Currently, there are many experimental measure methods which adopt this mono-syllabic speech scale in the world such as Diaz and Velazquez’s [31] mono-syllabic speech scale for Spanish. Chen and et al., [32] compiled 108 common vocal samples from New Chinese Phonologic Rhymes, which were used in Taiwan area, and summarized six sets of Chinese mono-syllabic subjective speech articulation scale item (hereinafter refer to as “articulate scale”) from them. Based on these 6 mono-syllabic sets, this study found reverberation time (RT60) in room less than 1.5 s in the space of the auditoriums, about <12000 m3, the result of STI was consistent with subjective speech articulation and only varied more obviously in few mono-syllables with nasal or voiceless alveolar affricate consonant. To calculate the ability of speech intelligibility, this study calculated percentage of syllable number the subjects could note down accurately during the test to represent correct answer rate and spatial subjective speech intelligibility.
Morimoto, Sato and Kobayashi [33] proposed interaction between word-intelligibility and word-difficulty, where highly intimate words were used to the perceived test sound. In word-intelligibility, the levels of word recognition were the intelligibility percentage of the test sound released to the subject. The experiment result showed that, word-intelligibility and word-difficulty were extremely negatively correlated. Assuming in a sound field with a higher speech transmission index in a public space, the perception of a word-difficulty was higher than that of word-intelligibility and could be assessed more strictly. When investigating reliability of mono-syllabic speech scale, the issue that Chinese mono-syllables undeniably contains mono-syllables, meaningful and meaningless. This study conducted the subjective psychological experiment by adopting paired-comparison method to solve such vague signals of language expression. By bold assumption that there were only identification method of two-sample which was relatively unaffected by “meaningfulness” and “meaninglessness”, so the subjects could easily identify which one was more intelligible. Similarly, Licklider [34] investigated IACC’s effect on word-intelligibility under noise masking and found that except the effect of SN ratio, decrease of IACC could improve word-intelligibility in the way that mono-syllables were replaced by short sentences. Chen [35] arranged the recordings of mono-syllables in 7 halls, and found that effect both word-difficulty and word-intelligibility could be separated clearly using accumulated cepstrum of the speech voice.
4.3. Subjective attributes of the sound fields with two initial reflections in relation to mono-syllables intelligibilities
Setting and configuration of objective physical quantities
Since the variation range for expanding IACC conditions in the experiment of Takaoka and et al., [24] was too narrow, speakers in semi-anechoic chamber were employed to serve sound field simulation of fewer reflection sound energy from various angles. This system was based on the method of IACC simulation design by Damaske and Ando [36], which allowed individual energy and time delay of direct and reflection sounds in sound field. It was equipped with reverberator to feed subsequent reverberant energy so as to decrease quantity of loudspeakers. This study cited the sound field simulation system in the subjective assessment experiment by Damaske and Ando [36] as reference. In order to simulate different circumstances of room IACC’s effect on intelligibility of mono-syllables, this study hypothesized a direct sound in straight front of the subjects, the first and second reflected sounds were hypothesized to transmit to the subjects from different azimuth angles. To further explore the inference by reverberation time of the room, part of the energy of subsequent-RT (RT60) were added to the first and second reflected sounds simultaneously, and then simulated to configure the loudspeakers in the semi-anechoic chamber, whose diagram is shown as Figure 12.
For convenience of the experimental configuration of sound simulated quantity, IACC should be first calculated by adopting Equation (7) from the values of Φlr(τ) and Φrr(τ) measured by Ando [9]. Next, the loudspeakers should be arranged within the range as to generate the IACC in the range of 0.3 to 1.0, where the white noise served as sound source and the dummy head to receive signal. As illustrated in Figure 12, θ1 and θ2 were set at 90° and 108° respectively, and with configuration of the IACC measurement was 0.34, 0.56, and 0.87 respectively.
Figure 12.
Assumption of IACC configuration was composed by three loudspeakers arranged at different azimuth angles.
Based on the above simulated configuration, loudspeakers on both sides were added RT energy and set as RT60 = 0.5s and 2.0s respectively. All loudspeakers were 1m from center of the subjects’ heads and 1.2m from the ground, while sound pressure was set as 65 dB (SLOW, A weighting, peak) at upper center of the head. Initial reflected sounds mainly simulated the reflection of right and left walls in the simulation of a hall. The delay time and details of sound field are shown as Table 4.
Sound source
Mono-syllables were same as the research [37] on the correlation between speech intelligibility and continuous brain wave recorded on cerebral cortex, where mono-syllables with higher subjective word-intelligibility such as /heh4/, /ian1/ and /tzuen1/ were figured out, and then compared them with the lower /yu2/.
Subjects and experimental method
Total 58 students with average age 23±5 were enrolled as subjects. These subjects were requested to listen and directly answer to experimenter as speech intelligibility. They sat on a fixed chair in the semi-anechoic chamber and concentrated located as Figure 13. The speakers (FOSTEX, NF-1A) were covered with cloth in the semi-anechoic chamber with the light dim. Subjects kept their heads straight ahead and were not allowed to turn, and a repeated test should be avoided in order to avoid over familiarity with the speech samples and thus impairing independence of comparison between sample pairs modified by the assumption of Thurstone’s CASE V [38]. This is an obedience to CASE V in paired- comparison theory, that a pair of rivals is independent of each other. In order to quantify the psychological responses of subjective word intelligibility, this study adopted paired-comparison method to gather the scale values of individual syllable, by pairing individual Chinese mono- syllable samples with sound field setting of IACC randomly, and took three different events which had RT60 =0.0 s, 0.5 s, and 2.0 s in turns. Thus each comparison experiment had six samples and 15 pairs, which were treated by different quantified values would be yielded under different IACC and RT60 settings. In distribution of time in psychological experiment, response time from prompting time was 10 s, while interval of prompting between every two samples was 2 s. Each speech dry source had a span about 0.3 s in average, thus time required by every 15 pairs was 3:15 min. Listening test of each speech had 60 pairs. With four speeches completed total 240 pairs of differentiating pairs which were done in four working days.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tItems\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tConditions\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Azimuth angles
\n\t\t\t
Direct (Ch1, 0 deg. straight front to subjects), 1st reflection (Ch2, 90 deg. Ch3,108 deg.), 2nd reflection (Ch4, 90 deg., Ch5, 108 deg.); Added RT energy (Ch2 90 deg., Ch3, 108 deg., Ch4, 90 deg., Ch5, 108 deg.)
4.4. Analyses of mono-syllabic word-intelligibility
The effect of IACC on mono-syllabic word-intelligibility
In order to enhance reliability of the integral answers conducted by paired-comparison method, we counted the numbers of circular-triad once for every subject based on Thurstone’s [38] response consistency test for the experiment of every 15 pairs, through which paired -comparison of these 15 pairs were determined effective questionnaires. Subsequently, a test of goodness of fit for comparison quantification model was performed to verify the scale values met the hypothesis of paired-comparison CASE V by Thurstone [38] with respect to effectiveness of difference between stimuli samples and sample size (Mosteller, [39]).
Based on paired-comparison method CASE V by Thurstone [38], average quantified scale value of word-intelligibility of 58 subjects under the conditions of additional RT60 were calculated and shown in Figure 14 ~ 17. Quantified scale value of subjective word intelligibility of mono-syllables under variation of IACC, 0.34, 0.56, and 0.87 showed that trend of subjective higher word-intelligibility before addition RT60 was significant (p<0.001).
By ANOVA, the effect of IACC and RT60 on quantified scale values of mono-syllabic subjective word-intelligibility showed that there exist no interaction between these two factors, two-way ANOVA, F = 0.27 and p = 0.90. But in the case of an individual factor’s effect on quantified scale values of mono-syllabic subjective word intelligibility, only RT60 presented significantly, two-way ANOVA, F = 96.38 and p < 0.001), while the effect of IACC had lower significance, two-way ANOVA, F = 5.34 and p < 0.05. This result reconfirm that RT60 is independent of IACC in sound field, no matter when with regard to musical preference (Ando [9]) or word-intelligibility.
Figure 14.
Results of syllable“ Yu2”
Figure 15.
Results of syllable“ Heh4”
Figure 16.
Results of syllable“ Ian1”
Figure 17.
Results of syllable“ Tzuen1”
In investigation of the effect of RT60 along on quantified scale values of mono-syllabic subjective word-intelligibility with the setting RT60 = 0.0 s, 0.5 s, and 2.0 s, more significant effect of IACC’s variation did not presented. Thus only one-way ANOVA analysis under the environment with RT60 existence and not existence could be performed. The result showed that the effect of IACC’s variation was significant in the environment with RT60, by one-way ANOVA F = 3.74 and p < 0.05. It was doubted of the faith of the results on word-intelligibility is usually changed with regard to IACC in the circumstance of only SN was lower than -10 dB found by Takaoka and et al., [24]. We identify that two reflections of the sound field were not harmful for the word-intelligibility in our settings, and there was no background noise employed here. The setting of RT60 = 0.5 s and 2.0 s adopted here is 1.27 dB in relation to the reflections without reverberant energy at the PSE as stated above (section 2.). Therefore, reflection with RT60 will enhance the variation of IACC on word-intelligibility.
The effect of RT60 on quantified scale value of mono-syllabic subjective word-intelligibility
It is clear in Figure 14 ~ 17 that quantified scale values of mono-syllabic subjective word intelligibility obviously changes with RT60. Such change is especially significant between RT60 = 0.0 s and RT60 = 0.5 s. In order to figure out difference among them, this study adopted p value of matrix of Fisher LSD method (Table 5) by multiple mean comparison and found that there was significant difference in quantified scale values of word-intelligibility between RT60 = 0.0 s and RT60 = 0.5 s, p<0.001, while there was no significant difference between RT60 = 0.5 s and RT60 = 2.0 s, p = 0.297 > 0.05. This result is similar to that of ANOVA on quantified scale values stated as above, suggesting variation between environments of word-intelligibility with and without RT60 was significant. Therefore, Takaoka et al. [24] investigated the cross effect of RT60s in sound field on grades of IACC and found that word-intelligibility between 0.5 s and 4.0 s corresponded with the conclusion that grades of IACC were independent from each other. This study complemented the phenomenon that quantified scale values of subjective word intelligibility was influenced by grades of IACC.
Similarly, by testing p value in the matrix of Fisher LSD method (Table 6) with multiple mean comparison it was clear that there was significant difference between quantified scale values of word-intelligibility of IACC(0.34) and that of IACC(0.56), p = 0.025 < 0.05; there was also significant difference between that of IACC(0.56) and that of IACC(0.87), p = 0.004 < 0.05; while there was no significant difference between that of IACC(0.34) and that of IACC(0.87), p = 0.445 > 0.05. Therefore, it was clear from multiple mean comparison test that the effect of variation in IACC on mono-syllabic word-intelligibility was similar to the variation of musical preference in sound field, which were both related to magnitude of data of standardized IACC grades (Equation (4)). However musical preference was inversely proportional to that and was here inversely proportional to mono-syllabic word-intelligibility, by one-way ANOVA F = 3.74 and p < 0.05. This finding reconfirms that word-intelligibility under varied IACC is associated with nonlinear response in evaluating the subjective localization of sound sources studied above (Figure 5 of section 2.).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tLSD test; variable; Probabilities for Post Hoc Tests. Error: Between MS =.11403, df = 27.00\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
RT60
\n\t\t\t
{1} 0.872
\n\t\t\t
{2}-0.706
\n\t\t\t
{3} -0.853
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.0 s
\n\t\t\t
—
\n\t\t\t
0.000*
\n\t\t\t
0.000*
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.5 s
\n\t\t\t
0.000*
\n\t\t\t
—
\n\t\t\t
0.297
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.0 s
\n\t\t\t
0.000*
\n\t\t\t
0.297
\n\t\t\t
—
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
The results of RT60 effect evaluated using p value of matrix of Fisher LSD method
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tLSD test; variable; Probabilities for Post Hoc Tests. Error: Between MS = .11403, df = 27.00\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
IACC
\n\t\t\t
{1} -0.155
\n\t\t\t
{2}-0.481
\n\t\t\t
{3} -0.049
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.34
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.025*
\n\t\t\t
0.445
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.56
\n\t\t\t
0.025*
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.004*
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.87
\n\t\t\t
0.445
\n\t\t\t
0.004*
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 6.
The results of IACC effect evaluated using p value of matrix of Fisher LSD method
Relationship between the parameters within wave’s characteristics of IACC and word intelligibility
In order to figure out the correlation between IACC and mono-syllabic word intelligibility in detail, this study used dummy head measurement system to detect parameters which were grades of standardized IACC, delay of inter-aural cross-correlation function (τIACC), and width of the inter-aural cross-correlation function (WIACC) (Table 7). Sato, Mori and Ando [26] stated in their research that IACC and WIACC could determine acoustic source width (ASW). According to Table 7, the measured data of WIACC in this study was not correlated well to IACC, while τIACC and IACC showed the opposite trend. Of course, its effect on mono-syllabic word intelligibility also presented RT60 condition under RT60 = 0.5s and 2.0s.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
IACC
\n\t\t\t
0.34
\n\t\t\t
0.56
\n\t\t\t
0.87
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
τIACC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.22
\n\t\t\t
0.06
\n\t\t\t
0.09
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
WIACC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.19
\n\t\t\t
0.18
\n\t\t\t
0.18
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 7.
The parameters are picked up by wave’s characteristic of IACC
5. Conclusions
These facts of section 2. and 3. point out that the temporal characteristics of source signal should be taken into account when estimating and measuring physical measurements, like the lateral energy fraction and the inter- aural cross- correlation coefficient, to estimate source localization sensitivity. For section 4., the experiment of judgment through paired-comparison method, quantified scale values of word-intelligibility was generated based on the hypothesis of CASE V cited by Thurstone [38]. The results show that existence of reverberant energy in a sound field had effect of mono-syllabic word-intelligibility, and that variation of IACC did too. Four mono-syllables with different word-difficulty, subjective mono-syllabic word-intelligibility had certain similar reaction trend under conditions of different IACC and RT60. Results of inductive statistical analyses are shown as follows:
As shown in Figure 3, reverberation does not suppress the degree of source directional sensitivity as early reflections after the direct sound, if their ratios of lateral to frontal sound energy are the same. Even though music source directional concept of auditory distinction is inverse to spaciousness of a sound field. The spaciousness is not at all suppressed by levels of early reflections at the PSE at echo threshold for all levels of reverberation whenever the reverberation (RT60) was fixed at 0.3 or 0.9 s concluded by Morimoto [1] as well.
As shown in Figure 4, the source directional sensitivity caused by different source signals is suppressed by τe of ACF of itself even if the sound field includes both early reflections and reverberation and with their preferred initial time gap after direct sound signals. This finding is an important problem with which to perceive the localization of performers for assisting visual enjoyment in concert halls. The temporal structure of source signal to auditory spaciousness is first discussed out of sound energy or directional mentioned before.
The source directional sensitivity are quicker as the coming direction of early reflection sounds located at the azimuth angle from -36° to -54° (Figure 5) as the early reflection functions as lateral energy fraction in a simulated diffuse sound field. The sound incidence angle of -54° is found upon the deep notch and peak at 54° of the curve in the transfer function of the ear canal entrance in a free sound field, especially in the frequency range from 2 to 4 kHz (Mehrgardt and Mellert [7]). It is obvious that source localization at a horizontal plane angle is dependent upon the transfer function of the ear canal.
As shown in Figure 7, with a fixed gap between the sound pressure levels of the three spatial components, direct sound, first reflection and subsequent reverberation, the reverberation discerned will affect the capability of an integrated image envelopment without split, demonstrating that reverberation is crucial factor to the envelopment perceived but the edge judgment of image boundary is not affected by reverberation time (Figure 7). This finding is in harmony with the result of sensitivities on reflective signal localization researched in section 2. The reverberation does not suppress the orientation of both source image edges and reflection incidences in addition to the perception of source image split.
As shown in Figure 8, the first reflection from the upper hemisphere at the angles η = 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, 90° does not affect the edge judgment of image boundary for music Motifs A-C. The ability of edge localization is independent with the angles of first reflection in median plane but sound source. Rakerd, Hartmann and McCaskey [19] that found listeners failed to identify noises with roved the location when the spectral structure was at a high frequency because the spectral structure was confused with the spectral variations caused by different location. Such is the fact that music with temporal variation leads to confusion regarding the edge of the sound image with a reflection incidence on the median plane in a diffuse sound field. Morimoto and Nomachi [11] have both explained that localization accuracies of sound images on the median plane produced by both binaural disparity cues and frequency cues. Morimoto, Yairi, Iida and Itoh [20] concluded when the source is a wide-band signal, only higher frequency components (> 2 kHz) are dominant on the median plane localization. However, they did not consider that a source with a wide-band sound in temporal variation provides the changing of the source width conception during a concert. Thus, it is presumably difficult to account for the different locations on the median plane of a music source in a hall except for during a recital of an instrument with a higher frequency tones.
As shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10, the difference of Motifs and the subjective judgment of edge detections of sound image outline on horizontal plane are interdependent, and the tempo of music proposed by Ando [9] are related well. This evidences that the temporal cues are important to the subjective edge determination and source localization.
Depending on one-way ANOVA for the environment with and without reverberation, the result of word intelligibility showed that variation of IACC (0.34 ~ 0.87) had significant effect on the environment with reverberation (0.5s ~ 2.0s), F=3.74 and p<0.05. Takaoka and et al., [24] reported that IACC influences on speech articulation within the range of 0.5~1.0 only when SN was lower than -10dB under RT60 = 0.5s ~ 4.0s. There is no conflict between these two results because word-intelligibility was not affected by RT60 varied from 0.5s to 2.0s in our research when reverberation was constantly 1.27 dB higher than the reflections. Reflections with RT60 enhance the variation of IACC on word-intelligibility at the PSE of equal spatial impression in the source width. They have obviously confirmed evidence by similar WIACC of varied IACC’s environments in Table 7, which may indecate the source width of sound signal stated above.
Figures 14 ~ 17 illustrate the interaction between RT60 and mono-syllabic word articulation, which show that IACC’s effect on mono-syllabic word- intelligibility significantly varied with span of RT60 (p<0.001 ANOVA).
Test on matrix of Fisher LSD with multiple mean comparison confirmed in Table 5 showed that quantified psychological scale values of word-intelligibility were significantly different between RT60 = 0.0 s and RT60 = 0.5 s, p < 0.001, while not significantly different between RT60 = 0.5 s and RT60 = 2.0 s, p = 0.297 > 0.05. This finding indicates that the source signal image was buried by reverberation and would defect word-intelligibility such as source split as induced by with or without reverberation as investigated in section 2. Similarly, Table 6 confirmed that quantified psychological scale values of word-intelligibility were significantly different at IACC(0.34) and IACC(0.56), with p = 0.025 < 0.05, was significantly different at IACC(0.56) and IACC(0.87) too, with p=0.004 < 0.05, while was not significantly different at IACC(0.34) and IACC(0.87), with p=0.445 > 0.05. The nonlinear responses in evaluating word-intelligibility, source edge and localization of spatial impression at the horizontal plane under varied IACC are presumably influenced by transfer functions of the ear canal entrance as measured by Mehrgardt and Mellert [7].
Glossary of symbols
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ASW
\n\t\t\t
apparent source width
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
IACC
\n\t\t\t
inter-aural cross-correlation
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
τIACC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
inter-aural time delay at cross-correlation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ICF
\n\t\t\t
inter-aural cross-correlation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
WIACC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
inter-aural variative width at cross-correlation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LL
\n\t\t\t
listening level
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
RT60
\n\t\t\t
reverberation time
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
τe
\n\t\t\t
effective delay of autocorrelation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ACF
\n\t\t\t
autocorrelation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PSE
\n\t\t\t
point of subjective equality
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SRP
\n\t\t\t
stationary random processing
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
DAT
\n\t\t\t
digital auditory tape cassette
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tϕlr\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
binaural normalized cross- correlation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Φrr(τ)
\n\t\t\t
mono- aural autocorrelation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Φlr(τ)
\n\t\t\t
binaural cross correlation function
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
η
\n\t\t\t
vertical angles at an median plane, 0° started from the front of head at ear height
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ξ
\n\t\t\t
angles at clockwise horizontal plane, 0° started from the front of head at ear height
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LEV
\n\t\t\t
listener envelopment
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SPL
\n\t\t\t
sound pressure level
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SN
\n\t\t\t
logarithm of signal over noise energy, denotes by decibel
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Δt1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
delay gap between direct and first reflection in a defuse sound field
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LSD
\n\t\t\t
Latin Square Design
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
STI
\n\t\t\t
speech transmission index
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tδ\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
percentage at the peak of wave form in inter-aural cross-correlation function, as the definition of WIACC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
IACCt\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
time gap of sound signal in inter-aural cross-correlation
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PB
\n\t\t\t
Phonetically Balanced Word List
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
/yu2/
\n\t\t\t
example of a mono-syllable in Taiwanese’s life speech
\n\t\t
\n\t
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/45338.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/45338.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45338",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45338",totalDownloads:1463,totalViews:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 12th 2012",dateReviewed:"May 3rd 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 5th 2014",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/45338",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/45338",book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation"},signatures:"Chiung Yao Chen",authors:[{id:"154975",title:"Prof.",name:"Chiung Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Chiung Yao Chen",slug:"chiung-yao-chen",email:"chychen@cyut.edu.tw",position:null,institution:{name:"Chaoyang University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Effects of reverberation time and sound source characteristics to auditory localization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Physical properties of source signals regarding sound localization in a hall",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Analyses of source signals in a hall",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Subjective judgments of sound localization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Analyses of perception on source localization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Relationship between the envelope of sound image and source characteristics in median plane localization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Pysical properties of apparent source width regarding sound incident angles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Studies reviews of apparent source width at the median plane",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3. Subjective judgments of source envelope at the median plane",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4. Analyses of subjective source envelope at the horizontal and the median plane",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Relationship between speech articulation of monosyllable and inter-aural cross-correlation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1. An approach on speech intelligibility regarding binaural sensation in a hall",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2. A generalized theory of biaural measurements in a concert hall",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.3. Subjective attributes of the sound fields with two initial reflections in relation to mono-syllables intelligibilities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.4. Analyses of mono-syllabic word-intelligibility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Glossary of symbols",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Morimoto M, Posselt C. “Contribution of reverberation to auditory spaciousness in concert halls [J],” J Acoust Soc Jpn, (E)10, 2: 1989, 87-92.'},{id:"B2",body:'Ando Y, “Calculation of subjective preference at each seat in a concert hall [J],” J Acoust Soc Am, 74: 1983, 873-887.'},{id:"B3",body:'Barron M, Marshall A H. “Spatial impression due to early lateral resection in concert hall: the deviation of a physical measure [J],” J Sound and Vibration, 77 (2): 1981, 211- 232.'},{id:"B4",body:'Inoue T, Nishi T, Wakuri T, Shimizu Y, Kawakami F. “Relation between the lateral component of early reflections sound energy and the spatial impression,” Proc Spring Meet Acoust Soc Jpn, 1987: 557-558 (in Japanese).'},{id:"B5",body:'Hasegawa H, Takehashi K, Ayama M, Kasuga M. “Effects of visual information on sound image localization [J],” J. Image info and Tele Eng, 55, 3: 2001, 455-462 (in Japanese).'},{id:"B6",body:'Marple S. L. “A new autoregressive spectrum analysis algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Accoust., Speech, Signal Process, ASSP. 28, 1980, 441-454.'},{id:"B7",body:'Mehrgardt S. and Mellert V., “Transformation characteristics of the external human ear,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 61, 1977, 1567-1576.'},{id:"B8",body:'Burd V. A. N. “Nachhallfreie Musik fur Akustische Modelluntersuchungen,” Rundfunktech. Mitteilungen, 13, (1969) 200-201.'},{id:"B9",body:'Ando Y. “Concert Hall Acoustics,” Berlin Heidelberg, New York, 1985.'},{id:"B10",body:'Chen C. Y. ”Effects of reverberation time and sound source characteristic to auditory localization in an indoor sound field,” ICSV Cairns Australia, 2007, 9-12.'},{id:"B11",body:'Morimoto M. and Nomachi K., “Binaural disparity cues in median-plane localization.”J. Acoust. Soc. Jpn. 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Archi., Architectural Institute of the R. O. C, 57, 2006, 55-68.'},{id:"B22",body:'Chen, C. Y. “Investigation on speech intelligibility in respective to the variation of diffusing panels in a hall,” 16th Proceeding of the Archi. Institute of the R. O. C, E66, 2004, 336 - 341. (in Chinese)'},{id:"B23",body:'Steeneken H. J. M. and Houtgast T. “The Modulation Transfer Function in Room Coustics as A Predictor of Speech Intelligibility, ” Acoustica 28, 1973, 66-73.'},{id:"B24",body:'Takaoka T., Morimoto M., Sato, H. and Semba Y. “Effects of inter-aural cross-correlation of speech intelligibility and background noise on listening difficulty,” J. Acoust. Soc. Jpn., NO. 9, 63, 2007, 520-528 (in Japanese).'},{id:"B25",body:'Tessier E., Berthommier F., Glotin H. and Choi S. “A case front- end using the localization cue for segregation and then cocktail-party speech recognition,” Proc. IEEE Int. Conference on speech Process (ICsP), Seoul (1999).'},{id:"B26",body:'Sato S., Mori Y. and Ando Y. “The subjective evaluation of source location on the stage by listeners,” In: Music and concert hall acoustics. Y. Ando and D. Noson (eds.). Academic Press, London, 1997, 117-123. '},{id:"B27",body:'Schroeder M. R., Gottlob D., and Siebrasse K.F. “Comparative study of European concert halls: correlation of subjective preference with geometric and acoustic parameters,“ J. Acoust. Soc. Am, 56: 1974, 1195-1201.'},{id:"B28",body:'Chen C. Y. and Chang Y. R. “A Study of Test Method for Absorption Coefficient of Material through Cross-Correlation in an Anechoic Chamber- The porous plane materials as example”, Journal of Technology, 20 (2005). (in Chinese)'},{id:"B29",body:'Ohnisi Y., Maeda K., Morimoto M. and Sato H.”Acoustic characteristics of background noise at subway stations,”Proc. WESPAC IX (2006).'},{id:"B30",body:'Licklider J. C. R. and Kryter K. D. “Articulation tests of standard and modified interphones conducted during flight at 5000 and 35,000 feet (OSRD Report 1976)”, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory (1944).'},{id:"B31",body:'Diaz C. and Velazquez C. “A Live Evaluation of the RASTI -Method”, Applied Acoustics, 46 1995, 363-372.'},{id:"B32",body:'Chen C. Y., Chen L. S., and Lin W., “A Study on Evaluation Method of Chinese Articulation Standard of Speech Intelligibility for Sound Field in Taiwan”, Journal of Architecture, No.43, Architectural Institute of the Republic of China, 2002, 27-36. (in Chinese)'},{id:"B33",body:'Morimoto M., Sato, H. and Kobayashi M. “Listening difficulty as a subjective measure for evaluation of speech transmission performance in public spaces,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 116, 2004, 1607-1613.'},{id:"B34",body:'Licklider J. C. R., “The influence of inter-aural phase relations upon the masking of speech by white noise,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 20, 1948, 150-159.'},{id:"B35",body:'Chen C. Y., “Syllables Intelligibility in Relation to the Autocorrelation and Cepstrum Model: The Case of Chinese in Taiwan,“ POMA Volume 15, pp. 015002 (June 2012); Acoustical Society of America, ISSN 1939-800X (online).'},{id:"B36",body:'Damaske P. and Ando Y. “Interaural cross-correlation for multichannel loudspeaker reproduction,” Acoustica, 27, 1972, 232-238.'},{id:"B37",body:'Chen C. Y. and Chen U. S., “Cortical continuous brain waves in relation to the speech intelligibility of mono-syllables in Taiwan,” master dissertation, Graduated School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chaoyang Univ. of Tech., Taichung, Taiwan (2010).(in Chinese)'},{id:"B38",body:'Thurstone L. L. “A Law of Comparative Judgment”, Psychol. Rev., 34, 1927, 273-289.'},{id:"B39",body:'Mosteller F., “Remarks on method of paired comparison: I. The least squares solusion assuming equal standard deviation and equal correlation,” Psychometrika, 16, 1951, 3-9. '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Chiung Yao Chen",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Over the past decades, the livestock industry has been revolutionized toward the use of microbial feed additives due to an increasing awareness of the stockholders on the beneficial role of probiotics in production and gut health status [1, 2]. There are several probiotic products that are commercially available and marketed for animal use [3]. Most probiotic products at the moment do not go through pre-market approvals and are commonly used for a much wider range of scenarios in which their efficacy is not well established. Similarly, latest molecular methods such as gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis are not used to identify the probiotic strains as feed supplements. For the selection of best probiotic product, it is highly important to determine the real probiotic potential of the microbial strain by using latest molecular methods. In this contract, locally isolated and validated probiotic strains will be better than any unauthorized local available strain. The competitive advantage and adaptability to local microbial ecosystem will allow local probiotic strain to grow and adhere well in the local animal breed. Literature showed that probiotic strains should specifically prepare according to purpose and function related to the milk enhancement in local breed [4, 5]. Nowadays, it is highly accepted that probiotic yeast is highly productive in terms of milk and meat for large animals [6, 7]. Probiotic yeast improves the ruminal gut microbiota which may increase the nutrient digestibility and leads to improve animal productivity [8]. In large animals, ingested feed digested by numerous microbial species is present along the gastrointestinal tract [9]. This microbial community consists of 1014 members, mainly composed of fibrolytic bacterial species [10]. Literature highlighted that gut microbiota plays important role in the feed digestion and utilization. The gut microbial populations in cow have been identified in almost 90% of the total microbial community [11]. On the other hand, a certain fraction of the GI tract bacterial community has yet to be identified due to less knowledge of the microbial community in gut microbial ecosystem because majority of the 16S rRNA gene sequences from feces are taken from unidentified species, and many modern methods of genomic analysis of communities to determine changes in microbiota have been used by many scientists [12]. Studies have utilized culture-independent sequencing techniques, 16S rDNA bacterial tag-encoded FLX amplicon pyrosequencing and many more have added a new era to determine the microbial diversity of the GI tract [13]. Research noted that the culture-independent methods deliver a comprehensive assessment of the microbial community composition, while the culture-dependent methods provide the structural and functional diversity of the microbial strains [14]. In this chapter, a detailed discussion on the effects of probiotic yeast in ruminant’s well being, production performance, uses of different omics methodologies for the discovery of ideal animal probiotic strains and development of indigenous probiotic yeast for ruminant will be employed.
2. Yeast: an ideal microbial feed supplement for ruminants
The Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) is the first eukaryotic sequenced genome. The sequencing of first whole eukaryotic genome was a challenging task for the scientists, but the efforts of more than 600 scientists from Europe, North America, and Japan made it possible. The entire sequence of the yeast was released in 1996. The size of the baker’s yeast genome is 12.1 Mb containing 16 chromosomes and 5400 coding genes approximately. The sequence information of yeast is available at Saccharomyces Genome Database (SGD), Yeast Protein Database (YPD), and Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS) [15] (Table 1).
Yeast genome
Genome size
12.1 Mb
Chromosomes
16
Genes
5300–5400
Base pairs
12 million base pairs
Databases
SGD, MIPS, YPD
Table 1.
Details of first eukaryotic sequenced genome (yeast).
Ruminant nutritionists have been pondering to improvise new methodologies for ameliorating the roles of microflora in ruminants and enhance processes of digestion and fermentation along with augmented nutrients usage and bioavailability using feed supplementation. One of the commonly used methods was the use of growth promoters (antibiotics) to restrict the pathogenic effect on productivity of ruminants [16]. Nevertheless, antibiotics have been reported to cause serious health challenges to consumers and environmental implications. Thus, their usage has been banned in 2006 due to emerging antibiotic resistance. In the light of these concerns, consumer preferred more natural product. A super alternate of feed additives was the use of probiotics [17]. Probiotics are living microorganisms confined in animal feed that affect the host by improving the digestion [18]. Other definition includes probiotics as microorganisms (viable) that functions in gaining weight and feed conversions along with reducing diarrheal incidence [19]. Probiotics have been deployed as one of the recent exploited proposals in ensuring efficiency of production systems and safety to both consumers and environment [20, 21]. In ruminant nutrition, yeast probiotics are commonly being used because of their efficient roles in rumen stabilization and maintaining microbial communities specifically fibrolytic bacteria [22]. The yeast cells function in maintaining throughout viability of the digestive tract [23]. Yeast supplementation as probiotics enhanced feed conversion, efficient fermentation, and fiber digestion in the rumen, maintained ruminal pH, increased milk production [24, 25] and feed intake and production of organic acids and vitamins to activate the growth of the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) [26]. The commonly used yeast probiotic is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Numerous literatures on Saccharomyces cerevisiae as supplement are available that dated back to the 1950s and continued under study till today [27]. Significant role of yeast supplementation (live) in diet has been stated for lactating and growing ruminants. Recent studies confirmed that they increase the ruminant’s milk production early lactation period by altering the fermentation of food inside the GIT of ruminants[28]. Latest beef and dairy production systems demand active muscle growth and high milk yield via feeding animal at high ruminal ferment ability rates. This would result in increased risk of metabolic disorders such as acidosis due to dysbiosis in ruminal microbial environment resulting in abnormal functioning in rumen which further leads to poor feed intake, health, and decreased productivity [29]. Therefore, yeast supplementation in ruminant diet is beneficial in the ruminal functioning and overall animal health and maintenance. The ameliorating functions of yeast probiotic on digestibility of high forage diets also underscore the potential use of yeast supplementation to optimize the use of lower quality feeds.
3. Understanding of the ruminant microbial community for development of ideal probiotic yeast for ruminants
Rumen microbial manipulation by using the probiotics to improve the ruminant feed digestion is a promising production improvement strategy. A better understanding of the rumen microbiology is an important step to select and prepare a new yeast strain affecting on functional specific microbes. Latest molecular techniques have provided the opportunity to study the rumen microbiota in detail for development of the ideal probiotic.
3.1 Digestive system of ruminants
Digestive system of ruminant is composed of four parts: reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasums. The rumen is that part of the digestive system in which fermentation is carried out [30]. The rumen can also be defined as a complex ecosystem in which nutrients consumed by different microorganisms are digested anaerobically. Microbial biomass and volatile fatty acids are most common end products of fermentation which are then used by ruminant host. Interaction of host animal and microorganisms is a symbiotic relationship that helps the ruminant hosts in digestion of fiber-rich and protein-low diets. Rumen microorganisms provide enzymes that are necessary for fermentation processes, which in turn allow ruminants to obtain energy contained in forage [31]. Growth and activity of ruminal microorganisms are influenced by different factors including pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, buffering capacity, and redox potential. These factors are determined by environmental factors. Temperature of the rumen is in the range of 39–39.5°C. But when animal eats, fermentation occurs that generates heat due to which temperature increases up to the limit of 41°C [32, 33]. Short-chain fatty acid generation along with their absorption, saliva production, feed intake level and type, as well as exchange of phosphates and bicarbonates through epithelium of the rumen are the factors that affect pH [34]. In the reticule ruminal environment, these factors determine the buffering capacity as well as pH. There is a constant change in pH but mostly it remains in the range of 5.5–7.0 [35]. When there is an acidic environment in the cell, bacterial intracellular pH decreases. Microbial enzymes are very much sensitive to pH, i.e., bacterial growth is inhibited when there is an acidic pH. This is due to the disproportion of intracellular hydrogen ions [36]. In the rumen, ions and molecules affect osmotic pressure due to which gas tension is created. Fermentation process in the rumen depends upon the environmental factors and the diet due to which these factors also affect rumen osmotic pressure [37] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Rumen ecosystem: different types of microbial flora present inside the rumen. The most abundant microbes are bacteria.
3.2 Microbial community of GIT
Bacteria are more in number than any other microbes. It is noted that there are five groups of rumen bacteria: (1) free-living in liquid phase, (2) loosely attached with feed, (3) firmly attached with feed, (4) attached with rumen epithelial lining, and (5) attached with protozoa/fungi. The bacterial species inside the rumen are 99.5% obligatory anaerobic. Mostly rumen bacteria are involved in the fermentation of fibers, starch, and sugar present in the feed and converted into volatile fatty acid, H2, and CO2 [38]. Most of the bacteria are responsible for degradation of different types of dietary components [39] (Table 2).
Bacterial diversity of the rumen microbial ecosystem.
Majority of anaerobic rumen fungi is from order Neocallimastigales within the phylum Neocallimastigomycota. On the phylogeny basis, six genera have been identified, which are Piromyces, Neocallimastix, Caecomyces, Anaeromyces, Orpinomyces, and Cyllamyces [40]. In fiber digestion, fungi play a very important role because of the vegetative thallic rhizoids. The main functions of the rumen fungi are the lignin and fiber degradation by producing different types of enzymes [41] (Table 3).
Bacteria, fungi, and archaea present inside the rumen and feces of dairy cows.
3.3 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the rumen
The rumen is the first part of the ruminant stomach which has a well-developed microbial ecosystem containing different types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and bacteriophages). These microbes coexist in ecological equilibrium in unique symbiotic relationship between cows and rumen microbes. The cows supply food to the rumen microbes which in turn digest the feedstuff to provide cows the essential nutrients in the form of microbial protein as organic acid energy sources. The microscopic view of rumen ecosystem showed that it is consisted of a number of bacteria, protozoa and fungi [42]. Bacteria make the largest population in this diverse microbial world. Their function is to digest the fibers, starch, sugar acids, and protein to give useful compounds and elements necessary for the growth and productivity of the cows. The role of protozoa and fungi is less clear. However, these microbes do provide help in digestion of feed. The structure and function of microbial community are influenced by feed composition and mainly by the host genetic potential. Prevotella and Succinivibrionaceae are the dominated rumen bacterial communities, cellulolytic and fibrolytic genera; Neocallimastigaceae are the dominant fecal and rumen fungal communities; and Methanobrevibacter are the dominant fecal and rumen archaeal communities in the adult ruminants. Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes are the dominant phyla of bacterial communities. Bacteroidaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Prevotellaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Succinivibrionaceae, and Veillonellaceae are the most abundant bacterial families in adult ruminant [43]. The term “yeast” is originally derived from the Dutch word gist, which basically refers to the foam that formed during beer fermentation. A variety of roles is played by yeast in veterinary practices, livestock feeding, and medicine as well as in biomedical and pharmaceutical industries [44]. Hayduck first discovered the inhibitory activity of yeast. Probiotics such as yeast or fungi have been extensively used in ruminant feed for the improvement of growth, health, and lactation due to their impact on rumen pH, intake of dry matter, and digestibility of nutrients [45]. Probiotic yeast has potential beneficial effects on the rumen. In the cattle, the ability of live yeast for enhancement of milk yield as well as weight gain is due to the fact that yeast is responsible for stimulating bacterial activity in the rumen [46]. Mechanism of action of yeast mainly stimulates the growth of cellulatic and hemicellulatic bacteria [47]. Increase in the number of bacteria in the rumen is due to the reproducible effects of probiotic yeast. Yeasts remove oxygen from the rumen due to which bacterial performance improves in the rumen. To maintain the metabolic activity, yeast cells consume available oxygen on the surface of freshly ingested feed in the rumen. Few studies showed that there is a significant decrease in redox potential, up to -20 mV by providing yeast supplementation (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Representative scheme of effect of live yeast on the microbial flora of the gastrointestinal tract in ruminants: live yeast improves carbohydrate, protein, and lipid digestion rates by improving the production of cellulolytic, hemi-cellulolytic, and proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria and fungi.
Better conditions have been created by this change for the growth of anaerobic cellulolytic bacteria which in turn stimulates their attachment to forage particles as well as increases the initial rate of cellulolysis. Recalcitrant plant lignocellulosic material is not degraded by ruminants on its own. They rely on rumen microbial flora for its degradation [48]. The main components of the fiber are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. It has been estimated that 20–70% of the ruminant feed is composed of the cellulose and hemicellulose [49]. The most abundant carbohydrate in plant cell wall is the cellulose which makes up to 40% of the plant cell wall. The microbial cellulolytic enzymes have the capability to digest the β-1,4 links present inside the cellulose, glucose molecules [50] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
A scheme describing the mode of action of yeast culture: improved the gut microbial balance is related to the O2 slavering by live yeast cells.
3.4 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the lower gut
The lower gut microbial population is affected by dietary supplementation of the probiotic yeast. The probiotics provide a desirable microbial balance due to shift in the balance of friendly and pathogenic microbiota. The GIT having healthy microbial populations are often related with improved host performance and its immune system. In the lower gut, the pathogenic microbial species reduces due to the production of the antimicrobial material (bacteriocin) and the attachment of the friendly microbes to the gut wall, via the competitive exclusive method. The most common modulation of the GIT microflora is provided by probiotics [51].
4. Modern methods to understand and develop fibrolytic probiotics for ruminants
Latest researches have improved our understanding related to the mode of action of probiotic yeast inside the rumen. Well-designed animal studies have verified that target-specific probiotic strains have health and production benefits in the ruminants. These studies have made the livestock industry to accept and understand the probiotic concept [52]. On the other hand, current probiotic has not been chosen for definite purposes in the animal feed. Therefore, some unique molecular methods are needed for selection and characterization of target-specific probiotic strains [53]. It has been noted that during stress conditions, some portion of the live probiotic microbial strain enters in the dormant but metabolically active state called viable but nonculturable (VBNC) state. These microbial cells have an ability to replicate when acclimated to a favorable condition inside the host [54]. Uses of molecular techniques have changed the study of the rumen ecosystem. First is the PCR which is more sensitive than growth on traditional selective media in determining small differences in population sizes in response to dietary changes or upon the inclusion of an additive to the diet and thus may identify changes or shifts within levels of the microbial population which may have been previously overlooked [55] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Probiotic preparation: general steps for the isolation and characterization of probiotic yeast strains for local animal breed.
In response to various feeding sources, changes within the microbial population can be studied by DNA fingerprinting (DGGE, TTGE, and TGGE). Probiotic can be classified into three different types, like mono-probiotic, poly probiotics, and combined probiotics depending on the probiotic strain function [55] (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Potential characteristics of typical animal probiotic yeast.
5. Common methods used to identify indigenous probiotic yeast
Yeasts and fungi are the ideal organisms and have been used in vast genetic studies and comparative genomic studies in eukaryotes because of their small and compact genomes.
We have sketched sampling approaches and finalized the protocols that will guide researchers in identifying the most ideal probiotics for animal use. Livestock is under increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance genes; therefore, continued optimization of protocols is urgently needed so that these threats can be reduced through the use of probiotics. Two sequence-based methods are commonly used for the identification of yeast. The first and the most common method used for the identification is PCR amplification of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal variable region that has been recognized as the universal barcode for the identification of fungi. The second and the advanced approach to identify fungal species or strains is shotgun metagenomics [56]. Microbes are very vital to life present on the earth. Their significance is increasing day by day as their beneficiary potential has been recognized in the field of health and medicine. There are two methods which have been utilized till now for the identification of the microorganisms present in microbial community.
Culture-dependent method
Culture-independent method
Both approaches have their own significance. Culture-based methods are considered effective for the morphological, physiological, and functional characterizations of a particular strain, while culture-independent technology is preferred to unravel the microbial diversity along with genomic and genetic identification of microbial communities. Studies have also indicated that there is a loss of 99% microbes in the laboratory-dependent culturing methods. Culturing-independent method has been recognized as an effective and efficient method to isolate the DNA of a number of microbes from an environmental sample which seems impossible using the cultural methods. The linkage of culture-dependent and culture-independent data has been recognized as a crucial step for the identification of probiotics [57]. For identification of the potential probiotic strains, researchers should use the latest molecular methods, and the probiotic strains should be deposited in some recognized microbial culture collection. Proteomics and metabolomics may also be used for choosing the best yeast species [58]. By utilizing strain’s proteome and metabolome, which are argued to yield a positive influence upon ruminal fermentation, it may be possible to identify specific traits, characteristics, and secondary growth metabolites that play a potential role to enhance the growth of target-specific microorganisms inside the rumen. Even accounting for the potential bias of latest molecular methods, it is obvious that these methods are the dominant tools recently accessible for monitoring the gut for bacterial diversity of dairy animals and developing new yeast strain [59]. Extensive use of molecular methodologies may give insights into the new era where such microbial studies are no longer limited to a handful of laboratories with an abundance of funding and labor. It is noted that the specific yeast strains of known origin act more precisely and efficiently as compared to the yeast strain obtained from any unknown origin [60]. As we note all ruminates live in different parts of the world; therefore, upon the ruminal fermentation different yeast strains may exhibit markedly different effects. Therefore, we should identify new yeast strains for getting best results on the rumen fermentation. Uses of molecular techniques have changed the study of the rumen ecosystem. First is the PCR which is more sensitive than growth on traditional selective media in determining small differences in population sizes in response to dietary changes or upon the inclusion of an additive to the diet and thus may identify changes or shifts within levels of the microbial population which may have been previously overlooked. In response to various feeding sources, changes within the microbial population can be studied by DNA fingerprinting (DGGE, TTGE, and TGGE). To select best yeast strains, proteomics and metabolomics may also be used. By characterizing the proteome and metabolome of microbial isolates endowed with the ability to have a positive impact on the rumen fermentation, it may be possible to identify specific traits, characteristics, and secondary growth metabolites which play genuine role in the improvement of the growth of some important microbial species [61] (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Interlinked factors involved in the application of probiotic in the ruminant nutrition.
5.1 Culture-dependent techniques
Cultural approach is the widely used method in microbiology to grow a microbe in a laboratory. Sampling is the basic and the crucial step for the identification of the indigenous probiotic yeast. The second step is isolation of the pure yeast strain under laboratory conditions which requires a series of inoculation steps of the microbes on the selective media. After purification of the yeast isolate on the OGA media, the biochemical tests are performed to identify the distinct features of the pure isolates. Morphological features of the isolate are determined by using electron microscope. The next step is the molecular identification of the yeast via 18S rRNA gene sequencing. The probiotic characterization is usually performed according to the standards defined by the WHO [62]. The best probiotic strain is retrieved among all the selected potential candidates, and in vivo experiments are performed using an animal model. After functional testing, all technological and safety measures are accessed, and the probiotic yeast strain is ready for probiotic product and packaging [63].
5.2 Culture-independent techniques
The use of omics approach has been emphasized to study the microbiome of microbes. To identify the potential probiotic strains among the microbial community present in any environment, it is very important to identify all the microorganisms in microbiota and determine their structural and functional differences at genomic level. Below are the currently available omics approaches for the identification, screening, and selection of probiotic strains of indigenous yeast [64] (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Omics approaches to identify the probiotic.
5.2.1 18S amplicon sequencing
Amplicon sequencing refers to the sequencing of a specific fragment of interest of a microbe using high-throughput sequencing technique. 18S amplicon sequencing is specifically used to determine the most prevalent fungal yeast species present in microbiota [65]. The methodologies used in the recent researches for the identification of bacterial probiotics can be applied in the recognition of indigenous probiotic yeast strains. The comparative and detailed analysis of 18S amplicon sequencing data can help the scientists in the isolation of potential probiotic after the identification of functional and structural characteristics of the indigenous yeast in microbiota. Further experiments and testing would be required to maximize the production and ability of probiotic yeast in the gut of an animal [66]. Furthermore, the 18S amplicon sequencing does not only help in the indigenous yeast identification, but it also reveals the diversity of microeukaryotes when 18S rRNA gene is sequenced [67].
5.2.2 Shotgun metagenomics
Shotgun metagenomics is one of the most advanced techniques of sequencing in which the entire microbiome of microbiota is sequenced. The data generated using this method provides all the information about the genome of an organism [68]. Metagenomics information unravels the composition of microbial community and also indicates the genes, their functions, and associated genetic pathways. The identification of the indigenous yeast and their probiotic potential and capabilities can also be determined using the metagenomics data. Their relationship within the microbial community and their effect on the host can also be studied on the basis of the retrieved information [69].
5.2.3 Metatranscriptomics
Scientists and researchers are using metatrancriptomics to study and analyze the expression profiles of mRNA in a microbial community. The identification of genes, genetic pathways and their regulation, host-microbe interaction, and the symbiotic relation among microbes can easily be determined by using the mRNA expression data. Metatranscriptome approach can be pursued in the identification of indigenous probiotic yeast within the microbiota of an animal. For this purpose the sampling methods and molecular techniques should be improved [70].
5.2.4 Metabolomics
Metabolomics refers to the study of the metabolites or final cellular products. This is also considered one of the useful and efficient methods for the identification of probiotic potential of a microorganism within a microbiota of an animal or selected biological sample [71]. Indigenous probiotic potential of yeast can also be determined using this technique. Studies are still needed to fully understand the function of metabolites in context of probiotic potential and other inhibitory functions of metabolic compounds. As metabolites vary in structure and function, so they could be used in the comparative studies of species and populations. A number of species with high probiotic potential could be approached using metabolomics [72].
6. Challenges in preparation of suitable probiotic yeast
Yeast probiotics not only help to improve the performance factor of cattle, but it also enhances nutrient digestibility. However, the effectiveness of yeast-supplemented products is variable. Therefore, future studies are required to estimate the potency of these diet products as supplements for finishing beef cattle, with an objective to have healthier and productive animals without negotiating their efficiency and costs.
The animal body is a “supraorganism” and refers to the gastrointestinal tract as a virtual organ of the human body. The ongoing research is mainly on probiotics that are used chiefly for the GI tract, whereas there is an impetus need to evaluate the progress on other regions of the body as well.
Yeast supplementation is an effective strategy; thus, it is vital to ensure the stability and viability of yeast-supplemented diet products by developing practicable and cost-effective technologies (e.g., storage, microencapsulation, etc.), which poses marketing and technological challenges for producers at industrial level. Polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins are chiefly used for encapsulation materials in food industry. However, cost-effective production remains a challenge for production of future probiotics and formulation technologies.
Role of yeast probiotics in combating antibiotic-associated diseases has been extensively reported through control trials and ingestion of yeast probiotics (Saccharomyces boulardii) and has positive therapeutic effects specifically in preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhea (ADD), but validated biomarkers for numerous target diseases are probiotic or antibiotic deficient. Therefore, in the field of probiotic investigation, the defining of validated biomarkers needs to be advanced.
There is a dire need to understand the composition and relationship of microbial community within an animal gut for improving the production of dairy products. Advances in the high-throughput technologies, computational tools, and omics approaches give insights into the molecular and genetic potential of an organism. Studies in the omics arena are still needed to fully understand the genetic mechanisms and pathway analysis.
7. Conclusions and future research
Every living organism is different in terms of their genetic makeup. The current progresses in sequencing and functional omics techniques have delivered better understandings into the precise mechanisms underlying probiotic functionality. The emerging understanding of the animal gut microbiota allowed accurate characterization of probiotic effects on the commensal microbiota of animal in vivo. Identification of genes vital to probiotic functionality is providing scientists the capacity to genetically tailor probiotics to encounter the requirements for precise applications. The livestock sector has a larger proportion of land consumption than agriculture keeping in view both grain feed intake and grazing. This trend is expected to rise, putting pressure and competencies on land resources in the agriculture sector. Moreover, there is a high demand for quality production which Cannot be attained by traditional practices for feeding ruminants. Quality cereal feed costs high and is uneconomical for large production. Consequently, this creates an imbalance in nutrition which drastically reduces dairy production. Probiotic yeast can overcome dairy production disparity. It augments nutrient uptake and increases Immunity, overall better health and production. Utilization of probiotic yeast for health and production is influenced by many different factors including probiotic strains, age, and breed of cattle. Essentially, yeast probiotics enhance assimilation by balancing the microflora of the rumen. It facilitates fiber digestion via inducing fermentation and stabilizing high pH. Facilitating an environment that flourishes rumen microbes is one factor. Other avenues need to be explored for probiotic yeast. More probiotic yeast strains are needed to be identified. For the preparation of probiotic feed, a complete nutritional profile generation is required. Furthermore, the amino acid profile of milk produced by dairy heifers fed on yeast probiotic should be analyzed.
8. Recommendations
The recommendations are outlined as follows:
Sampling source should be indigenous for isolation of the probiotic strains.
The identification of the probiotic strains must be based on the international validated molecular methods.
The identified strain name should be deposited in validated microbial culture collection.
The probiotic as well as genetic properties of the probiotic strains should be studied. Good manufacturing practices must be applied with quality assurance and shelf-life conditions established and labeling made clear to include minimum dosage and verifiable health claims.
\n',keywords:"indigenous probiotic yeast, lower gut, microbiota, molecular methods",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64889.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64889.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64889",totalDownloads:754,totalViews:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 22nd 2018",dateReviewed:"November 27th 2018",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2019",datePublished:"August 7th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Probiotic yeast enhanced the ruminal gut microbial balance by producing intercellular effectors and important metabolites. The impact of yeast addition on animal health is influenced by different interlinked factors including animal genomics, its gut microbiota, and environment. Therefore, all factors should be considered regarding achieving the maximum outputs from animal probiotic yeast. In the situation of a high feeding cost, microbial feed supplements provide a suitable nutritional approach, which allows increased nutrient digestion rate and accordingly improves animal performance. Many yeast products are commercially available, but their efficiency as probiotic dietary addition in a particular breed is mostly questionable. Therefore, identification of ideal probiotic yeast strain is of great interest in this context. Innovative methods in relation to develop new probiotic are mainly focused on the exploring novel microbial strains from indigenous sources. It has been noted that for the identification of best probiotic strain for the host, a linkage between culture-independent and culture-dependent methods is a functional step. In this chapter, we will discuss the mode of action of probiotic yeast on animal lower gut microbiota and identification of ideal probiotic yeast by using advanced molecular methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64889",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64889",signatures:"Shakira Ghazanfar, Aayesha Riaz, Ghulam Muhammad Ali, Saima Naveed, Irum Arif, Sidra Irshad, Naeem Riaz and Khanzadi Nazneen Manzoor",book:{id:"8107",title:"Yeasts in Biotechnology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Yeasts in Biotechnology",slug:"yeasts-in-biotechnology",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8107.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202370",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakira",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazanfar",fullName:"Shakira Ghazanfar",slug:"shakira-ghazanfar",email:"shakira_akmal@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"286878",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Muhammad Ali",fullName:"Ghulam Muhammad Ali",slug:"ghulam-muhammad-ali",email:"drgmali5@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286879",title:"Ms.",name:"Irum",middleName:null,surname:"Arif",fullName:"Irum Arif",slug:"irum-arif",email:"irum_arif56@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286880",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Irshad",fullName:"Sidra Irshad",slug:"sidra-irshad",email:"sidrairshad29@ymail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286881",title:"Ms.",name:"Khanzadi",middleName:null,surname:"Nazneen Manzoor",fullName:"Khanzadi Nazneen Manzoor",slug:"khanzadi-nazneen-manzoor",email:"knazneen02@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"297912",title:"Dr.",name:"Naeem",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",fullName:"Naeem Riaz",slug:"naeem-riaz",email:"naeem_nibge@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"304921",title:"Dr.",name:"Aayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",fullName:"Aayesha Riaz",slug:"aayesha-riaz",email:"aayeshariaz@uaar.edu.pk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"304923",title:"Dr.",name:"Saima",middleName:null,surname:"Naveed",fullName:"Saima Naveed",slug:"saima-naveed",email:"saimamahad@uvas.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Yeast: an ideal microbial feed supplement for ruminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Understanding of the ruminant microbial community for development of ideal probiotic yeast for ruminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Digestive system of ruminants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Microbial community of GIT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the rumen",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the lower gut",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Modern methods to understand and develop fibrolytic probiotics for ruminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Common methods used to identify indigenous probiotic yeast",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Culture-dependent techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2 Culture-independent techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.2.1 18S amplicon sequencing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.2.2 Shotgun metagenomics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.2.3 Metatranscriptomics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"5.2.4 Metabolomics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Challenges in preparation of suitable probiotic yeast",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Conclusions and future research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Vohra A, Syal P, Madan A. Probiotic yeasts in livestock sector. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2016;219:31-47'},{id:"B2",body:'McCann JC, Elolimy AA, Loor JJ. Rumen microbiome, probiotics, and fermentation additives. 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Effects of diet and osmotic pressure on Na+ transport and tissue conductance of sheep isolated rumen epithelium. Experimental Physiology. 2006;91(3):539-550'},{id:"B38",body:'Henderson G et al. Rumen microbial community composition varies with diet and host, but a core microbiome is found across a wide geographical range. Scientific Reports. 2015;5:14567'},{id:"B39",body:'Fouts DE et al. Next generation sequencing to define prokaryotic and fungal diversity in the bovine rumen. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e48289'},{id:"B40",body:'Liggenstoffer AS et al. Phylogenetic diversity and community structure of anaerobic gut fungi (Phylum neocallimastigomycota) in ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores. The ISME Journal. 2010;4(10):1225'},{id:"B41",body:'Gruninger RJ et al. Anaerobic fungi (Phylum neocallimastigomycota): Advances in understanding their taxonomy, life cycle, ecology, role and biotechnological potential. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 2014;90(1):1-17'},{id:"B42",body:'Khan RU et al. Direct-fed microbial: Beneficial applications, modes of action and prospects as a safe tool for enhancing ruminant production and safeguarding health. International Journal of Pharmacology. 2016;12(3):220-231'},{id:"B43",body:'Lin B et al. Characterization of the rumen microbial community composition of buffalo breeds consuming diets typical of dairy production systems in Southern China. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2015;207:75-84'},{id:"B44",body:'Rima H, Steve L, Ismail F. Antimicrobial and probiotic properties of yeasts: From fundamental to novel applications. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2012;3:421'},{id:"B45",body:'Galvão KN et al. Effect of feeding live yeast products to calves with failure of passive transfer on performance and patterns of antibiotic resistance in fecal Escherichia coli. Reproduction Nutrition Development. 2005;45(4):427-440'},{id:"B46",body:'Pinloche E et al. The effects of a probiotic yeast on the bacterial diversity and population structure in the rumen of cattle. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e67824'},{id:"B47",body:'Cebra JJ. Influences of microbiota on intestinal immune system development. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999;69(5):1046s-1051s'},{id:"B48",body:'Kumar S et al. Associative patterns among anaerobic fungi, methanogenic archaea, and bacterial communities in response to changes in diet and age in the rumen of dairy cows. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2015;6:781'},{id:"B49",body:'Hungate R. The rumen microbial ecosystem. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 1975;6(1):39-66'},{id:"B50",body:'Flint HJ et al. Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: Potential for new insights from genomic analysis. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2008;6(2):121'},{id:"B51",body:'Oelschlaeger TA. Mechanisms of probiotic actions–A review. International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2010;300(1):57-62'},{id:"B52",body:'AlZahal O et al. Factors influencing ruminal bacterial community diversity and composition and microbial fibrolytic enzyme abundance in lactating dairy cows with a focus on the role of active dry yeast. Journal of Dairy Science. 2017;100(6):4377-4393'},{id:"B53",body:'Gueimonde M, Salminen S. New methods for selecting and evaluating probiotics. Digestive and Liver Disease. 2006;38:S242-S247'},{id:"B54",body:'Davis C. Enumeration of probiotic strains: Review of culture-dependent and alternative techniques to quantify viable bacteria. Journal of Microbiological Methods. 2014;103:9-17'},{id:"B55",body:'Maldonado N et al. Effect of milk fermented with lactic acid bacteria on diarrheal incidence, growth performance and microbiological and blood profiles of newborn dairy calves. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins. 2018;10(4):668-676'},{id:"B56",body:'Donovan PD et al. Identification of fungi in shotgun metagenomics datasets. PLoS One. 2018;13(2):e0192898'},{id:"B57",body:'Akinbowale OL, Peng H, Barton MD. Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from aquaculture sources in Australia. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2006;100(5):1103-1113'},{id:"B58",body:'de Melo Pereira GV et al. How to select a probiotic? A review and update of methods and criteria. Biotechnology Advances. 2018;36(8):2060-2076'},{id:"B59",body:'Islam M, Lee S-S. Recent application technologies of rumen microbiome is the key to enhance feed fermentation. Journal of Life Science. 2018;28(10):1244-1253'},{id:"B60",body:'Bagheripoor-Fallah N et al. Comparison of molecular techniques with other methods for identification and enumeration of probiotics in fermented milk products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2015;55(3):396-413'},{id:"B61",body:'Yadav R, Shukla P. An overview of advanced technologies for selection of probiotics and their expediency: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;57(15):3233-3242'},{id:"B62",body:'Panda SH, Goli JK, Das S. Production, optimization and probiotic characterization of potential lactic acid bacteria producing siderophores. AIMS Microbiology. 2017;3(1):88-107'},{id:"B63",body:'Silvestri G et al. Investigation of the microbial ecology of Ciauscolo, a traditional Italian salami, by culture-dependent techniques and PCR-DGGE. Meat Science. 2007;77(3):413-423'},{id:"B64",body:'Greppi A et al. Determination of yeast diversity in ogi, mawè, gowé and tchoukoutou by using culture-dependent and-independent methods. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2013;165(2):84-88'},{id:"B65",body:'He J-Z et al. Microbial composition and diversity of an upland red soil under long-term fertilization treatments as revealed by culture-dependent and culture-independent approaches. Journal of Soils and Sediments. 2008;8(5):349-358'},{id:"B66",body:'Rebollar EA et al. Using “omics” and integrated multi-omics approaches to guide probiotic selection to mitigate chytridiomycosis and other emerging infectious diseases. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016;7:68'},{id:"B67",body:'Findley K et al. Topographic diversity of fungal and bacterial communities in human skin. Nature. 2013;498(7454):367'},{id:"B68",body:'Ghazanfar S et al. Metagenomics and its application in soil microbial community studies: Biotechnological prospects. Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences. 2010;6(2):611-622'},{id:"B69",body:'Lindahl BD et al. Fungal community analysis by high-throughput sequencing of amplified markers–A user\'s guide. New Phytologist. 2013;199(1):288-299'},{id:"B70",body:'Qin J et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464(7285):59'},{id:"B71",body:'Jung JY et al. Metatranscriptomic analysis of lactic acid bacterial gene expression during kimchi fermentation. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2013;163(2-3):171-179'},{id:"B72",body:'Gosalbes MJ et al. Metatranscriptomic approach to analyze the functional human gut microbiota. PLoS One. 2011;6(3):e17447'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shakira Ghazanfar",address:"shakira_akmal@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
National Institute of Genomics and Advance Biotechnology (NIGAB), NARC, Pakistan
National Institute of Genomics and Advance Biotechnology (NIGAB), NARC, Pakistan
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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