Average primary productivity in the Eastern and Western Mediterranean Seas compared with average values for the global ocean.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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He has authored or co-authored 20-some journal papers and over 100 conference papers.\nHe is an associate editor for International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, where he has been also a guest editor, associate editor for Frontiers in Neurorobotics, and has been a member of several conference editorial boards, including ICRA, IROS and Humanoids.\nDr. Gams received the ICRA CEB Best Reviewer Award at the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation in Seattle, USA, Best Scientific Paper award at the 23rd International Workshop on Robotics in Alpe-Adria-Danube Region, Smolenice, Slovakia (2014), Best Paper Research Award at the 19th International Workshop in the Alpe-Adria-Danube region in Budapest, Hungary (2010) and the Jožef Stefan Golden Emblem Award for his Ph.D. dissertation in 2012.",institutionString:"Jožef Stefan Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jožef Stefan Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"315335",title:"Dr.",name:"Takamitsu",middleName:null,surname:"Matsubara",slug:"takamitsu-matsubara",fullName:"Takamitsu Matsubara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/315335/images/system/315335.jpg",biography:"Takamitsu Matsubara received his B.E. in electrical and electronic systems engineering from Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan, in 2003, and M.E. in information science from the Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, Japan, in 2005, and a Ph.D. in information science from the Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, Japan, in 2007. From 2005 to 2007, he was a research fellow (DC1) of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. From 2013 to 2014, he was a visiting researcher of the Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. \nHe is currently an associate professor at the Nara Institute of Science and Technology and a visiting researcher at the ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, Kyoto, and at National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tokyo, Japan. \nHis research interests are machine learning and control theory for robotics. He has authored or co-authored over 20 journal papers and 60 conference papers. \nHe has been a guest editor for Advanced Robotics, and has been a member of several conference editorial boards, including ICRA, IROS, Humanoids and CoRL. \nDr. Matsubara received RSJ/KROS Distinguished Interdisciplinary Research Award at the 2015 IEEE RO-MAN, Best Oral Paper Award at the IEEE-RAS Humanoids2016, JNNS the Best Paper Award (2012, and 2018).",institutionString:"Nara Institute of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Nara Institute of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"22",title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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It is a sea of far greater importance to humanity than would be inferred from its size, as illustrated in the other chapters of this book and elsewhere. In modern times the Mediterranean Sea has become the receptacle of rising nutrient wastes from the surrounding countries. When discharged into coastal waters and inland seas, compounds containing phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N), two chemical elements collectively known as plant macronutrients, enhance the growth of
Map of the Mediterranean Sea, including the major areas of formation of intermediate and deep waters. After de Madron et al. [
The clear blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea reflect the very low biological productivity of its surface waters compared to most of the world’s oceans. Thus, the Mediterranean Sea is as much of a ‘desert’ as the Sahara Desert to the south (photographs taken by G. Rilov and by N. Landsberg). This figure is available in colour in the online version of this chapter.
The work presented in this chapter is based on mass balance model calculations that quantitatively describe the sources, fate and transport of the nutrient elements P and N in the Mediterranean Sea. The calculations help explain not only why the Mediterranean Sea is a marine desert but also why the nutrient distributions differ between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean Seas. In addition, we explore how the Mediterranean Sea has responded to the large increases in anthropogenic nutrient inputs since the middle of the last century and whether changes in circulation due to climate change have the potential to lead to a depletion of the dissolved oxygen (O2) levels in the deep waters of this semi-enclosed marine basin. As far as possible, the text explains briefly the major ocean processes occurring in ways that, hopefully, make the text accessible to readers with a non-expert knowledge of oceanography and marine science.
In 1979, James Lovelock in his landmark book
What is the Redfield ratio? Look at the chemical equation in Figure 3: it represents the synthesis of new biomass by marine phytoplankton. The equation shows that for every 106 carbon (C) atoms that are incorporated in new biomass on average, 16 atoms of N and 1 atom of P are utilized. In 1936, Alfred Redfield, a marine scientist working at Harvard University, noticed that the dissolved nitrate-to-dissolved phosphate ratio in deep ocean waters in many parts of the globe is close to 16:1 (in units of mol/mol) that is the same value as the average N/P ratio of marine phytoplankton. He suggested that this surprising convergence reflects a biological control over the distribution of vital nutrient elements in seawater [2].
Net reaction showing the utilization of inorganic chemical ingredients by marine phytoplankton as they carry out photosynthesis and produce new biomass. The reverse reaction is respiration in which organisms use organic substrates as food to produce energy. Note that molecular oxygen (O2) is generated during photosynthesis and consumed during respiration.
Marine phytoplankton produce biomass with an atomic (or molar) N/P ratio of 16:1. After death, the plankton biomass settles as biological debris towards the bottom of the oceans. The degradation of this debris, primarily by microorganisms, then releases the N and P as dissolved nitrate and phosphate to the water column in a 16:1 proportion. Upward mixing and
One of the unique features of the Mediterranean Sea is that the dissolved P and N concentrations in the water column do NOT obey the Redfield ratio. The dissolved nitrate-to-phosphate ratio of the deep waters is around 23:1 in the Western Mediterranean Sea and 28:1 in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea ([4]; Figure 4). Similarly, the ratios of dissolved organic N to dissolved organic P (DON/DOP) and particulate organic N to particulate organic P (PON/POP) typically exceed 16:1 in Mediterranean seawater [5–9]. In other words, compared to the world’s ocean, the Mediterranean Sea is chronically short of P: it is in fact P-starved. One outcome of this highly unusual situation is that many bacteria and phytoplankton that live in the Mediterranean Sea have adapted to survive under severe P limitation [10].
Distributions of dissolved nitrate and phosphate concentrations and the dissolved nitrate to dissolved phosphate molar ratio, in the water column of the North Atlantic Ocean, Western Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Note the differences in scales between the two uppermost panels. The figures are generated in Ocean Data View [
Phytoplankton biomass in the Mediterranean Sea is also extremely low. A commonly used way to determine the phytoplankton abundance is to measure the amount of chlorophyll, the green pigment that plants use to capture light energy during photosynthesis. Compared with other semi-enclosed seas adjacent to the European continent, such as the Baltic Sea or North Sea, the summer chlorophyll levels of the Mediterranean Sea are an order of magnitude lower (Figure 5). The chlorophyll concentrations in many European and other semi-enclosed seas often reach levels where eutrophication starts having harmful ecological impacts. With the exception of nearshore areas, this is not observed in the Mediterranean Sea.
Summer surface water chlorophyll showing low concentrations in the Mediterranean Sea compared to other inland and coastal European waters. The concentrations displayed are average values recorded between July 2002 and December 2004. From NASA [
The low phytoplankton biomass matches the very low primary production observed in the open waters of the Mediterranean Sea: in fact, offshore primary production is one of the lowest observed in the global ocean. Values reported for the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, 10–143 g C m−2 y−1 ([14]; Table 1), are even lower than those in the centre of large
Area of the ocean | Primary productivity (gC m−2 y−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Eastern Mediterranean Sea | 10–143 | [14] |
Western Mediterranean Sea | 37–475 | [14] |
Open ocean (average) | 75 | [15] |
Continental shelves (average) | 300 | [15] |
Upwelling regions (average) | 500 | [15] |
Average primary productivity in the Eastern and Western Mediterranean Seas compared with average values for the global ocean.
Primary productivity is expressed in units of mass of carbon fixed in photosynthesis, per unit sea surface area per unit of time.
Ultimately, the low biological productivity of the Mediterranean Sea is due to the low availability of inorganic nutrients (in particular, dissolved phosphate, nitrate and ammonia) that are needed for phytoplankton to grow (Figure 3). The vertical distributions of dissolved inorganic nutrients in the oceans exhibit the lowest concentrations in the surface waters where the nutrients are actively taken up by phytoplankton. Below the depth of light penetration, the concentrations of dissolved inorganic P and N increase as they are regenerated by the breakdown of settling biological debris (i.e.,
Nutrient | Eastern Mediterranean Sea | Western Mediterranean Sea | North Atlantic Ocean | North-West Pacific Ocean |
---|---|---|---|---|
μmol l−1 | ||||
Nitrate | 6 | 9 | 16 | 50 |
Phosphate | 0.25 | 0.4 | 1 | 3 |
Silicic acid | 6–12 | 10–32 | 20 | 160 |
Typical concentrations of dissolved inorganic nutrients in the deep waters of the Eastern and Western Mediterranean Seas compared with concentrations found in the deep waters of the global ocean.
Note that silicic acid, or dissolved silica, is essential to the growth of an important group of phytoplankton called diatoms. The concentration values are given in units of mircomoles per litre seawater where micro (μ) stands for 10−6.
Key to interpreting the unique features of the Mediterranean Sea discussed above is its
Cross section showing the distribution of salinity (colour) and the general circulation of the Mediterranean Sea (arrows). The thicknesses of the arrows indicate the relative flow rates. Major deep-water formation areas are identified (see also
Mass balance models, also called box models, provide a simple but powerful tool to analyse complex environmental systems such as the Mediterranean Sea. These models require relatively little data and have low spatial and temporal resolution, yet they can yield some profound insights into the large-scale dynamics of coupled biogeochemical cycles. The starting point for the Mediterranean nutrient model is to determine how much P and N enter and leave the system. Once we then add our knowledge of the main in-system biogeochemical processes, it is possible to simulate the general trends of nutrient cycling in the Mediterranean Sea [17] and predict what changes may be expected under the influence of anthropogenic nutrient enrichment and global climate change [18, 19].
In the model, the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Seas are each divided into three layers: surface water, intermediate water and deep water. The water cycle describes the flows between the six water layers, plus the inflow and outflow exchanges with adjacent basins, including the Atlantic Ocean, the Adriatic Sea and the Aegean Sea. Once the water flows are assigned, the nutrient chemistry is added. Both inorganic and organic dissolved forms of P and N are included in the model, as well as particulate organic P and N to represent the nutrients associated with biological material, live and dead. Average concentrations of all the P and N chemical species in the six water layers are derived from measurements made during oceanographic cruises in the Mediterranean Sea. This gives a total of 42 individual chemical P plus N reservoirs or boxes. The transformations of the chemical species from one form to another are represented by dynamic rate expressions. Thus, for example, primary production transforms inorganic dissolved P (phosphate) and N (nitrate) into particulate organic P and N. In the model, the rates at which P and N are used in primary production are coupled to one another by the Redfield ratio.
The P and N model was initialized for conditions corresponding to the year 1950. We chose 1950 because the earliest oceanographic surveys of the Mediterranean Sea date back to the middle of the twentieth century, that is, nutrient time series data are available from that time on. In addition, anthropogenic nutrient inputs from the surrounding countries increased rapidly after 1950, in particular because of the systematic introduction of fertilizers in agriculture. To close the 1950 budgets of P and N, we made a crucial assumption, namely, that all the reservoirs were at steady state in 1950, that is, inputs and outputs to each reservoir were perfectly balanced. The model was then run forwards in time taking into account the temporal changes in P and N inputs due to human activities. The steady-state model simulations for 1950 and the time-dependent post-1950 simulations were used to answer a series of quantitative questions about how the Mediterranean Sea works and why it is such an unusual marine ecosystem.
A significant result of our analysis is that the main source of P and N to the Mediterranean Sea is the horizontal inflow of surface water from the North Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar (Figures 7 and 8). This is unexpected given that the Mediterranean Sea is almost entirely surrounded by land with correspondingly large nutrient emissions from land-based human activities. The reason lies in the large volume of Atlantic water entering the Western Mediterranean Sea driven by the intense anti-estuarine circulation. According to our estimates, inflowing Atlantic surface water (also referred to as ASW) provides 58% of the total P input to the Western Mediterranean Sea (Figure 7) and accounts for 39% of its
Input and output fluxes of reactive phosphorus (P), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (PO4) and particulate and dissolved organic phosphorus (POP + DOP) to the Western Mediterranean Sea (WMS) and Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS). The thicknesses of the arrows scale to the corresponding fluxes. Numerical values are fluxes in units of 109 mol P y−1 [
Input and output fluxes of reactive nitrogen (N), dissolved inorganic nitrogen (NO3 + NH4) and particulate and dissolved organic nitrogen (PON + DON) to the Western Mediterranean Sea (WMS) and Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS). The thicknesses of the arrows scale to the corresponding fluxes. Numerical values are fluxes in units of 109 mol N yr.−1 [
Interestingly, recent research has shown that horizontal (or lateral) nutrient inputs, and in particular those of DOP and DON, are a major part of the nutrient budgets and new production of subtropical oceanic gyres [20]. This, in some respects, means that the Mediterranean Sea behaves more like a subtropical ocean gyre than other semi-enclosed marine basins. While at first this may be surprising, it starts to make sense when we compare the circulation regimes of oceanic gyres and the Mediterranean Sea. In subtropical gyres the Coriolis force, the force created by the spinning of the Earth, forces surface water towards the centre of the gyre where it is subsequently forced downwards before moving outwards. That is, lateral inflow from outside the gyre leads to downwelling inside the gyre, followed by outflow at greater depth. This is similar to the general flow pattern in the Mediterranean Sea, which is also characterized by lateral surface inflow and deeper lateral outflow (Figure 6). Note, however, that the forcing mechanisms, the Coriolis force and the anti-estuarine circulation, are quite different.
The most biologically active forms of P (dissolved phosphate) and N (dissolved nitrate and ammonia) are easily assimilated by phytoplankton that form the base of the food web. Most phytoplankton do not die of ‘old age’, but are eaten by larger organisms, which in turn are eaten by even larger organisms. Eventually, biological material produced in the surface waters drops out of the photic zone either as the faeces of zooplankton or as part of what is called
An important finding of the mass balance calculations is that the low productivity of the Mediterranean Sea is not so much caused by a net total loss of nutrients to the Atlantic Ocean, but rather by the differences in chemical forms of P and N entering and leaving the basin. In fact, the inflows of total P and total N to the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar are of comparable magnitudes as the corresponding outflows of total P and total N with deeper Mediterranean Sea water (Figures 7 and 8). However, the P and N exiting the Mediterranean Sea are predominantly in their most biologically active forms, dissolved phosphate and nitrate, whereas more than half of P and N entering the Mediterranean Sea are in their less bioavailable forms, DOP and DON. In total, 88% more dissolved phosphate leaves the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar than flows in with the Atlantic surface water: the outflow of total P, however, is only 10% greater than the inflow of total P (Figure 7). A similar trend is observed for N, with a 47% difference in the total dissolved N flux leaving and entering through the Strait of Gibraltar but four times more dissolved nitrate leaving than entering (Figure 8). A similar switch in chemical speciation is also observed at the Strait of Sicily (Figures 7 and 8). This emphasizes the need to account for the chemical speciation of nutrient elements, in addition to their total concentrations and fluxes.
The difference in magnitude of marine-derived sources of P and N to the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Seas is the primary reason behind the west to east gradients in primary productivity and phosphate and nitrate concentrations. Inputs of land-derived sources of P and N are rather similar per unit surface area between the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Seas, yet, per unit surface area, P and N inputs are 3.9 and 3.1 times greater, respectively, for the Western Mediterranean Sea (Figures 7 and 8). In the Western Mediterranean Sea, P and N inputs from land are added to a background of P and N that originates from the Atlantic Ocean and the deep layers of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. In contrast, land-derived inputs into the Eastern Mediterranean Sea are added to a background which is depleted in P and N due to the relatively low concentrations of P and N within the Western Mediterranean surface water entering the Eastern Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Sicily. Thus, the Western Mediterranean Sea exhibits properties that are intermediate between the ‘normal’ Atlantic waters and the ultra-oligotrophic Eastern Mediterranean Sea waters. In addition to the greater external inputs of P and N to the Western Mediterranean Sea, primary productivity is also supported by upwelling of nutrients from intermediate water into the photic zone, whereas this mechanism is not present in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. In other words, upwelling provides an additional source of nutrients to the photic zone of the Western Mediterranean Sea compared to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.
However, higher inputs into the Western Mediterranean Sea do not entirely explain the west to east trends in phosphate and nitrate concentrations observed across the Mediterranean Sea. Despite the much greater dissolved phosphate and nitrate concentrations in the Western Mediterranean Sea, the deep-water DOP and DON concentrations are quite similar in the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Seas. This can be explained by the faster recycling of organic P and organic N back into the dissolved inorganic pools in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Evidence for this faster recycling of organic matter can be seen in the higher population densities of bacteria observed in the Western Mediterranean Sea, which are four to six times greater than in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, as well as the higher concentrations of alkaline phosphatase, which are about three times greater than in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea [21]. Alkaline phosphatases are a group of enzymes that are designed to break the chemical bonds that hold P locked into organic compounds, thereby releasing dissolved phosphate to seawater. Note that, based on the numbers just provided, there is about twice as much alkaline phosphatase per bacterial cell in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The reason is that the Eastern Mediterranean Sea is more P-starved than the Western Mediterranean. Therefore, the microbial community of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea must work harder to access this extremely limiting nutrient. It does so by producing more alkaline phosphatase per cell: this represents a specific adaptation of the microbial community in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea to the very low availability of P.
In most areas of the ocean close to land, production of organic matter by phytoplankton exceeds its consumption by respiration, because of the abundant supply of land-derived nutrients. These areas are referred to as
A key factor controlling how much, and how fast, organic compounds are being consumed by bacteria and animals is their so-called lability. It is not just a matter of how much food there is but also what its quality is (i.e. is it prime rib or old shoe leather?). For example, fresh phytoplankton biomass is high-quality food for bacteria and animals. Higher inputs of relatively labile organic matter, both marine and land derived, explain the higher heterotrophy in the Western Mediterranean Sea than the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. More dissolved organic matter enters the Western Mediterranean Sea via the Strait of Gibraltar than enters the Eastern Mediterranean Sea via the Strait of Sicily. In addition, more phytoplankton is produced in the Western Mediterranean Sea, therefore providing a source of fresh organic matter. In comparison to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Western Mediterranean Sea therefore exhibits higher DOP concentrations in its surface waters (more food), but lower DOP in its deep waters, because the higher lability of organic matter in the Western basin leads to its faster consumption (better food).
The net heterotrophy of the Mediterranean Sea is also modulated by the rather unusual timing of the annual phytoplankton bloom, that is, the period during which phytoplankton growth peaks. In many parts of the temperate ocean, the main phytoplankton bloom occurs in spring. Bioavailable nutrients are mixed into surface waters in winter during the cold and often stormy time of the year, but phytoplankton cannot grow rapidly until the depth of mixing decreases and enough sunlight becomes available to carry out photosynthesis. The latter usually happens in spring after the length of day and the angle of the sun have increased sufficiently. By contrast, in the Mediterranean Sea, the phytoplankton bloom occurs in winter (see Figure 9). This is because winter in the Mediterranean Sea is characterized by short periods of cold often windy weather, which causes the surface water to mix and bring up nutrients from below, followed by sunny periods during which mixing temporarily stops and phytoplankton can grow. However, winter is also the time when Mediterranean intermediate and deep waters tend to form. The downwelling surface waters entrain the phytoplankton biomass, hence supplying fresh, and thus labile, organic matter to the bacteria and animals living at greater water depths. Because downwelling occurs when the phytoplankton biomass is at its highest, heterotrophy is relatively more pronounced for the Mediterranean Sea than in areas of the oceans where the phytoplankton bloom takes place in spring.
Monthly SeaWiFS ‘climatological’ images of chlorophyll from November to October. The images are based on input data from September 1997 to August 2004. Concentrations of chlorophyll-a were computed using the Bricaud et al. [
One of the most remarkable properties of Mediterranean Sea is the significant departure of the deep-water molar nitrate-to-phosphate ratios from the average 16:1 value observed throughout most of the world’s ocean ([4, 25]; Figure 4). For the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, Krom et al. [26] showed this was due to the combined N/P ratio of the total, non-marine inputs of P and N, which by far exceeds 16:1 (e.g., the ratio of inorganic nutrients supplied through atmospheric deposition is larger than 100:1), and the very limited amount of denitrification. Denitrification is the process in which anaerobic bacteria use nitrate to respire organic matter and produce N2 gas as a by-product. In the ocean, denitrification is the primary mechanism by which deep-water nitrate-to-phosphate ratios that exceed 16:1 are brought closer to the Redfield ratio [3]. In the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, so little organic matter is produced that there are very few areas where dissolved O2 is completely consumed. As a result, denitrifying bacteria cannot function, and the excess nitrate-to-phosphate ratio remains. Our mass balance model is able to reproduce the observed ratio of dissolved nitrate to phosphate in the Eastern Mediterranean deep water by accounting for the external supply and the transformations and transport of the two nutrient elements [17]. The results invalidate the previous explanation attributing the high nitrate-to-phosphate ratio to high rates of nitrogen fixation in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. This is consistent with measured rates of nitrogen fixation that are amongst the lowest observed anywhere in the global ocean [27, 28].
The model calculations further demonstrate for the first time that the higher than Redfield nitrate-to-phosphate ratio of the Western Mediterranean Sea deep water is similarly caused by the high N/P ratio of the external nutrient supply combined with low levels of denitrification [17]. Although in our model some nitrogen fixation does occur in the Western Mediterranean Sea, compared to none in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, it is more than offset by a 12 times greater rate of denitrification per m2 sea surface area. The dissolved nitrate-to-phosphate ratio of Western Mediterranean deep water is nonetheless lower than that of Eastern Mediterranean deep water largely because of a lower total N/P ratio of the external nutrient inputs, in particular due to the inflow of low N/P North Atlantic surface water.
A useful in silico exercise that can be performed with the biogeochemical mass balance model is to remove one process at the time and observe the resulting effect on the cycling of P and N [17]. For instance, we found that if the atmospheric input of bioavailable P and N is removed, the model yields deep water-dissolved nitrate-to-phosphate ratios of 15–16 for both the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Seas, despite the large differences in the starting ratios (21:1 and 28:1). By contrast the removal of P and N inputs associated with submarine ground water discharge, rivers or direct wastewater inputs has no significant effects on the deep-water nitrate-to-phosphate ratios. However, when the P and N inputs via the Strait of Gibraltar are removed, then the deep-water ratios increase to 53:1 (Western Mediterranean Sea) and 69:1 (Eastern Mediterranean Sea). This suggests that the higher than Redfield nitrate-to-phosphate ratios observed in the Mediterranean Sea are ultimately driven by the high N/P ratio of the external nutrient input via atmospheric deposition but also that without dilution by the low N/P nutrient supply from the North Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean-dissolved nitrate-to-phosphate ratios could be even larger than actually observed.
Another model application consists in calculating by how much the denitrification rate would have to increase to bring the deep-water nitrate-to-phosphate ratios of the Mediterranean Sea down to the Redfield value (16:1). The results indicate that the denitrification rate in the Western Mediterranean Sea would have to be 2.2 times higher than in 1950 (increasing to 0.05 mol N m−2 y−1), while in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, it would have to be 7 times higher than in 1950 (increasing to 0.01 mol N m−2 y−1). In the global ocean, denitrification rates mostly fall in the range of 0.04–0.10 mol N m−2 y−1 [29, 30]. This means that if the Mediterranean Sea supported rates of denitrification of the same order of magnitude as the rest of the oceans, then its deep waters would approach ‘normal’ Redfield ratios around 16:1. An important conclusion is that the unique nutrient distributions in the Mediterranean Sea are not due to some unknown process not encountered elsewhere in the oceans, but rather to ‘normal’ ocean processes—but then in an unusual combination.
During the second half of the twentieth century, land-derived emissions of P and N to the Mediterranean Sea reached levels 2.6 and 2.3 times higher than in 1950, respectively ([19, 31]; Figure 10), as a result of the rapid growth of coastal populations and intensifying economic activities. The huge increases in nutrient supply by rivers and via atmospheric deposition, however, have had relatively little impact on the open waters of the Mediterranean Sea, with only a 10–20% increase in primary productivity (Figure 10). The reason is that the Mediterranean Sea has a very efficient natural buffer to counter increases in the supply of nutrients, especially in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Newly added nutrients to the surface water are rapidly transferred to the deeper-water layers, either by downwelling of surface water or settling of biological debris. Because of the anti-estuarine circulation, much of the additional dissolved P and N in the intermediate water of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea is removed by outflow through the Strait of Sicily, while most of the rest accumulates in the deep-water layer. A similar scenario plays out in the Western Mediterranean Sea with most of the additional P and N either exported to the North Atlantic Ocean or stored in the deep water, rather than contributing to primary production [19].
Reconstructed relative changes of land-derived reactive phosphorus and nitrogen inputs to the Mediterranean Sea and corresponding changes in primary productivity, from the year 1950 to 2000. Data from Powley [
An additional result of the very low productivity is that the O2 contents of the waters of the Mediterranean Sea remain elevated: no permanent or seasonal areas of hypoxia are observed in the open Mediterranean Sea. This contrasts with the Baltic Sea, which receives comparable influxes of external pollutant nutrients per unit area but with very different consequences. There are major eutrophication problems in the Baltic Sea including areas of hypoxia and toxic algal blooms. This does not mean there are no problems of excess nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea. There are, but they tend to be local and restricted to nearshore areas, such as the salt water lagoons of the Nile delta and Venice lagoon. In the past, coastal areas of the North Adriatic Sea were plagued by eutrophication problems, which have now been much reduced. However, offshore basin-wide, nutrient enrichment is not a problem, because the system is efficiently buffered. Model projections into the future show that this result is robust. Even taking into account the various possible changes in physical circulation and P and N emissions during the remainder of the twenty-first century, model simulations predict that the Mediterranean Sea will remain oligotrophic [19].
Similar considerations apply to the environmental impacts of mariculture, which is on the rise in the Mediterranean region as wild fish populations decrease. In most cases, concerns about excess nutrients being released by mariculture are likely unfounded given the very low natural productivity of the surrounding waters and the rapid assimilation of added nutrients into the regional food web. While other issues may arise, such as those related to the dispersion of pharmaceuticals or the possible introduction of invasive species, it seems clear that for any reasonable fish loading, mariculture will not lead to significant regional increases in nutrients and eutrophication [32].
Changes in the
Extensive studies of sapropels, in particular those carried out on the most recently deposited sapropel (Sapropel S-1), conclude that the transitions in the deep-water
Predicting the effects of anthropogenic climate change on the thermohaline circulation of the Mediterranean Sea, however, is far from straightforward. The difficulty resides in predicting how climate change will affect the
In order to explore the potential impacts of climate change on the oxygenation of the deeper waters of the Mediterranean Sea, we created a model of dissolved O2 cycling similar to the nutrient model presented earlier in this chapter [18]. The model accounts for the consumption of O2 by respiration in each water layer of the Western and Eastern Mediterranean Seas. The model-calculated O2 concentration within each of the intermediate and deep-water layers then reflects the balance between the supply of O2 by sinking (O2-rich) surface water and consumption of O2 by respiration. The dissolved O2 concentration in the surface waters remains close to equilibrium with the O2 concentration in the atmosphere, which in the model calculations is held constant.
The scenarios tested with the O2 model correspond to the extreme effects of anthropogenic climate change on the physical circulation of the Mediterranean Sea, based on the work of Somot et al. [36] and Adloff et al. [37]. The extremes range from a slowing down to a speeding up of the Mediterranean thermohaline circulation, that is, from a weakening to a strengthening of the deep-water formation processes. The model calculations further account for the effects of increasing temperatures and salinity on the solubility of O2 and respiration. Increasing temperatures reduce the amount of O2 that dissolves in surface waters and thus reduce the O2 supply to the interior of the Mediterranean Sea by deep-water formation. At the same time, higher temperatures stimulate microbial activity and thus increase respiratory O2 consumption rate. The model scenarios were run until new steady states were reached. The new steady-state O2 levels in the deep-water layer are shown in Figure 11, together with those obtained 100 years after the deep-water formation rates are switched to their new values.
Model-predicted dissolved oxygen (O2) concentrations in the Western Mediterranean deep water (WMDW) and Eastern Mediterranean deep water (EMDW), for the decreased thermohaline circulation climate change scenario. The dashed horizontal line represents the O2 concentrations under the current thermohaline circulation regime. The two sets of bars in both panels are results obtained either 100 years after switching to the slower circulation regime or after the O2 concentrations reach their new steady-state values. ‘No feedback’ corresponds to the model calculations ignoring the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) feedback on deep-water respiration, while ‘feedback’ corresponds to the results when the feedback is included. See text and
Figure 11 also displays results obtained with two alternative representations of the O2 respiration rate. The first formulation (‘no feedback’) assumes that the rate of O2 consumption only depends on the availability of O2 to the microorganisms. The chosen mathematical expression ensures that O2 respiration slows down and ultimately stops when the dissolved O2 concentration approaches zero. In the second formulation (‘feedback’), the rate of O2 respiration also depends on the availability of
The O2 concentrations in the intermediate water layers exhibit little change (<10%) in response to the imposed changes in circulation. The largest changes in O2 concentrations are observed for the deep-water layers in the scenario where climate warming causes a significant slowing down of the thermohaline circulation, as shown in Figure 11. Furthermore, the effect is most pronounced in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea where the deep-water O2 concentration is predicted to drop below 50 μM (compared to present-day values around 200 μM). However, it takes at least 600 years after the change in circulation for hypoxic conditions to develop, that is, for the O2 concentration to cross the threshold value of 2 mg/l (62 μM) below which the lack of O2 may severely harm marine life. Interestingly, even when the deep waters of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea become hypoxic, those of the Western Mediterranean Sea remain oxic. Such a contrast in deep-water oxygenation between the two basins also characterized most periods of sapropel formation during which oxic conditions persisted in the deeper parts of the Western Mediterranean Sea. Furthermore, a slowing down of the thermohaline circulation similar to that simulated here has been proposed to have been a driver for sapropel formation [34, 38]. The analogy with the current warming trend, however, is only partially valid: all the evidence strongly suggests that the more recent sapropels (including S-1) were deposited under a wetter and colder climate during a period of sea level rise following the last ice age.
The model calculations also highlight a possible self-regulating negative feedback that minimizes the impacts of changes in the thermohaline circulation on the oxygenation of the deeper waters of the Mediterranean Sea. How the feedback works is illustrated in Figure 12. It results from the fact that deep-water formation not only supplies surface water enriched in dissolved O2 but also in bioavailable DOC, that is, the two ingredients that sustain microbial respiration. This is not unlike the bloodstream in the human body, which supplies both O2 and DOC in the form of glucose to our cells. If the thermohaline circulation weakens, and hence deep-water formation decreases, less O2 is transferred to the deeper layers of the Mediterranean Sea but also less DOC. The outcome is less biological O2 consumption in the model runs where the rate of respiration depends on both the availability of O2 and DOC (i.e. the ‘feedback’ results in Figure 11). In other words, the decreased supply of O2 by slower deep-water formation is in part compensated by the reduced supply of DOC and, hence, the reduced consumption of O2. Similarly, a more vigorous thermohaline circulation supplies higher amounts of both O2 and DOC to the deeper layers of the Mediterranean Sea. The higher deep-water O2 concentration that may be expected from the enhanced supply of O2, however, is offset by the increased supply of DOC, which increases the rate of O2 consumption. Negative feedbacks such as the one illustrated here are commonly observed in biogeochemical systems. Nonetheless, the O2-DOC feedback for deep-water oxygenation of the Mediterranean Sea remains, at present, speculative and requires further investigation.
Schematic illustration of the effects of deep-water formation rates on deep-water oxygen (O2) concentrations. Solid arrows show the effects of increased deep-water formation (stronger thermohaline circulation), and dashed arrows show the effects of decreased deep-water formation (weakened thermohaline circulation). Black arrows and boxes identify the effects of changes in the thermohaline circulation without the DOC feedback, while green (grey in print version) arrows and boxes show the additional effects of including the dissolved organic carbon feedback on O2 consumption. This figure is available in colour in the online version of this chapter.
Box models represent a given system as a series of interconnected reservoirs or boxes. The state variables of the model are the masses,
Box model: the box or reservoir represents the mass of the variable of interest (
Note that the fluxes may correspond to the physical transport of the state variable (e.g. DOP in Eastern Mediterranean intermediate water) from or to another physical location (e.g. DOP moving from the Eastern Mediterranean intermediate water layer into the Western Mediterranean Sea via the Strait of Sicily) or the transformation of the state variable at a given physical location (e.g. the mineralization within the Eastern Mediterranean intermediate water layer of DOP into dissolved inorganic phosphate).
The mass conservation equation describing the time evolution of the state variable,
where the fluxes are given in units of mass per unit time. For each reservoir in the model, an ODE of the form of Eq. (1) is derived. For example, Figure B.2 presents the dissolved phosphate reservoir in the deep-water layer of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.
Input and output fluxes to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea deep water (EMDW) dissolved phosphate (PO4) reservoir in the nutrient model.
The corresponding ODE is
For each term on the right-hand side of Eq. (2), a mathematical expression must be assigned. When all the mass conservation equations are specified, one for each reservoir, the system of ODEs is solved as a function of time,
A special condition for any dynamic model (i.e. a model with time as an independent variable) is that of the steady state. For a box model, this means that, for each reservoir, the input fluxes exactly balance the output fluxes or
which is equivalent to stating that all state variables remain constant. This is the condition we assign to the 1950 P and N cycles in the Mediterranean Sea.
While the mass balance equations are written in terms of the chemical masses in the different reservoirs (
This chapter is based on the PhD thesis research of HRP, with support from the Canada Excellence Research Chair (CERC) programme. HRP and PVC thank the generous input from numerous colleagues in the Ecohydrology Research Group. Leigh Kroeger suggested useful corrections to an earlier draft of this text. The senior author (MDK) was inspired while writing this text by some of the tunes in the Pirates of Penzance.
Anti-estuarine circulation | This unusual form of circulation is typified by what happens in the Mediterranean Sea. Anti-estuarine circulation is where surface water flows into a basin and deeper-water flows out of the basin: estuarine circulation is the opposite. |
Anoxia | Occurs when there is no dissolved oxygen (O2) left in a given water body. |
Autotrophic | When, in a given environment, more organic matter is produced as a result of photosynthesis than is consumed through respiration. |
Denitrification | A microbial process in which bacteria use nitrate (rather than oxygen) to respire organic matter to generate energy for their life processes. It only takes place in locations with very low (zero) oxygen and a supply of nitrate. The waste product of this reaction is dinitrogen gas. |
Density | Refers to how much mass is in a given volume (mathematically defined as mass/volume). In the oceans, temperature and salinity are the two main properties that influence the density of water. The higher the temperature, the lower the density of water as the water molecules have higher energy and are more spread out. Likewise the higher the salinity of water, the denser the water because more salt is present per unit volume of water. |
Downwelling | The deep water of the ocean is formed in specific locations almost always in the polar regions. These locations are where surface water becomes so cold and dense that it ‘downwells’ and fills the deep basins of the global ocean. The most important of these downwelling regions are in the North Atlantic Ocean between Greenland and Norway and in the waters around Antarctica. |
Energy substrates | Chemical substances that can be broken down during respiration to provide the energy required by organisms. The most common energy substrates are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and frequently phosphorus and nitrogen. Some major groups of organic compounds include carbohydrates, fats, proteins and amino acids. |
Eutrophication | A form of water pollution. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication occurs when excessive phosphorus and nitrogen from sources such as fertilizers and wastewater discharges run into a body of water. This encourages the growth of algae and other aquatic plants. As the plants die, bacterial degradation occurs (the plants decay) which consumes dissolved oxygen within the water. In extreme situations this can result in all the dissolved oxygen being consumed, leading to mass mortalities of fish and other marine organisms. |
Heterotrophic | When, in a given environment, more organic carbon is consumed by respiration than is produced by photosynthesis. |
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) | A colourless volatile compound that has a rotten egg smell and produces black-coloured sediments. It is produced from sulphate (SO4) as a result of respiration under anoxic conditions when other higher energy-producing electron acceptors such as oxygen and nitrate have been entirely consumed. It is a toxic substance. |
Hypoxic | When the dissolved oxygen (O2) content in a body of water is so low (<62 μM or 2 mg/l) that it is detrimental to the animals that live there. |
Marine snow | Is formed by aggregates of plankton and debris of other organic matter particles together with dust and other inorganic particles held together in a matrix of gel-like material. Together the aggregates are heavy enough to settle into deeper water rather like ‘snow’. |
Mineralization | The transformation of dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) back into dissolved inorganic P (phosphate) and N (nitrate). This process is primarily the result of enzymatic hydrolysis. |
Negative feedback | When the response of a system to a given perturbation (change) acts to counteract the initial perturbation and thus reduce its effect. |
New production | The primary production supported by nutrients added externally to the photic zone of the ocean, rather than by nutrients that are recycled by mineralization of organic matter produced within the photic zone. |
Nitrogen fixation | A bacterial process, which converts dinitrogen gas to organic nitrogen. It is a very ancient process having evolved in the early Precambrian and is the dominant natural source of fixed nitrogen for life processes. |
Ocean gyres | There are very large slowly spinning bodies of water in the major basins of the world’s oceans. There are two major gyres in the Northern Hemisphere and three in the Southern Hemisphere. In the North Atlantic Ocean, the current that defines the western boundary of the gyre is called the Gulf Stream. In general, downwelling occurs in the centre of the ocean gyres, and these are the least productive parts of the global ocean. |
Oligotrophic | Refers to water bodies that have very low primary production, typically because they are severely limited by a lack of dissolved inorganic nutrients. Oligotrophic water bodies are defined as having chlorophyll concentrations less than 0.1 mg m−3. |
Oxic | Bodies of water with plentiful dissolved oxygen (O2): typically more than 62 μM or 2 mg O2 per litre water. |
Photic zone | The area at the top of the ocean that receives sunlight and so is the area where phytoplankton grow. |
Phytoplankton | Microscopic marine plants which grow in the surface layers of the ocean. They are the main plant life in the ocean and form the base of the marine food chain. |
Primary production | Phytoplankton growth is called primary productivity. Phytoplankton carry out photosynthesis: sunlight is used to convert carbon dioxide and water plus other nutrient elements into organic matter. This forms the base of the food chain in the ocean. Organisms that photosynthesize are called autotrophs. Phytoplankton are autotrophs. |
Redox | This term is shorthand for reduction–oxidation reaction, that is, a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a reduction process and a complementary oxidation process. Photosynthesis and respiration are redox processes. |
Respiration | The chemical reactions by which cells produce energy. It involves the breakdown of energy substrates: often organic compounds: with the use of an oxidant. When molecular oxygen (O2) is present, it is the preferred oxidant for respiration; when it is absent, microorganisms can use other oxidants, including nitrate. |
Solubilization | The transformation of particulate organic phosphorus (POP) and particulate organic nitrogen (PON) to dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), respectively. A variety of processes are lumped together in this pathway including hydrolysis, passive diffusion or active exudation from phytoplankton, viral- and bacterial-induced cell lysis, sloppy feeding by zooplankton and bacteriavory. |
Thermohaline circulation | The large-scale circulation that is caused by density differences of oceanic water. The density is controlled by changes in water temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). Thermohaline circulation of the global ocean is also called the global conveyor belt. The thermohaline circulation is driven by the downwelling of dense water, while water is returned to the surface by upwelling. |
Upwelling | The opposite of downwelling. There are regions of the ocean where deep and intermediate waters are ‘upwelled’ to the surface of the ocean. Since they carry with them high concentrations of dissolved macronutrients, these are areas of high primary productivity. Two important upwelling regions are off the coast of Peru and off the coast of Namibia. |
Parenting and parenting style are crucial determinants of an individual’s upbringing and later functioning. Parenting style constitutes a myriad of attitudes and a pattern of behavior through which parental authority is conveyed to the child across a variety of settings and situations. This in turn helps to provide the emotional environment where the child learns and models how to perceive and act in the larger macrocosm of society [1]. Supportive and sensitive parenting contends healthy behavioral and emotional development of children [2]. The word parenting is derived from the Latin verb “parere,” which means “to bring forth, develop, or educate.” Hence, parenting has been defined as “purposive activities aimed at ensuring the survival and development of children.” It is considered as an activity that nurtures a child and fosters the development of their overall personality. The influence of parenting is everlasting and related to various aspects of the development of child [3]. Parental behavior influences the development of the child by demonstrating the patterns of rules, discipline, and other behaviors. According to Okpaka [4], parenting is an act of parenthood for the purpose of child upbringing and child education. Each parenting style affects the overall development of child. The present chapter highlights the associated aspects of helicopter parenting and related issues of adolescents, raised by helicopter parenting. The chapter also highlights the important psychological intervention for parents and adolescence.
To raise the children, parents adopt a set of strategy that has a lifelong impact on the development of child. Parental investment begins right from pregnancy and continues throughout the rest of parent’s life without a break. The ultimate goal of parenting is to develop children into well adjusted, productive, caring, and happy member of society. Parenting style represents standard strategies, which are used in child rearing practices. These practices are varied, and parents adopt a myriad of strategies to socialize and control their children [5, 6].
Baumrind in her seminal study identified four major types of parenting styles, that is, authoritative, neglectful, permissive, and authoritarian. These were categorized along a continuum of responsiveness (parental warmth) and demand (parental control). Parental control belongs to set realistic rules for their children. Various factors influence the development of adolescence, but parenting style counted as the most influential one, compared to other socializing factors. Parental warmth is also known as parental responsiveness. This behavior encapsulates the acceptance of and being responsible toward the behavior of children than being rejected and unresponsive [7].
This refers to a parenting style that is a combination of control, warmth, and autonomy. This is characterized by flexibility, rational discipline, exercising control only when required, and allowance of freedom to children so that they act responsibly and independently. Parents who adopt this style are rational in using the set rules while simultaneously explain the same to their children. Authoritative parents set high standards and clear expectations, as well as use discipline based on proper reasoning, and monitor their children’s behavior. This parenting style also involves sharing the parent’s experiences to encourage the children to take rational decision [8].
It is characterized with strict discipline, punitive style. Authoritarian parents provide their children with restrictive and strict directives to prompt them to follow the set rules. The overall appearance of such parents is cold, not open to discuss with their children, rejectable and emphasizes on strict discipline and values over independent behavior. Such parenting style leaves children with feeling of unhappy, anxious, and low self-esteem along with rebellious attitude and dependent traits [8, 9].
It is characterized by less control and high warmth as well as a tendency to allow children to take the decision by themselves even if they are not capable enough of doing so. The mindset that is reflected in such a parenting style is that love may be expressed solely by providing full freedom to their children and fulfilling whatever they wish for. Permissive parents love and are openly effective; however, they have no limit settings despite children’s safety is at stake [10]. These parents are warm and passive but not demanding. They make very few demands from their children but allow the children’s freedom to behave in any manner they please. Children of these parents develop a sense of insecurity, fear, aggression and anxiety.
This involves parents displaying low responsiveness and little communication and may entail rejection and neglecting their children. These parents are not only uninvolved and disengaged but also unresponsive and do not put any demands on their offspring. The children of these parents become disobedient, low in self-control, demanding, low frustration tolerance, and difficulty in planning [8, 10].
While parenting styles today are still understood largely in the context of the aforementioned styles, the turn of the century led to focusing on a new style of parent-child interaction that appeared to emerge. By the 1990s, American media identified a pattern of interaction and parenting practices that were based on a consistent pattern of “hovering” and hence that were dubbed as “helicopter parents” [11]. According to Hirsch and Goldberger [12], “helicopter parenting is a process of distinctive parent that never allowed their children to make mistakes and trapped in the cave of stress.” Such parenting style involves behaviors wherein the parents constantly nurture their children, providing them with support and minimal space that may impede development of problem-solving skills and decision-making skills. These parents are overprotective and authoritative such that they decide the present and future steps of their children, without demonstrating and teaching their children the adequate skills so that they can be independent. The notion of helicopter parenting has received frequent controversial debates in western culture in between the psychologist, parents, and school teachers. Dr. Haim Ginott [13] first described helicopter parenting in his book “parent and teenagers.” According to him, the parents hover like helicopter carefully and observe each and every movement of their children. This style of parenting is a type of “over-parenting in which parents apply overly involved and developmentally inappropriate tactics to their children”.
The primary motivation for the parent’s “hyperinvolvement” appears to stem from parental anxiety about negative outcomes that their child might face [14]. Such parenting practices have been found to lead to greater degree of internalizing disorders not only in young children but also in middle children [15, 16]. Within young adults, helicopter parenting was found to be related to greater degrees of neuroticism, lower openness to experience, and greater dependency as well as reduced psychological wellbeing [17]. While primarily believed to have long-term negative outcomes, there still exists a dearth of research with regard to the phenomenon [18].
Parenting styles and parenting behaviors do not develop in isolation. Each form of parenting has a base that strengthens and nurtures the style the parent adopts. Literature has implicated certain causal factors, such as parental regret, parental anxiety, gender, and culture as contributing to the development of helicopter parenting. Furthermore, the consequences of this style of child rearing on various aspects that range from physical, social, and psychological wellbeing of emerging adults have been elucidated [7]. Parental traits of overparenting (i.e., utilization of parental assistance, directiveness, problem solving, and aid at a level that is developmentally inappropriate for the child) not only have been found to have strong consequences on the later behavior and development of the child but also have seen as being derived from parental and child characteristics. This implies that there exists certain trait that may lead the latter to engage in overparenting practices.
The overprotectiveness and enmeshment that are seen in the course of helicopter parenting are often believed to have evolved as a result of parental anxiety. The parental characteristic of anxiety predisposes the parent to view their offspring as more vulnerable and unlikely to be able to cope with the demands of daily life. Child’s vulnerability toward the outside world makes the parents worried and therefore results in behaviors such as overinvolvement in their child’s life to assuage their own anxiety [14, 15]. Due to parental anxiety, there are more restrictions for participating in outdoor play activities, walking alone to school, staying till late evening at friend’s place, and also not allowing for night outs. These types of restriction hamper healthy physical and social development of the child [16, 17, 18, 19]. Due to projection by the parent of their worries on to their child and the consequent solution, overprotection occurs [20]. However, it must be noted that overprotection is not the sole element that constitutes overparenting. Rather, a primary motivation that is seen as determining overparenting practices is that of harm reduction.
Parental anxiety can occur due to social factors such as child abuse, addiction, and bullying; therefore, parents are more concerned about their child’s safety and hence unknowingly become overprotective. In an analysis by Nelson [21], greater degree control in parenting was observed in those parents who showed greater preoccupation with environmental dangers. For instance, if child hurt himself while playing, parent can become conscious toward their child’s safety and would accompany next time child goes out to play. As children grow and proceed for college, the parents experience separation anxiety. They sense feeling of insecurity and nondetachability, which turn into greater psychological control on child despite knowing that their child has grown-up. Parent’s reaction and intensity of emotions can heighten the anxiety in children as well [22].
Apart from parental anxiety, another determining factor in the phenomenon of overparenting is that of parental regret. Meta-analytic reviews [23] have identified regret in the domain of parenting as the fourth most commonly experienced regret. The occurrence of parental regret is further compounded by what is known as the principle of lost opportunity. This principle proposes that an individual faces a greater degree of regret when presented with an opportunity to correct the same. In the context of parenting, as the child grows older, the opportunities for direct control over his/her life reduce and the child finds himself veering toward psychological separation and individuation. A reaction to this separation from the family of origin may result in a reaction on part of the parents wherein they find themselves becoming increasingly involved and responsible for the child’s wellbeing, expressing lament over perceived failure in fostering the child’s development as well as regret about the time lost. Furthermore, parents experiencing greater degrees of regret might find themselves vicariously trying to obtain fulfillment and self-actualization by way of the child [24]. Additionally, parental projection of their own goals on to the growing child further may promote helicopter parenting. This regret operates indirectly, by augmenting parental anxiety and thereby leading to greater degrees of overcontrol. For example, lack of opportunities to fulfill own personal goals (e.g., parent’s unfulfilled desire to become a surgeon) as well as realization of lost opportunities to fulfill parenting goals (e.g., the realization that the child going off to college will leave the parent with less time to interact with him/her) leads to an increase in personal anxiety. Furthermore, the personal goals of the parent become enmeshed with his/her goals for his child, and to manage their own anxiety, it becomes projected on the child, and hyperinvolvement is chosen as the way for them to manage and control their own anxiety [25].
People generally realize the lack of satisfaction in their job around at the age of 40. No matter how much they want to fulfill their dreams in the middle age, the abundance of responsibilities makes it difficult to do so. Therefore, parents treat their children as an individual they drive to fulfill their dreams through their child. To ensure the accomplishment of their unfulfilled dreams, parents participate in every decision-making step of their child’s life, whether it be academic pursuits, such as school or university as well as every little thing that makes them more anxious. Parental regret makes parents anxious that makes them more involved in their children’s life [26]. Other than the past unfulfilled desires of parents, the phase of transition is also a contributing factor of helicopter parenting. In post-adolescent phase when child move out to live independently, parents experience the guilt. No matter how much involved they are with their children, the realization of not spending more time bothers them a lot; hence, they regret of not spending more quality time with their children. Thus, parental regret is indirectly related to helicopter parenting.
Culture drives the formation and sharing of beliefs across individuals. People belonging to similar cultures share similar belief system and display similar behavioral tendencies. The individual’s sociocultural context also guides their personal and social lives [27]. The cultural heritage of country and family may also be viewed as a causal influence in the development of the parenting style practiced by parents.
The literature suggests the existence of different types of parenting style in eastern and western culture as people have different set patterns of behavior according to their cultural norms. Studies suggest that parents who belong to eastern culture prefer interdependence while raising their children, whereas on the other side, the parents of western culture follow independence in their parenting style [28]. Therefore, the values, belief, and ethnicity of parents affect the parenting style.
The comparative studies on parents belong to deferent origin but staying in another country concluded of following the parenting practices that were followed in their native country. Comparative cultural studies on Asian-American and Caucasian-American parenting style suggest the ill effects of Asian parenting style on psychological wellbeing of the child [29]. Asian-American parents focus on obedience, reliable, family-oriented, well-manners, and social obligation by following the cultural style control. Similar to helicopter parenting, the Asian parents also practice the authoritarian parenting. In western culture, Asian parenting and helicopter parenting are considered harmful for the growth of child. Studies on Korean-American parents suggest the higher academic expectations from their children [28]. Hence, the belonging and root of parents lead them toward a particular style of parenting that later affects the development of the child. However, cultural difference in helicopter parenting style is controversial [28] and requires more research work.
Evidence from gender-based studies talks about the different individual traits and sets the behavior of raising child. Parenting by mothers and fathers is experienced differently by children [30, 40]. The literature suggests the use of empathy, warmth, and kindness, while rearing girls is more common, whereas with boys, more of aggressive, physical punishment, and dominance is used [44]. Mother’s over parenting is perceived caring and with freedom than father by boys; however, the daughters perceive it as controlling and over involved [31, 42]. The perception of parenting also varies in different genders. Generally, young adults prefer to communicate with their mothers and also more connected than father. Due to high inclination toward their mother, there are higher chances of absorbing the traits of becoming a helicopter parent in future [17, 19].
As society has set different roles and responsibilities for both genders, the scenario is changing but not completely [41]. The children also tend to perceive the same. The general thinking is that raising a child is female’s responsibility; hence, there are more expectations from mother. Therefore, mostly father’s hovering can be seen as protective and involved, whereas the over parenting of mother can be perceived, overwhelming, and suffocating [30].
Every parent wants to raise their child with love, support, and care. While taking care of their children, they use different kinds of approaches. This used approach invokes a range of responses and reactions in children and later impacts the psychological, emotional, social, and interpersonal development. The helicopter parenting can influence child in a negative, positive, or mixed manner. Children of helicopter parenting have been found with higher life satisfaction and better psychological wellbeing [28]. On the other hand, the children raised with helicopter parenting style have been observed to display a difficulty in decision making [19].
Theoretically, greater degree of parental involvement, help, and directiveness leads the child to develop the belief that they are worthy of intensive care and attention from others and impede the development of age appropriate coping skills. As evidenced by Kohut [31], explication of the role of parenting in the development of narcissism, the enmeshed boundaries, and overinvolvement on part of the parent leads to preventing the child from experiencing failures and preventing development of a self that is independent and self-reliant, leading to the child’s constant reassurance and approval seeking. These include the experiencing of higher satisfaction by the young adults during college life. Children also end up with better psychological wellbeing and higher life satisfaction. The research studies suggest positive correlation with psychological and behavioral control with parental involvement and, however, negatively associated with school engagement and parental autonomy [32]. Children of helicopter parenting have been found with educational gains and satisfaction in academics with the help of parental engagement [33].
Majorly, children coming from a background of parental overprotectiveness display a greater tendency to utilize dysfunctional emotion focused on coping strategies (such as fantasizing and greater self-preoccupation). Thus, due to overabundance of intervention and problem solving on part of the parent, the child does not face the developmentally appropriate challenges that aid the building of necessary coping skills. However, there exist several factors that further mediate the relationship between parental overcontrol and consequent childhood anxiety. This is further corroborated by reports evidencing higher degree of neuroticism among children whose parents display helicopter parenting [34]. These factors primarily constitute the competencies within the child, such as maladaptive cognitive beliefs regarding their own sense of autonomy and ability to perform tasks. Parental overcontrol is linked to reduce self-perceived confidence and psychological wellbeing that influence the development of adequate coping skills [35]. Longitudinal studies concluded difficulty in emotional regulation at the age of 2, difficulty in inhibitory control at the age of 5, and more emotional and school problems at the age of 10. Parenting style even during toddlerhood impacts self-regulatory skills that later affect the adjustment of child into adolescence [29].
Young adults reared with helicopter parenting style have been observed to be more prone to developing separation anxiety and panic attacks. The separation anxiety leads by parents and by the child often leads to homesickness at the campus during night [36, 37]. Studies have also acknowledged the chances of social anxiety among young adults as a result of hover parents over protectiveness. During college life, parental intrusion and control affect the autonomy of young adults leading to a sense of lack of autonomy and control over their life. Over and above affect the child psychologically and increase the chances of anxiety disorder [28]. The incapability of solving day-to-day problems can also lead adolescents toward anxiety. Maladaptive cognitive schema and impaired autonomy were resulted through over controlling nature of mother [14]. The constant efforts and investing quality time of helicopter mother for updating the child’s intelligence may lead to high anxiety in the child [19]. The study by Schiffrin et al. [29] suggests that insisting by parents on perfectionism in children heightens the certainty of anxiety disorders among young adults and adolescents.
Parents having higher expectations regarding academic performance from their children often lead to behaviors that convey that whatever their child is doing is never good enough. Therefore, children of such parents often experience greater emotional distress when they make some mistakes and also tend to be more anxious, more self-critical, and depressed. This tendency of getting afraid while making a mistake and blaming themselves for not being perfect termed as “maladaptive perfectionism” [41]. Research highlights that the anxiety can be triggered among the kids who already facing some social issues by helicopter parenting. In a research (done on parents and their children), the children were given 10-minute time period to complete as many puzzles as possible. Parents were given freedom to help their children; however, at the same time, they were not encouraged to do. It was noticed that the children with social issues were helped by their parents often than the other parents did. Even when the children did not ask the parents to step in, they were not negative or critical. The findings suggested that parents of children with social issues perceive challenging situation more threatening than children. Moreover, it diminishes the ability of a child to succeed on their own and increases the anxiety [29, 38].
Studies focusing on maternal involvement suggested the same as being an important factor in developing healthy behavior among children at the adolescent stage. The positive effects of increased autonomy by mother on self-worth, reading grades, and control understanding in children have been reported in the literature. More school involvement by mothers was associated with increased acting-out behaviors and learning problems. Hence, parental involvement has been found associated with the mental health (externalizing behavioral problems) of children entering into adolescence [39]. Children of helicopter parents describe their parents as emotionally supportive and involved although they also report of having a feeling that they were not given sufficient autonomy support by their parents [40]. The wellbeing of children of autonomy supportive parents is high as autonomy is considered one of the basic psychological need that helps children in problem-solving and decision-making processes [41, 42].
Low self-efficacy, lack of trust among peers, and alienation from peers were associated with helicopter parenting. Helicopter parenting was also found to be associated with low self-esteem that made children dependent on family members. Children of helicopter parenting are prone to depression in adulthood [43, 44, 45, 46]. Helicopter parenting is found to have lower quality of parent-child communication and lower family satisfaction [22]. Poor self-regulation was seen as another outcome of helicopter parenting.
A study investigating the role of helicopter parenting and parental involvement concluded that children of helicopter parents were dependent on their parents to solve the problems due to having habit of getting help by their parents in every minor task. On the contrary, the normal parenting style found to be associated with adjustment and competence. Helicopter parenting affects child’s learning and development that result into poor self-regulation and childhood anxiety. Higher anxiety, depression, stress, and poorer academic adjustment were reported by children of authoritarian and permissive parents. Higher level of depression was reported by the children whose parents are controlling and do not provide tee privacy [47, 48].
Three theories of developmental psychology explain the process of helicopter parenting and relation with offspring [49].
Self-determination theory highlights three needs that are innate and necessary for the healthy development and functioning of human being. These needs are the need for autonomy, the need for competence, and the need for relatedness (Figure 1).
The negative effects on psychological wellbeing according to self-determination theory.
There is sense of greater satisfaction when all these psychological needs are met. Helicopter parenting may reduce child’s sense of autonomy and competence and also undermine their relationship with their children. The theory suggests the violation of these psychological needs, which is associated with the negative outcome of controlling parenting style [50].
Three family dynamics, that is, cohesion, flexibility, and communication, are used in this model. According to this model, the family members share emotional bonding [49]. Model highlights the four levels of cohesion, that is, disengaged, separated, connected, and enmeshed. There are four levels of flexibility, that is, flexibility, rigid, structured, and chaotic, which have an important share in parenting style.
According to the model, problems emerge when the cohesion of family or the boundaries of family members are either enmeshed (extremely close) or detached (disengaged). With helicopter parenting style, the family cohesion is likely to be at the extremely high-cohesion level (enmeshed) because the little independence is granted and boundaries are thin. Four levels of flexibility of circumplex model of family systems suggest the balance in family functioning. Extreme levels of flexibility either extremely high or extremely low usually have problems with helicopter parenting rigid level of flexibility, or extreme inflexibility exists. Therefore, helicopter parenting is an unbalanced family system wherein the imbalance hampers children.
According to family differentiation theory, the balance of family interaction is important for healthy development of child. When the interpersonal boundaries are blurred, the sense of autonomy and individuality does not build up. With helicopter parenting, the boundaries are blurred; hence, it affects behavioral, cognitive, and emotional development and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence [49].
The phenomenon of helicopter parenting is one, which is still under developing study and research. Research regarding intervention strategies to help ease and reduce the over-involvement practices is still in its nascent stage. Before providing the intervention, the several domains of parenting associated with children should be assessed. Hence, a detailed assessment helps therapist to deal with the parental behavior and children’s as well. The assessments can include as follows:
family dysfunctions
communication pattern
personality assessment
Allow the child to participate independently in age-appropriate activities offering support and “can-do” encouragement.
Allow the child to learn from mistakes and react with empathy and support when the consequences are experienced.
Encourage the child to solve problems alone or with minimal guidance only when requested.
Utilize the techniques of positive discipline to facilitate responsible behavior and independent thinking.
Offer the unconditional love for the child that is not based on behavior or accomplishments.
Encourage the child to plan for the future by setting long- and short-term personal goals.
Besides the aforementioned description, there is another therapeutic model that can also be utilized to improve dysfunctional parenting practices.
Positive parenting program (PPP) was developed by Sanders [1, 54]. This triple P is a multilevel parenting and family support system. The main goal of this intervention is to increase knowledge, skills, and confidence of parents. The program conceptualized five developmental periods from infancy to adolescence, and at each period, range of program either can be broad and target the entire population or can be specific and target only at risk children.
The primary principles of this therapy are as follows:
ensuring a safe, engaging environment;
taking care of oneself as a parent;
creating a positive learning environment;
using assertive discipline; and
having realistic expectations.
The specific goals of the therapy are as follows:
promoting self-sufficiency of parents;
increase parental self-efficacy;
using self-management tools such that parents may change parenting practices for the better (self-assessment, setting goals, and choosing child management techniques);
promoting personal agency; and
promoting problem solving.
The levels of positive parenting program module.
The module works on specific situation differently by using the suitable therapeutic technique. Overall, the psychoeducation, parental behavior, emotional resilience, mental gym, cognitive restructuring, promoting constructive coping, and so on all included in the module that works differently in every therapy session according to the problem [50, 51].
Parenting and parenting style are an intricate and complex phenomenon that is determined by a number of factors, both individual and contextual. Furthermore, parenting choices not only yield a here-and-now result but also have long-lasting implications on the psychophysiological health of the child. From the original conceptualization of parenting style as constituting only four typologies, that is, authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and negligent, the terrain of parenting styles has greatly evolved. The turn of the twentieth century demonstrated the phenomenon of another approach to parenting, dubbed “overinvolved or helicopter” parenting. Helicopter parenting not only was seen as evolving from the parent’s own anxiety but was also mediated by their regrets and factors within the child (such as his or her vulnerabilities). These anxieties, shaped by sociocultural beliefs about parenting practices and the parent’s gender, prompt the parent to engage in practices that involve hyperinvolvement, problem solving, and directiveness toward the child. Such behaviors yield several potential consequences on the development of the child. Research has been mixed in the determination of the impact of helicopter parenting. While certain studies have evidenced a greater deal of satisfaction by young adults during their college life, there has also been a great deal of studies implicating an increase in mental health difficulties (such as anxiety, depression, and malignant narcissism) as well as poorer self-regulatory and coping skills in the individual. Mediated and understood through the lens of theories such as self-determination and circumplex model, the helicopter parenting is a phenomenon that provides several avenues of research and early intervention strategies to mitigate potential negative consequences.
The authors would like to acknowledge the help of Ms. Megha Kar, MPhil trainee at AIBHAS-AUUP in organizing the related content.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
All the figures are originals. To make the content impressive, these are prepared by author in smart art format word document.
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