Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6581",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Adipose tissue is a specialized connective tissue which, depending on type, plays different and significant roles in the human body: protects against environmental factors, stores lipids and triacylglycerol, synthesizes fatty acids and is involved in the process of thermogenesis. 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\r\n\tMagnetism has played an essential role in human life since early ages and continues to play so. Magnetic materials serve a vital role in many applications such as permanent magnets, magnetic sensors, memory devices, magneto-optical devices, magneto-electronic devices, and are used in from medical equipments to our music player. Spintronics is an emerging branch of electronics with an additional degree of freedom of spin and have many advantages over electronics. To exploit full potential of this new spintronic field, it is very important to develop new materials and design proof-of-concept devices. The aim of this book is to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the new materials, their characterizations and integration in the spintronic devices and the advancement made in the field of spintronics in the last few years.
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1. Water scarcity
Nowadays, the insufficiency of access to clean and secure water represents one of the main problems for sustainable development affecting both industrialized and developing countries. It is estimated that by 2030, almost 50% of the global population will face water stress conditions. Although 71% of the planet Earth’s surface is covered by water, only less than 3% is constituted by fresh water, where the remaining 97% of the water is seawater and characterized by the high content of mineral salt, which makes it inadequate for direct consumption.
The continuous increase in the human population and industrialization lead to a constant increase of the water demand. Freshwater is not used only for direct consumption, but it is the central pillar of food and energy production. The use of water in agriculture contributes to 70% of the total water withdrawn [1]; the other major contribution to the global consumption is related to the energy production, whereas water is required in the whole cycle of the energy production and distribution. Besides the scarcity, another major threat is represented by the quality of the water available. According to the UNESCO, almost 3.6 billion people, lack for access to clean water and proper sanitation [2]. To meet the continuous demand, there is a need to produce freshwater starting by nonconventional sources, as saline water (seawater and brackish) and other contaminated fresh water sources (wastewater and industrial water). Among the different technologies tested over the years, membrane filtration is recognized as the most common and convenient method to purify water.
1.1 Membrane technology
The membrane is a semi-permeable barrier used to separate specific substances considered as pollutants from the water. The purification occurs by applying pressure in the systems, whereas the membrane allows only certain ions and molecules to be transported through the membrane with a specific size to pass, retaining all the rest. During the filtration, the water passes through the membrane and the rejection of other compounds depends on the pressure applied and the membrane pore size. The main membrane filtration processes and their respective removal capabilities are shown in Figure 1. By using different membranes, it is possible to remove specific unwanted compounds. Hence, safe drinking water can be produced starting from different sources, including seawater and wastewater.
Figure 1.
Membrane size and compounds separation.
Membranes can be classified according to different criteria. The most diffused classification is based on the membrane pore size, whereas the removal of unwanted contaminants is related to the membrane pore size. The highest removal is realized by reverse osmosis membranes (RO) followed by nanofiltration membrane (NF), are generally used to remove salt from water (desalination from seawater). Ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes, with pore size from 0.001 to 0.1 μm, are employed to remove pathogens and suspended solids. RO membrane requires high pressure up to 70 bar to remove the salt during desalination processes, while MF and UF usually require lower pressure less than 5 bar [3].
Another classification is based on the geometry of the membrane employed in the process (i.e., flat sheet, spiral wound, tubular, and hollow fiber). The use and choice of a specific geometry are often linked to a specific application and system design, where the membrane module can be submerged or external. The most employed submerged membrane configuration is the membrane bioreactor (MBR), whereas the membrane unit can be directly submerged in the aeration tank or in a separate tank. On the contrary, commercial seawater membrane desalination plants employ RO membrane as external module inserted in vessels that allows the use of high pressure (60–70 bar) necessary to remove salt from water. These membranes are called spiral wound membrane modules, and consist of membrane sheets enfolded along a central tube, comprising a perforated central tube for permeate collection surrounded by layers of membrane, permeate spacers and feed spacers. The produced water, called permeate, is collected in the central tube by the product spacer.
1.2 Membrane fouling
The continuous filtration of water over time leads to the accumulation of rejected material on the membrane surface and or in membrane pores. This phenomenon is called fouling. The development of membrane fouling on the membrane surface is considered the bottleneck of membrane filtration processes. Over time, fouling is inevitable and leads to the decrease of the membrane flux that is considered as the main process performance indicator. The decrease in flux is followed by the energy increase as the pressure applied to overcome the reduction in water production. Moreover, to recover the membrane permeability, the operators increase the use of chemicals for the cleaning, therefore reducing the membrane lifetime. Therefore, the fouling understanding and control are considered the major challenges encountered in membrane filtration processes as highlighted by the crescent number of scientific publications and the increase of commercial products for the reduction and control of fouling.
The fouling deposited in membrane filtration systems varies depending on each specific process, and it is due to the complex interaction between the constituents present in the feed water and the membrane [4, 5]. The fouling mechanism generally involves (i) initial pore blocking followed by (ii) cake layer formation. Depending on the characteristics of the water treated, the fouling in membrane filtration systems can be divided into four categories (Figure 2):
Particulate fouling
Organic fouling
Inorganic fouling (or scaling)
Biofouling
Figure 2.
Different types of fouling deposited on the membrane surface.
Particulate fouling is due to the accumulation of suspended particles of different nature on the membrane surface. Organic fouling consists of the formation of an organic layer on the surface and is linked to the concentration of dissolved organic compounds in the feed water. The scaling is the most common type of inorganic fouling in desalination processes; it is due by the direct formation of crystals on the membrane surface through precipitation. Depending on the process, different types of fouling can occur concurrently; in that case, often the fouling deposited on the membrane is referred as biomass.
Among the different types of fouling membrane, biofouling is considered the most problematic fouling faced in membrane filtration system, which negatively affects the process in terms of technology and economics [6]. Biofouling refers to the development of biofilms in the membrane systems and it is caused by the accumulation of microorganisms, including extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) produced by microorganisms, on a surface due to either deposition and/or growth. Biofouling is defined to occur when the biofilm passes a threshold of interference negatively affecting the filtration process [7]. The development and growth occur due to the continuous availability of nutrients flowing into the system [8].
Biofouling is considered the least understood and most problematic type of fouling in affecting filtration processes despite the crescent of a significant number of studies [9].
2. Fouling characterization
Over time, the formation of fouling on the membrane surface acts as a secondary filtration layer impacting the membrane performance due to the increase of the hydraulic resistance of the system. During operation, the only information available regarding the fouling formation is represented by the decrease in performance, either a decrease in flux or an increase in pressure, without any data related to the identity of the fouling (Figure 3). Hence, either on a full-scale plant or in a research experiment, it is common to conduct membrane autopsy in order to analyze membrane coupons collected from the module. This approach involves two different types of analysis, (i) analytical characterization performed to identify the nature of the contaminants and (ii) visualization by means of an imaging technique to identify and quantify the fouling structure. A key aspect of fouling studies includes the analysis of the structural fouling properties [10], which can forecast the fouling layer comportment, and thus, the effect on filtration performance. The structural analysis of the fouling layer deposited on a membrane coupon consists of using imaging techniques. Most of the imaging approaches and practices to characterize the fouling morphology reported in the literature include require destructive procedures and are performed after membrane autopsy (Figure 4) [11, 12].
Figure 3.
Fouling development and membrane performance decrease in a membrane module.
Figure 4.
Techniques to characterize fouling structure at different scales: SEM, scanning electron microscopy; CLSM, confocal laser scanning microscopy; and OCT, optical coherence tomography. Adapted from Wagner et al. [18].
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been for many years the most employed technique to characterize membrane coupons. SEM is capable of visualizing the structure of fouling on a near-nanometer and sub-micron scale, allowing to distinguish among the different types of fouling, including crystals and biofilms [13, 14]. However, the SEM analysis requires the drying and coating of the analyzed sample, which represents a limitation in terms of time and artifacts. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) has been widely used for the analysis of biological samples (biofouling). In particular, CLSM enables characterizing the constituents of biofilm, including the EPS matrix with the use of specific probes [15]. Compared to SEM, CLSM allows the three-dimensional (3D) characterization of the fouling layer [16]. However, the sample preparation for the CLSM is more complex requiring the use of specific dyes and probe, with the risk of altering and affecting the overall structure. As highlighted in the literature, all the steps involved in the staining, including storage and rinsing, can modify the biofilm structure and thus impact parameter quantification [17].
Moreover, the CLSM allows the quantification and visualization only of the stained material that is only partially representative of the fouling structure. Therefore, considering the sample handling and the staining process, the structural analysis performed by following this approach is not truly representative of fouling deposited in the system. An additional limitation is represented by the incapacity of providing information online during continuous operation.
The main limitation of the conventional imaging techniques in characterizing the fouling is represented by the impossibility of collecting data over time. In fact, SEM and CLSM are destructive analysis, requiring the destruction of the operating modules. Therefore, the destructive approach enables collecting data “only once” by destroying the membrane (Figure 3). Usually, the analysis is performed by membrane autopsy at the end after a significant decrease in performance, consisting in most of the cases in a decrease in permeability, that is translated in a decrease in flux under constant pressure operation and an increase in pressure under constant flux operation. Therefore, as shown in Figure 3, the membrane autopsy is performed usually at the end of the experiment or toward the minimum of its performances, when is “too late.” In summary, conventional techniques lack in providing temporal information related to the fouling developed in the system.
Therefore, in membrane filtration processes, nondestructive in-situ biofilm fouling monitoring techniques have gained attention thanks the possibility of obtaining information regarding the fouling formed in membrane systems without stopping the process or destroying the units. Several techniques have been tested over time. The first approach consisted of employing a camera mounted on the system to monitor the membrane surface. This method allowed to evaluate the nondestructive fouling deposition and pattern at particular operating conditions. Another approach employed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to detect the morphological development of biomass in membrane system [19, 20]. Recently, another approach was proposed employing planar optodes to visualize the biomass in a membrane flow cell under continuous operation by using probes. This approach enables to assess the O2 distribution in biofilms and therefore estimate the biofouling spatial distribution [21]. Recently, the OCT has been tested as tool to evaluate the fouling deposition in membrane filtration systems in-situ nondestructively.
3. Biofilm characterization with OCT
The OCT was first developed and mainly employed in biomedical applications. The technology has been extensively used in ophthalmology for diagnosis and treatment guidance [22]. Afterward, several applications were explored, including the study of biofilm structure. In 2006, the OCT was utilized to study the growth of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm in a capillary flow cell [23]. Haisch and Niessner [24] evaluated the suitability of the OCT for industrial biofilm monitoring. Wagner et al. [18] showed the potentiality of a SD-OCT system OCT in characterizing the biofilm structure in the millimeters range. As highlighted in Section 1.2, the formation of biofilm is very common in membrane processes; therefore, these studies laid the foundation for studying the biomass growth in membrane processes.
Over time, the use of the OCT gained significative attention in the study of biofouling due to a series of advantages respect the other conventional techniques [11, 25]. The first benefit is due to the ability to investigate fouling formation in-situ without any staining. Indeed, the OCT is a label-free technique that enables acquiring 3D data eliminating the all risks related to the use of specific probe and chemicals [26, 27]. Another advantage consists in the possibility of acquiring information at the mesoscale level, allowing to monitor the biomass in the millimeters range. The mesoscale is considered ideal for studying the bulk-fouling interface in order to understand the fluid-structure interaction (Figure 3). On the other side, SEM and CLSM allow to acquire information at the microscopic level in the micrometers range. The diminution of the monitored portion increases the risk of analyzing an area not representative of the process. By using CLSM, we need to acquire more than 400 scans to cover the same area covered by a single OCT scan (Figure 5) [18, 28]. Moreover, it is worth to mention that the OCT does not require any time for sampling and a 3D scan can be acquired in the range of 1–2 minutes. All these features are necessary to acquire information regarding the fouling formation to assess the amount of biomass deposited in the system and its hydraulic resistance of the layer deposited on the membrane. Indeed, the main objective of the fouling characterization is to understand the impact of the biomass deposited on the system performance [10].
Figure 5.
3D rendered fouling structure obtained from the OCT and CLSM datasets. Adapted from Fortunato et al. [28].
3.1 Morphology analysis
Besides the visualization, the main objective of the OCT in-situ observation is related to the possibility of describing and quantifying the monitored structure. A complete list of the key parameters that can be obtained from tomography dataset was previously presented by Beyenal et al. [29]. The OCT device used is in most of the studies is the Thorlabs GANYMEDE spectral domain OCT system with a central wavelength of 930 (Thorlabs, GmbH, Dachau, Germany) equipped with a 5× telecentric scan lens (Thorlabs LSM 03BB). In the case of fouling characterization, the most used parameters are: mean thickness, relative roughness, absolute roughness, membrane coverage, biovolume, and macro-porosity. The relative and absolute roughnesses are parameters used to assess the heterogeneity of the biomass morphology. The first step of the image analysis necessary to extract the data is binarization, which allows to identify and distinguish the biomass signal to the background noise. This step in the case of OCT datasets is complex since in most of the cases it is not possible to perform the segmentation based only on a pixel intensity threshold. Indeed, the polymeric support below the membrane has often the same intensity of the biomass deposited on the membrane surface. Therefore, often the intensity threshold needs to be coupled with an edge detection algorithm that allows to identify biomass, only the pixels above the membrane. Another obstacle is due to the speckle noise that hinders the biomass binarization. Frequently mean and median filters are applied before the thresholding to improve the binarization processes. However, these filters are not suitable for interferometric images and might alter the OCT dataset. Several efforts have been made to develop algorithms to denoise the OCT scans [30]. Recently, a specific algorithm was developed and successfully tested for the study and the quantification of the cake layer development in activated sludge membrane bioreactor treating real wastewater [28, 31].
An alternative strategy to simplify the binarization process and the image analysis consists in subtracting the initial OCT scan acquired at time 0 to all the other scans, in this way all the extern signals to the biomass are eliminated from the scans. This approach has been successfully employed in different cases and membrane processes [32, 33, 34, 35].
The first parameters usually calculated from the OCT datasets is the fouling mean thickness. This is generally defined as the distance between the upper and the lower layer of the fouling interface. The value is usually expressed in pixel and then converted in μm taking into account the refractive index of the penetrated media [26]. In literature, it is assumed a single refractive index equal to 1.333. The other key descriptors extracted from the image analysis are related to the fouling homogeneity. Relative and absolute roughnesses are considered as roughness measurements where the first one is dimensionless and the second one is in μm [26, 36]. The macroporosity was also introduced as parameters to quantify the presence of big voids inside the fouling structure [36]. Another important value calculated from the analysis is the membrane coverage that expresses the amount of membrane covered by fouling [37].
3.2 Monitoring the fouling growth under continuous operation
Due to its ability to monitor the system without stopping or affecting in any ways, OCT process has been used so far in several membrane filtrations systems and configurations. The central advantage respect to the other monitoring techniques is represented by the possibility of “having a window on the system” (Figure 6), and thus being able to correlate the decrease in performances to the in-situ investigation. Among the different types of membrane configurations, the flat sheet membrane bioreactor is one of the easiest systems on which the OCT is employed. Flat sheet membranes are easy to install and compared to the hollow fiber, they have the advantage of being flat, therefore, keeping a fixed distance from the membrane to the OCT probe. This enables covering bigger areas on a single scan moving easily among different positions in the membrane module. The research in submerged system representative of reactors is performed on tank of Plexiglas, where the membrane is submerged. OCT was employed to evaluate the change of morphology during 42 days in a gravity-driven membrane bioreactor treating synthetic wastewater [36]. As shown in Figure 7, a significative change in morphology was observed over time, highlighting the evolution and the change of the fouling layer during the operation.
Figure 6.
Schematic representation of OCT in-situ monitoring in a membrane filtration process. 2D OCT scan acquired under continuous operation of the biomass deposited on the membrane surface.
Figure 7.
Time-resolved analysis of fouling deposited on a flat sheet membrane treating wastewater. Adapted from Fortunato et al. [34].
The possibility of capturing a fouling morphology change has been exploited by several authors. Some tests were focused on evaluating the change of morphologies linked to the change of the feed [38, 39]. Experiments are often performed in membrane flowcells and compared to a control. Shao et al. [40] compared the backwashing efficiency in controlling the biofouling by using two different backwash feeds. Derlon et al. [26] used the OCT to evaluate the effect of metazoan as biological control of biofilm developed on the membrane. The use of metazoan led to a change in fouling morphology that was also linked to an enhancement in the flux. Farid et al. [41] used the OCT to evaluate the bacterial inactivation of a graphene oxide membrane. In this case, the use of the OCT highlighted the difference in deposition between a commercial membrane and a graphene oxide membrane with antifouling proprieties. The OCT was employed to study the compression and decompression of the structure were observed and to relate to the biofilm mechanical proprieties [42, 43]. The authors observed an increase in pressure drop and hydraulic resistance over time. Desmond et al. [44] employed the OCT to study the compression of membrane biofilms in gravity-driven ultrafiltration. OCT scans were also used by Wibisono et al. [45] to evaluate the efficacy of two-phase cleaning flow in a spiral-wound element. Recently, the OCT has also been employed to validate a fluorescence-based method for the detection of biofouling at the early stage [46].
Another interesting benefit of using OCT in filtration processes is represented by the opportunity of recording the cross section at high frequency. Blauert et al. [47] used this approach to evaluate the time-resolved deformation of a biofilm in a flow cell enabling the estimation of the mechanical proprieties. Fortunato et al. [37], by using time-resolved analysis, were able to generate a video of the biomass developed during early stage filtration on a submerged membrane. The image analysis performed on the scans showed a correlation between the biomass membrane coverage and the biomass thickness with the decrease of fouling at an early stage. Moreover, through the videos, it was possible to correlate the biomass development with the flux decrease and capture particular morphologies constituted by a double-layer structure, where the upper one was moving and the lower one was still.
3.3 OCT monitoring in spacer-filled channel
The same approach was extended to spacer-filled channel spiral wound module, which is the membrane module employed for desalination. In spiral-wound membrane, biofouling has been identified as the bottleneck [48], since it leads to decrease in performances in the full-scale operating plants due to the increase in feed channel pressure drop, permeate flux reduction, and/or salt passage increase [49]. The spacer-filled channel geometry is a characteristic of spiral wound elements, where the spacer is used to increase the turbulence and separate the membrane sheets. This configuration is considered more complex for imaging purpose due to the presence of a plastic feed spacer that complicates the image processing and morphology analysis. The research in this field is carried out by using a flow cell called membrane fouling simulator (MFS) representative of the hydrodynamics, and it has all the elements present in the module. In monitoring the fouling in spacer-filled channel, the ability of the OCT in acquiring scans in the mm range resulted even essential due to the presence of the feed spacer. In fact, by using the OCT, it was possible to monitor the biomass deposited on the feed spacer pattern representative of the hydrodynamics of the module. West et al. [50] performed image analysis on 3D OCT dataset on two different feed spacer meshes. Fortunato et al. [33] visualized and quantified the 3D structure of the biomass deposited in the system, enabling to assess the spatial distribution of the biomass in the channel, whereas the highest deposition was observed on the feed spacer. Afterward, the biofilm thickness map was proposed as a tool to quickly evaluate the biomass deposited in spacer-filled channel (Figure 8) [34].
Figure 8.
Fouling characterization in spacer-filled channel systems through 3D OCT image analysis. The spacer-filled channel geometry is typical of the membrane employed for sweater desalination. Adapted from Fortunato et al. [34].
3.4 Monitoring inorganic fouling
In the case of membrane filtration systems, the OCT was at the beginning employed to study the biofilm and the biofouling formation, afterward the in-situ monitoring was also extended to other types of fouling. Online monitoring was performed on fouling layer formed by different particles as silica and bentonite [32, 51]. Recently, Fortunato et al. [52] employed the OCT to monitor the formation of scaling in a membrane distillation process. Membrane distillation is a hybrid process that couples thermal and membrane processes used to treat high saline feed as the brine. In these studies, the OCT analysis was coupled with a membrane autopsy to identify the nature of the deposition. Thought the in-situ analysis was possible to evaluate the formation of carbonate and sulfate crystals over time (Figure 9). The use of OCT was then proposed as a tool to monitor the scaling in thermal process that employs membrane [53]. Recently, Bauer et al. [54] used the OCT to quantify the area covered by the scaling and the flux decline in a membrane distillation process. In 2018, the OCT was employed to analyze the external and internal fouling due to oil droplets [55].
Figure 9.
Inorganic fouling structure deposited on membrane surface treating saline feed. OCT scans and SEM images. Adapted from Fortunato et al. [52].
3.5 Using the OCT to improve fluid dynamic simulation
One of the main objectives of the fouling structural analysis is to evaluate the impact of the biomass deposited on the membrane on the performance. Modeling is often performed on filtration process to evaluate the effect of the shear force on the biomass formed and provide a better understanding of the process. Furthermore, there has always been a demand to implement the biomass structure in multidimensional models to understand the structure-fluid interaction and predict the behavior. Indeed, a real biomass structure better matches with the process performance respect to a theoretical structure with a given average thickness. Initially, the acquisition of the structure that affected the membrane permeability was performed by means of the CLSM [56]; however, as stated in Section 2, the CLSM has several disadvantages with respect to the OCT, including the incapability of acquiring data nondestructively.
Moreover, OCT enables to acquire information at wider scale allowing to study an area more representative of the process. The OCT scans were used by Martin et al. [57] to perform simulation of the permeate flux in a gravity driven system. Gao et al. [58] used the Doppler effect to visualize the velocity field in a spacer-filled channel. Fortunato et al. [36] imported the real biomass morphologies developed on a membrane bioreactor-treated secondary wastewater effluent. The biomass morphology was imported after 3 and 30 days of filtration and implemented in a computational fluid dynamic simulation (CFD), allowing to identify the local region of local and high flux within the biomass structure. The approach proposed allowed to match the model with the experimental values of the permeate fluxes. Jafari et al. [59] developed a numerical model able to correlate the structural deformation with biofilm hydraulics by using the in-situ observation performed with OCT. Recently, Picioreanu et al. [60] employed the OCT scans to develop a method for the determination of the elastic proprieties of a biofilm. In summary, coupling the OCT with the CFD represents a powerful toolbox to understand and predict the behavior of the biomass in membrane filtration processes.
4. Conclusions
Membrane fouling is considered the main limitation of membrane filtration systems in terms of cost and operation. The techniques commonly used for analyzing the fouling are based on membrane autopsies, where membrane coupons were collected and analyzed after destroying a membrane module. With that approach, therefore, it is possible to provide information only at the specific time chosen to conduct the autopsy. Those techniques are consequently subject to the circumstance of ending the process. Moreover, some of the techniques necessitate sampling preparation such as drying or labeling, which have the risk of changing the fouling morphology. Therefore, considering that the fouling is a dynamic process and will evolve, it is necessary to monitor the fouling development over time under continuous operation without interfering with the process.
Thanks to the possibility of monitoring samples without the use of staining in-situ nondestructively, the use of OCT gained attention in studying the fouling in membrane filtration systems. At the beginning, the OCT was employed to study the biofilm formed in the process and later applied to all the different types of fouling. Nowadays, the OCT is considered an essential tool to gain a better understanding of fouling behavior and is employed in different membrane configurations and systems covering the whole spectrum of membrane filtration processes. The in-situ nondestructive online acquisition cross-sectional scans of the fouling deposited enables to link the impact of the fouling on the membrane performance (i.e., flux decrease and feed channel pressure drop). The approach also resulted to be beneficial in evaluating the efficacy of antifouling strategies. In summary, the use of OCT in membrane filtration systems turned out to be a key tool in understanding and predicting the fouling development and its effect on the overall membrane performance.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by funding from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST).
Conflict of interest
I confirm there are no conflicts of interest.
\n',keywords:"OCT, water treatment, desalination, biofouling, fouling, membrane filtration",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68363.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68363.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68363",totalDownloads:160,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 8th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 27th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Membrane filtration systems are employed in the water industry to produce drinking water and for advanced wastewater treatment. Fouling is considered the main problem in membrane filtration systems. Fouling occurs when the biomass deposited on the membrane surface leads to a membrane performance decline. Most of the available techniques for characterization of fouling involve the analysis of membrane samples after membrane autopsies. This approach provides information ex-situ destructively at the end of the filtration process. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) gained attention in the last years as noninvasive imaging technique, capable of acquiring scans in-situ and nondestructively. The online OCT monitoring enables visualizing and studying the biomass deposition over time under continuous operation. This approach allows to relate the impact of the fouling on the process. In the last years, the suitability of OCT as in-situ and nondestructive tool for the study of fouling in membrane filtration systems has been evaluated. The OCT has been employed to study the fouling in different membrane geometry and configuration for the treatment of seawater and wastewater. Nowadays, the OCT is employed to better understand the role of biomass structure on the filtration mechanisms.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68363",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68363",book:{slug:"optical-coherence-tomography-and-its-non-medical-applications"},signatures:"Luca Fortunato",authors:[{id:"293639",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Fortunato",fullName:"Luca Fortunato",slug:"luca-fortunato",email:"luca.fortunato@kaust.edu.sa",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Water scarcity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Membrane technology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Membrane fouling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Fouling characterization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1 In-situ nondestructive fouling characterization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Biofilm characterization with OCT",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Morphology analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Monitoring the fouling growth under continuous operation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 OCT monitoring in spacer-filled channel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Monitoring inorganic fouling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5 Using the OCT to improve fluid dynamic simulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rost S, Gerten D, Bondeau A, Lucht W, Rohwer J, Schaphoff S. Agricultural green and blue water consumption and its influence on the global water system. Water Resources Research. 2008;44. DOI: 10.1029/2007WR006331'},{id:"B2",body:'U.& WWAP. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2;2006'},{id:"B3",body:'Baker RW. Membrane Technology and Applications2012. 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Division of Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE), Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
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Sreekanth",slug:"k.-v.-sreekanth"}]},{id:"8687",title:"Nanosphere Lithography for Nitride Semiconductors",slug:"nanosphere-lithography-for-nitride-semiconductors",signatures:"Wai Yuen Fu and Hoi Wai Choi",authors:[{id:"6315",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoi Wai",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hoi Wai Choi",slug:"hoi-wai-choi"}]},{id:"8688",title:"Micro- and Nanopatterning of Surfaces Employing Self Assembly of Nanoparticles and Its Application in Biotechnology and Biomedical Engineering",slug:"micro-and-nanopatterning-of-surfaces-employing-self-assembly-of-nanoparticles-and-its-application-in",signatures:"Claus Burkhardt, Kai Fuchsberger, Wilfried Nisch and Martin Stelzle",authors:[{id:"6383",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Stelzle",fullName:"Martin Stelzle",slug:"martin-stelzle"},{id:"132200",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Nisch",fullName:"Wilfried Nisch",slug:"wilfried-nisch"},{id:"132201",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchsberger",fullName:"Kai Fuchsberger",slug:"kai-fuchsberger"},{id:"132202",title:"Dr.",name:"Claus",middleName:null,surname:"Burkhardt",fullName:"Claus Burkhardt",slug:"claus-burkhardt"}]},{id:"8689",title:"Strategies for High Resolution Patterning of Conducting Polymers",slug:"strategies-for-high-resolution-patterning-of-conducting-polymers",signatures:"Lin Jiang and Lifeng Chi",authors:[{id:"6574",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Lifeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chi",fullName:"Lifeng Chi",slug:"lifeng-chi"},{id:"132195",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Lin Jiang",slug:"lin-jiang"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74468",title:"Emergency Remote Teaching during COVID-19 Pandemic: Roles of Educators in Malaysia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95071",slug:"emergency-remote-teaching-during-covid-19-pandemic-roles-of-educators-in-malaysia",body:'
1. Introduction
First discovered in December 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic has arguably affected sectors such as businesses, tourism and education of countries all over the world (see [1, 2]). Particularly relevant and significant for this chapter is how educators are coping with teaching fully online; for some educators, teaching fully online happens for the first time in their live. In Malaysia, the education landscape is about to be changed forever. With new normal of teaching and learning, primary and secondary schools, together with higher learning institutions are now faced with enormous tasks to ensure that students acquire the knowledge that have been arranged for their levels accordingly. Trained to teach physically or in face-to-face sessions, educators in Malaysia need to step up and provide a different level of commitment to teaching [3].
2. The context of the study
Data for this chapter were collected at the National Defence University of Malaysia (NDUM). The NDUM is the only tertiary military institution in Malaysia, awarding undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. For the undergraduate student population, there are about 65 percent military cadets and 35 percent civilian students (about 24 percent of these students are also enlisted in Reserve Officers Training Unit or ROTU). It is a residential campus since 98 percent students live on campus. Currently, there are 17 academic undergraduate programmes offered to students, including Engineering programmes, Maritime programmes and Strategic Studies and Management programmes. Military cadets and ROTU students have to attend military training on campus during the weekends and holidays. Especially for the military cadets, they have to also participate in physical exercises, rollcalls and other military administrative duties on daily basis.
The second semester of the Academic Session 2019/2020 has started when the government of Malaysia introduced and enforced the Movement Control Order (MCO) to stop the spread of COVID-19. The MCO started during the fifth week of the semester; this was when the face-to-face sessions had started, and after that the teaching and learning processes resumed online, fully. During this MCO, which started on the 18th of March 2020, all students, including the military cadets were transported home to be with their families. The semester resumed online a week after the students had settled comfortably at home. The remaining online sessions included lectures, tutorials, assignments, tests as well as final examinations. It needs to be emphasised that some planned teaching and learning activities were not able to be conducted due to the MCO such as fieldtrips, laboratory works and industrial training.
There are two research questions for this research; first, on the educators’ readiness to teach online fully from the aspect of their pedagogical readiness. By pedagogical readiness, it is argued that there are differences in the practical applications of emergency remote teaching and online teaching (see [4, 5]). Second, on the platforms, tools and applications used for online teaching. Given that the MCO came as a surprise, educators had no choice but to comply with the existing platforms, tools and applications in completing their teaching responsibilities. These two research questions answer the main objective of this chapter, which is to understand the roles of educators during emergency remote teaching.
There are four key terms used throughout this chapter that must be explained. Firstly, emergency remote teaching, which refers to a temporary and unplanned teaching solution due to a sudden change of the teaching environment. Secondly, the term new normal, which suggests that new practices and routines that must be followed in the current situation. Thirdly, online presence refers to the presence of educators online to assist students, and the amount of presence depends on the students’ competency level. The last term is online teaching, that is the process of teaching conducted fully online, with planned and established curricula, including teaching and learning materials, learning activities and assessments.
2.1 Online teaching and emergency remote teaching
Previous research on online teaching and emergency remote teaching are included in order to provide critical background on what should be the roles of educators during this COVID-19 outbreak. It is argued that emergency remote teaching must not be equate to online teaching (fully), considering the differences in their educational approaches [6]. Further, the critical key to differentiate the two is the insufficient time to properly plan for curriculum transformation; emergency remote teaching does not have the luxury of planning [7].
2.1.1 Online teaching
The effectiveness and drawbacks of online teaching and learning, or simply online education, have been debated for decades. Scholars from all over the world have looked at various research studies, theories, models, standards and evaluation criteria, which focus on quality online learning, online teaching and online course design (see [8]). Before further discussions are held, it is appropriate to provide a conceptual definition of online education for this chapter. According to Bakia et al. [9], online education, which includes online teaching and learning can be used to refer to “a wide range of programmes that use the Internet to provide instructional materials and facilitate interactions between teachers and students, and in some cases amongst students as well.” Accordingly, online education can be fully online, with all instructions taking place through the Internet, or online elements can be combined with face-to-face sessions known as blended learning (see also on blended learning [10]).
Online teaching cannot be explained properly without the discussions on online learning. This is because the two depend on each other; therefore, critical aspects of online learning will also be highlighted. For example, Hoi et al. [11] found in their study that based on the types of learning tasks and the forms of feedback information, online learning can be divided into three major categories: (a) online supervised learning where full feedback information is always available, (b) online learning with limited feedback, and (c) online unsupervised learning where no feedback is available. What Hoi et al. suggest is that the presence of educators online can be based on the amount of assistance needed by the students. In addition, Means et al. [12] explored the online learning design options by listing various moderating variables, including roles of students and educators, as well as ratio of students during the online lessons. These design options are summarised in Table 1.
Moderating Variables
Important Aspects
Modality
Fully online
Blended (over 50% online)
Blended (25–50% online)
Web-enabled face-to-face
Pacing
Self-paced (open entry, open exit)
Class-paced
Class-paced with some self-paced
Student Ratio
< 35 to 1
36–99 to 1
100–999 to 1
> 1000 to 1
Pedagogy
Expository
Practice
Exploratory
Collaborative
Roles of Online Assessment
Determine if students are ready for new contents
Tell system how to support the students (adaptive instruction)
Provide students or teachers with information about the learning state
What could be discerned from Table 1 are twofold. First, online education for both teaching and learning would require careful planning in order to ensure that the curricula are delivered effectively, and that students and educators are able to work synchronously or asynchronously online. Manfuso [14] in her research also found that designing an effective online course could take weeks and months. Second, roles of students and educators are not definite; accordingly, and when appropriate, both students and educators can negotiate what they need to be doing.
In addition, according to Boon [15], educators’ presence in an online learning and teaching environment is important in engaging students. Despite the options offered that educators may choose to have a smaller or zero presence online (refer to Table 1), Boon proposed several facilitation strategies that can make students more motivated and interested in their learning; these require active and big presence of the educators online. Table 2 illustrates these strategies.
What to do?
How to do?
Online tools to use
Offer synchronous online office hours to support student learning and knowledge development
Face-to-face meetings
Telephone consultations
Online audio/video
Collaborate (Blackboard Learn)
Skype
Google Hangouts
Engage in personal communication with students, individually or as a group
Email greetings
Posted or recorded welcome messages (audio or audio + video)
Post announcements on the course page
Email
Blackboard Video Tool
Other lecture capture software (such as Camtasia, Mediasite)
Provide recorded lectures and assignment explanations
Audio + video (highly recommended)
Audio only (at minimum)
Mediasite
Audacity (audio only)
Screencast-o-matic
PowerPoint (with audio)
Provide direct (synchronous instruction)
Develop seminar or lecture courses
Facilitate meetings with students
Set up student group work space
Google Hangouts
Interact regularly with students, individually or in groups
Email
Participate in online group discussions
Conduct chat sessions with individuals or groups
Collaborate (Blackboard Learn)
Google Hangouts
Create a positive learning environment to stimulate learning
Show respect for students by appropriate conversational tone and word choice
It is evident that, regardless of whether educators have small or big presence online, students need to know that they are not alone in the virtual classrooms. The author argues that in choosing to be present small or big online, several factors must be taken into consideration, including students’ level of competency in the course and students’ availability to be online (access and data consumption). Some students may be left to assume more independent learning online, and some may require the utmost assistance imaginable. As Hoi et al. [17] have put forth that online feedback to students depend on the students’ capability to learn independently or dependently. The next section explores emergency remote teaching in detail, and highlights differences between online teaching and emergency remote teaching.
2.1.2 Emergency remote teaching
Emergency remote teaching is arguably a new concept derived due to the pandemic [18]. It is also suggested to be one of the educational responses to the COVID-19 outbreak [19]. When the need for schooling arises, emergency remote teaching becomes a temporary solution in order to allow students to continue with their lessons [20]. Despite being unsure of emergency remote teaching, educators have to continue to teach. According to Talidong [21] in her study of teachers involved in emergency remote teaching, the main findings of this study emphasise several aspects such as the positive outlook, concern for students, and instructional strategies of the Philippine teachers in implementing emergency remote teaching. Despite the difficulties to arrange lessons virtually from distance, the respondents were aware of the instructional strategies that could be employed.
In an attempt to ensure that teaching and learning online is effectively and successfully achieved, Whittle et al. [22] proposed a framework for emergency remote teaching. These scholars combined two frameworks – Sawyer’s [23] framework for creating a learning environment and Garrison and Arbaugh’s [24] community of inquiry framework for online learning – to develop the emergency remote teaching environment framework. Findings from this study suggest that educators need to reaffirm their online presence by guaranteeing that they are visible accordingly either within or outside of the online teaching sessions.
Some educators may find it difficult to conduct online assessments during the emergency remote teaching phase. Rahim [25] suggested nine aspects that must be considered when conducting online assessments during this phase. These include evaluating prerequisites for implementing online assessment; ensuring alignment of assessment activities with stated learning objectives; addressing the diversity of students’ situations; maintaining a good balance of formative and summative assessments; stimulating student learning with online assessment; considering format; scheduling and timing of tests; establishing clear communication to students regarding assessment matters; ensuring high-quality feedback; and addressing assessment validity threats. Although all these aspects can be familiar to some educators, others may find them new, yet helpful during this time of crisis.
A group of educators at Algonquin College [26] described the differences and evolutions from emergency remote teaching to eventually, online teaching (see Table 3). What is reiterated is the fact that emergency remote teaching is a non-planned teaching strategy, and it is just a temporary measure. To demonstrate further the meaning of emergency remote teaching, Figure 1 confirms some characteristics of emergency remote teaching, including the evolving expectations of the educators as well as students, and synchronous with asynchronous options for teaching and learning.
Characteristics
Emergency Remote Teaching
Remote Teaching
Enhanced Remote Teaching
Online Teaching
Planning
None
Developed incrementally and added regularly based on the progress of students
May be adjusted weekly
Existing courses moved to online environment
Lack of analysis, design, planning and evaluation
Existing courses moved to online environment
Feedback from learners helping to inform course elements
Developed Incrementally
When face-to-face instruction resumes, likely to return to face-to-face delivery
The use of a framework (such as ADDIE or other models) to support development
Developed specifically and intentionally to be delivered online, irrespective of the status of pandemic
Preparation
Less than 1 week
2 weeks to 3 weeks
Variables
Variable, but usually anywhere from 4 months (1 term) up to 1 year
Design
Designed as face-to- face or hybrid
Designed as face-to-face or hybrid
Designed by faculty members with varying levels of experience with learning technologies
Designed as face-to-face or hybrid
Designed by faculty members with varying levels of experience with learning technologies
Informed by training and workshops to support the development of 2–3 student self-directed learning experiences
Designed for online
Designed with instructional designer and media support
Various technologies have been chosen and tested for specific learning activities to facilitate a self-directed learning experience
Development Frameworks
Often developed and adjusted on a weekly basis, with consideration of an overall course blueprint
Adjusted on a weekly basis, with consideration of an overall course blueprint
Adjusted on a weekly basis, with consideration of an overall course blueprint
Fully developed at the start of the course
May go through multiple iterations before development is considered complete
Content
Minimal to no change
Transferred from in-class to learning management system
Mostly text-based
Required resource already in place and used by students
Use of existing content already developed
Possible supplemental content added, ideally in multimedia format
Enhancement of existing content already developed
Increase of supplemental and supportive materials
Increasing balance of dynamic and static resources
Selected, developed and implemented as part of the design and development process
Greater preference for multimedia resources
Use of dynamic learning activities
Greater reliance on advanced features of learning management system, such as intelligent agents
Educators’ Presence
Active instructor presence
Synchronous, in alignment with scheduled class times, with additional availability, as required to support student adjustment to online environment
Active instructor presence
Primarily synchronous, in alignment with scheduled class times
Recordings of synchronous ‘classes’ may be available following the class
Active instructor presence
Mix of synchronous and asynchronous classes, with many classes following a weekly scheduled class time
Recordings of synchronous ‘classes’ may be available following the class
Additional recordings may be made in advance and made available in lieu of synchronous class
Typically designed for students to complete as self-directed, with regular monitoring and check-ins with instructor
Typically asynchronous, but may have synchronous elements
Assessments and Evaluations
Use existing assessments, with alternative assessments necessary in certain cases
In some cases, substantial completion (“80%”) was sufficient for completion
In the majority of cases, using existing approved course outlines, with Course Section Information (CSI) addendum
Use existing assessments, with alternative assessments necessary in certain cases
Updates to curriculum
CSI documents to detail delivery expectations
Use existing assessments, with alternative assessments necessary in certain cases
Utilising same course outline, with modifications to the CSI document to denote delivery expectations
Assessments designed for online learning environment
Table 3.
Selected characteristics of emergency remote teaching compared with online teaching [28].
Figure 1.
The scenario between face-to-face sessions and emergency remote teaching [27].
Based on Table 3, it can be concluded that when an academic programme is planned properly to be offered virtually, it can be categorised as online education; teaching and learning will be conducted online. Emergency remote teaching can ultimately become online teaching once it has stabilised and matured; by this, the author argues that there must be proper and adequate time allocated to design and develop the curricula, including the learning materials, activities and assessments.
To sum up this section, both online teaching and emergency remote teaching should be used in different educational situations. What the teaching world is facing now may best be solved by emergency remote teaching because educators are put into the positions of teaching online fully without having the time to plan, design and select the best teaching tools for the students.
3. Methodology
This research employed a case study approach in order to understand the challenges faced by educators teaching during the pandemic. Stake [29] noted that there are three kinds of case studies, namely intrinsic, instrumental and collective. An intrinsic case study focuses on understanding a specific case rather than focussing on a common understanding. Conversely, a collective case study is about understanding more than one case either at one site or multiple locations. Using Stake, this research is an instrumental case study, where it focuses on gaining a general understanding of an issue by studying a particular case, educators at the NDUM.
Case studies have many advantages, such as allowing for comparative study and the support for generalisations [30, 31]. They are also empirically strong because they are grounded in observable realities. However, there are also weaknesses, the main one being that they lack statistical reliability because they can be narrow in their focus. Gummesson [32] counter-argued on the weaknesses of the case study method by insisting that statistical or scientific methods are less insightful in instances where understanding human behaviour is more important. In addition, the case study approach does not rule out statistical analysis. The current research uses quantitative data for descriptive and inferential analysis. This quantitative approach is chosen because the author wants to gauge the general perspectives of educators at the Defence University on teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic.
3.1 Population and sampling
There are 340 active academics at the NDUM during the period of data collection. The author chose convenience sampling because the potential respondents can be reached easily through WhatsApp and emails. There were 63 respondents out of 340 academics (18.5 percent), who answered the online survey, and these were the basis for analysis and discussion in this chapter. The author did not force academics to complete the survey since it was on voluntary basis. Despite this small number of respondents, the author opines that the data were sufficient for preliminary discussions on emergency remote teaching.
3.2 Research instrument and data collection
An online survey was used to collect data. Using Google Forms, items were arranged according to sections explained later. The survey can be found at https://bit.ly/2Zaozjc (see Figure 2 for the screenshot of the survey), and it was available from the 5th of September until the 18th of September 2020 (about two weeks). Two methods were used to invite potential respondents; first, WhatsApp messages were sent to groups of faculties and academic centres at the NDUM, and second, emails were sent to all academics at the NDUM.
Figure 2.
The screenshot of the online survey.
Items in the survey were divided into a demographic section, perceptions about online teaching and emergency remote teaching section, and commentary section. Two types of scales were used in the survey, a 4-point likert and 5-point likert scale, together with ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and ‘Not Sure’ scale. As emergency remote teaching is barely known to most educators, the author has specifically prepared four items on emergency remote teaching. Further, the items in the survey mostly originated from the existing literature on online teaching and emergency remote teaching. The survey was bilingual in order to cater for local and international academics at the Defence University.
3.3 Data analysis
The final data collected from 63 respondents were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 25, and they were presented in mostly descriptive statistics. Whilst descriptive data were used to answer the research questions posed earlier, inferential data provided different perspectives on the current teaching situations. Data analysis involved the use of frequency tables and graphs for percentages and figures. Since the objective of the paper is to investigate the roles of educators during the pandemic, descriptive data obtained were able to shed lights into the situations faced by the respondents. Meanwhile, inferential statistics were able to illustrate the relations or significance of variables in this study.
4. Findings
4.1 Demographic information
There are seven faculties and academic centres at the Defence University; given this, the online survey was only open to academics under these faculties and centres. Although there are also academics appointed as fellow researchers in centres of excellence at the Defence University, they are also part of these seven faculties and academic centres. Figures 3–6 illustrate the demographic information of the research respondents. To explain further the labels for the faculties and academic centres, below is the explanation for the acronyms used,
AKP – Defence Fitness Academy
PAP – Centre for Foundation Studies
PB – Language Centre
FKJ – Faculty of Engineering
FPPP – Faculty of Defence and Management Studies
FPKP – Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health
FSTP – Faculty of Science and Defence Technology
Figure 3.
The respondents and their respective faculties/academic centres (in number).
Figure 4.
The gender of the respondents (in number).
Figure 5.
The age of the respondents (in number).
Figure 6.
Years of teaching experience of the respondents (in number).
Based on Figure 3, it is evident that the respondents of this study mostly came from the Language Centre, 24 respondents, and the least number of respondents came from two faculties, the Defence Fitness Academy and Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health, with three respondents each. In terms of age range, most respondents were between 36 to 40 years old (24 respondents) and the least number of respondents was at the range of 25 to 30 years old (two respondents).
In addition, most respondents have more than 10 years of teaching experience (31 respondents); nonetheless, it should be emphasised that the older the academics were does not equate to more years in teaching. This could be explained by the fact that some join teaching profession at a later age after gaining industrial experience. Further, the number of female respondents was slightly higher than the male counterparts; in actual fact, this is the real resemblance of the total academic population at the NDUM, with about 50.3 percent female academics.
4.2 Descriptive findings
Data are explained in two main categories, including respondents’ perceptions about online teaching and their knowledge about emergency remote teaching, and respondents’ choice of platforms, strategies and applications during the pandemic. The first item asked was whether the respondents had experienced teaching fully online. 44 respondents (69.8 percent) confirmed that they have had the experience, and 19 respondents responded ‘No’ to this item. This item is key in understanding the responses for the subsequent items asked. The author opines that some respondents have not been involved completely in teaching online fully because they teach the Foundation and Diploma students, who were not in sessions from March until July 2020.
The next three items sought respondents’ knowledge and awareness on the differences between emergency remote teaching and online teaching. The findings are summarised in Figures 7–9 below. It can be discerned from these figures that respondents at the NDUM were not sure of what emergency remote teaching is and its differences to online teaching. The majority of the respondents chose ‘Not Sure’ for these three items. This is not surprising since emergency remote teaching is a new and temporary solution to teaching in times of crisis.
Figure 7.
Responses to the item “Understand the concept of Emergency Remote Teaching” (in number).
Figure 8.
Responses to the item “Able to distinguish between emergency remote teaching and online teaching” (in number).
Figure 9.
Responses to the item “Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Teaching are similar” (in number).
The respondents were also asked on the perceptions about teaching online fully. Figure 10 illustrates the views of all respondents. A 4-point likert scale was used for this item, ranging from ‘Strongly Not Effective’ (1) to ‘Strongly Effective’ (4). As can be observed, 44.4 percent of the respondents (28 people) opted for ‘Not Effective,’ and 7.9 percent (5 people) opted for ‘Strongly Not Effective.’ Combining these two scales makes up for the slight majority of the respondents, who opined that teaching online fully lacks effectiveness (33 respondents or 52.3 percent).
Figure 10.
Responses to the item “Perceptions about teaching online fully” (in number).
In addition, Tables 4 and 5 tabulate the views of the respondents on what platforms and strategies that they used the most during the pandemic and the most effective platforms and strategies in their opinions. From Table 4, it can be deduced that WhatsApp is often (19 respondents) and always (18 respondents) used by the respondents, together with MS Teams for Video Conferencing (51 respondents) and Quizzes (34 respondents). Further, Table 5 shows similar platforms and applications that the respondents believed to be the most effective (combining ‘Effective’ and ‘Strongly Effective’), WhatsApp and MS Teams for Video Conferencing and Quizzes with 44, 58 and 53 respondents, respectively. In additions, respondents also opined that Al-Fateh e-Learning Portal, Google Forms, Google Meet and Zoom to be effective platforms too.
Online Teaching Platforms/Scales
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Often
Always
WhatsApp
9
6
11
19
18
Al-Fateh e-Learning Portal
9
8
12
20
14
MS Teams (Video Conferencing)
1
4
7
25
26
Kahoot!
33
4
15
8
3
Google Forms
13
7
19
12
12
MS Teams (Quizzes)
13
5
11
16
18
Exam.Net
50
3
3
5
2
Google Meet
24
9
10
16
4
Twitter
56
3
1
3
0
Facebook
52
6
0
5
0
Telegram
38
5
9
7
4
Skype
35
11
7
9
1
Zoom
16
9
13
19
6
Table 4.
Responses to the item “Online teaching platforms and strategies that respondents use the most” (in number).
Online Teaching Platforms/Scales
Strongly Not Effective
Not Effective
Effective
Strongly Effective
WhatsApp
4
15
27
17
Al-Fateh e-Learning Portal
5
11
33
14
MS Teams (Video Conferencing)
0
5
29
29
Kahoot!
11
17
29
6
Google Forms
1
8
43
11
MS Teams (Quizzes)
4
6
37
16
Exam.Net
17
17
26
3
Google Meet
10
11
31
11
Twitter
38
22
11
0
Facebook
29
23
10
1
Telegram
19
20
22
2
Mentimeter
20
23
19
1
Skype
13
20
26
4
Zoom
10
11
36
6
Table 5.
Responses to the item “Online teaching platforms and strategies that are most effective” (in number).
4.3 Inferential findings
This section explains the relations between selected items in the survey. Four sets of items will be tested on the strength of relations, and they are firstly correlation between years of teaching experience and the ability to distinguish between emergency remote teaching and online teaching (Figure 11); secondly, between opinions about teaching online fully and opinions about blended teaching (Figure 12); thirdly, between years of teaching experience and perceptions about blended teaching (Figure 13); and lastly between years of teaching experience and opinions about teaching online fully (Figure 14).
Figure 11.
Correlations between teaching experience and ability to differentiate emergency remote teaching and online teaching.
Figure 12.
Correlations between opinions about teaching online fully and opinions about blended teaching.
Figure 13.
Correlations between teaching experience and opinions about blended teaching.
Figure 14.
Correlations between teaching experience and opinions about teaching online fully.
There are numerous ranges and interpretations on the correlation indicators (see Table 6); the author opts for the indicators by Sarwono [33] simply because the indicators are more representative of the author’s data. The indicators are divided into six ranges; they begin with ‘0’ to indicate no correlation of the variables, and end with ‘1’ to depict a perfect correlation between two variables. Correlation data can also be positive and negative, indicating the directions of the relations.
Range
Interpretations
0
No correlation
0.00–0.25
Very weak correlation
0.25–0.50
Sufficient correlation
0.50–0.75
Strong correlation
0.75–0.99
Very strong correlation
1
Perfect correlation
Table 6.
Correlation indicators (positive and negative) [34].
Based on Figures 11–14, it can be concluded that there are negative and positive correlations between the items; positive correlation suggests that when one variable increases, the other also increases, and negative correlation indicates otherwise. For example, there is a very weak correlation (negative, −.071) between years of teaching experience and the ability of respondents to distinguish between emergency remote teaching and online teaching (see Figure 11). What this suggests is that as the years of teaching experience increase, the respondents were perhaps not able to distinguish between emergency remote teaching and online teaching.
Meanwhile Figure 12 illustrates a sufficient correlation (positive, .407) between opinions of respondents about teaching online fully and blended teaching. Thus, as more respondents chose to agree with teaching online fully is less effective, the more they opined that blended teaching is suitable for them. Further, Figure 13 demonstrates that there is a very weak correlation (negative, −.175) between years of teaching experience and opinions about whether blended teaching is suitable for the respondents; as the years of teaching increase, the respondents’ view on whether blended teaching is suitable for them decreases. In addition, Figure 14 illustrates that there is a very weak correlation (positive, .126) between years of teaching experience and opinions about teaching online fully. This illustrates that as years of teaching experience increase, the views that teaching online fully is not effective also increase, although the correlation is relatively small and weak.
5. Discussions
From the data presented in the previous section, the author argues that, especially for the inferential statistics, too many respondents opted for ‘Not Sure’ when asked about emergency remote teaching and online teaching. In their defence, the author opines that since emergency remote teaching appears out of a sudden, these respondents may not be able to clearly define between emergency remote teaching and online teaching. Nonetheless, the data become a benchmark for the next step that must be taken by all educators in preparing for the unknown challenges.
Two research questions were posed earlier. The first is whether the educators at the NDUM were ready to embark on teaching during times of crisis, and the second is the platforms, tools and applications that were used by the educators during the pandemic. For the first research question, the author argues that the majority of the respondents were ready to teach during the pandemic; nonetheless, they were not able to clearly distinguish between their teaching situation and environment at the time, which is emergency remote teaching and online teaching. This is based on Table 4, where the respondents were able to name the platforms and applications used for teaching, and Table 5, where they gave their perspectives on the effectiveness of the platforms and applications used.
Regardless of this, most respondents responded ‘Not Sure’ for survey items on differences between emergency remote teaching and online teaching, understanding of what emergency remote teaching is, and on whether both concepts are similar (refer to Figures 7–9). In addition, some respondents claimed in the commentary section of the survey that face-to-face teaching is never to be replaced by emergency remote teaching or online teaching. They believed that teaching conducted fully online is not effective. The inferential statistics also support this (see Figure 12); most respondents opined that teaching online fully is not effective, and that blended teaching suits them better (as the number of respondents choosing teaching online fully is ineffective increases, so does that number of respondents who agreed that blending teaching is suitable for them).
For the second research question, it is found that most respondents utilised WhatsApp and MS Teams (for video conferencing and quizzes). Although the other options were also selected by some of the respondents (see Tables 4 and 5), the author argues that these two platforms and applications are easily accessible to both educators and students. Almost all have WhatsApp application installed in their mobile phones, and MS Teams is subscribed by the NDUM.
The author also argues that where some of the platforms and applications have never been used by the respondents, the sudden change of teaching scenario and environment does not warrant time for the respondents to explore these other platforms and applications, such as Twitter, Facebook and Exam. Net (56, 52 and 50 respondents, respectively had never used these during the pandemic). Further, based on the commentary section of the survey, a few respondents opined that in order to utilise some of the platforms and applications, educators and students require a stable connection to the Internet and a huge data consumption; the question remains whether both educators and students have these Internet stability and ample Internet data.
Given all these discussions, the author opines that the most important finding of this study is the roles of educators in an emergency remote teaching environment. There are two main roles. Firstly, educators must be prepared to have an online presence; either a small or big online presence depends on the students’ level of competency of the lessons. This online presence is crucial in motivating and encouraging the students to stay focus and active online. Secondly, choosing the best and most suitable platforms is also important. There are no fixed rules on choosing what is best for both the students and educators. Notwithstanding this, knowing what the students require and their capability to be online may dictate the choice of suitable strategies and platforms in an emergency remote teaching environment.
6. Recommendations
Two recommendations can be offered based on the findings of this study. First, the academics must be made aware of the differences between emergency remote teaching and online teaching. Knowing and understanding of what emergency remote teaching is allow the academics to choose the most appropriate teaching platforms, strategies and applications post COVID-19. Where students are still required to learn online, so does the teaching practice continue online. Table 3 may be of assistance to all educators, who want to ensure that their teaching benefits the students.
Second, the administrators of the higher learning institutions (and secondary as well as primary schools) may need to invest on redesigning and revamping the existing curricula in order to match post COVID-19 teaching and learning environment. The educational institutions must be ready to offer systematic and effective online education, including online activities, learning and teaching interactions, materials and assessments. Redesigning and revamping the curricula become necessary as some learning and teaching activities cannot be executed online; thus, other platforms and strategies must be chosen and applied to give students the knowledge, exposure and experience that they need.
7. Conclusion
The objective of this chapter is to identify the roles of educators, especially at the NDUM during the COVID-19 outbreak. Two research questions have been answered using the case study and quantitative approaches to research. This chapter has presented data that lead to three major findings. First, despite being ready to teach online fully, some respondents at the NDUM were not able to distinguish between emergency remote teaching and online teaching. Based on the data, the respondents are unsure of the differences between the two; both adopt different strategies of teaching.
Second, based on the data too, the respondents opined that WhatsApp and MS Teams are two platforms and applications that they used the most and were the most effective employed during this time of crisis. Although there are no specific guidelines on what strategies and platforms that must be adopted, the respondents chose what were the most convenient to them. These options may and may not be effective for all students, and these may be investigated in the near future.
Third, there are two major roles of educators teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic, including educators’ willingness to have an online presence and the ability to choose the best teaching and learning platforms and applications. Educators’ online presence, either big or small, encourages and motivates students to actively participate during online learning sessions. Students know that they are not alone; there are peers as well on educators to support them. When educators have established this online presence, they become indirectly aware of the platforms and applications that could be beneficial and effective for the teaching and learning activities, online.
Future research may want to also focus on collecting opinions from a bigger population, across the nation, and may want to investigate the journey of educators at primary and secondary schools. Comparing what happened during the teaching processes at various institutions may help academics to improve their teaching strategies and allow academics to learn from one another. As the new normal in teaching and learning is here to stay, educators must brave the challenges that come in various forms and aspects; they must be prepared to adapt and adopt new concepts of teaching, whatever these might be!
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Notes/Thanks/Other declarations
The author thanks all survey respondents for their time and cooperation in completing the online survey, which is available at https://bit.ly/2Zaozjc.
\n',keywords:"COVID-19, emergency remote teaching, new normal, online presence, online teaching",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74468.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74468.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74468",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74468",totalDownloads:106,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"November 19th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 17th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 17th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter responds to the needs of educators in preparing to teach online fully due to the pandemic, COVID-19. This scenario becomes the new normal in the teaching and learning process during the COVID-19 pandemic. The main objective of this chapter is to investigate the roles of educators in one public higher learning institution in Malaysia during emergency remote teaching due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Emergency remote teaching is argued to be the answer to the sudden change from face-to-face teaching to a fully online teaching environment. Data for this chapter were collected through an online survey distributed to potential respondents. Adopting a case study and quantitative approach to research, descriptive and inferential statistical analysis were conducted and presented. Preliminary findings suggest two key challenges. Firstly, educators were ready to embark on transformative emergency remote teaching. Nonetheless, they were not sure of the differences between emergency remote teaching and online teaching; these two have different pedagogical approaches. Secondly, and perhaps most importantly, educators were able to use appropriate platforms and applications during the pandemic; however, they did not have ample time to study other platforms and applications. By this, the author argues that some educators have various options to choose from but may lack the knowledge and understanding on how these options work best. In accepting the new normal in teaching and learning, educators must be open to new and creative strategies to engage students during 100 percent online learning.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74468",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74468",signatures:"Jowati Juhary",book:{id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century - Challenges and Prospects",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century - Challenges and Prospects",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. M Mahruf C Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M Mahruf C",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m-mahruf-c-shohel",fullName:"M Mahruf C Shohel"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The context of the study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Online teaching and emergency remote teaching",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Population and sampling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Research instrument and data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1 Demographic information",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Descriptive findings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3 Inferential findings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Notes/Thanks/Other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Buheji M, da Costa Cunha K, Beka G, Mavrić B, de Souza YLdC, da Costa Silva SC, Hanafi M, Yein TC. The Extent of COVID-19 Pandemic Socio-Economic Impact on Global Poverty: A Global Integrative Multidisciplinary Review. American Journal of Economics. 2020; 10,4: 213-224. DOI: 10.5923/j.economics.20201004.02'},{id:"B2",body:'Demirbas D, Bozkurt V, Yorgun S, editors. The COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Economic, Social, and Political Impacts. Istanbul: Istanbul University Press, 2020'},{id:"B3",body:'Hibrahim MA. Pensyarah Belum Sedia Mengajar Secara ‘Online’ (Lecturers are not ready to teach online). Sinar Harian. 2020, 17 November. Available from: https://www.sinarharian.com.my/article/110517/BERITA/Nasional/Pensyarah-belum-sedia-mengajar-secara-online [Accessed: 2020-11-18]'},{id:"B4",body:'Characteristics of Remote and Online Teaching – Learning and Teaching Services, Algonquin College [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.algonquincollege.com/lts/files/2020/05/Characteristics-of-Remote-and-Online-Teaching.pdf [Accessed: 2020-09-11]'},{id:"B5",body:'Hodges C, Moore S, Lockee B, Trust T, Bond A. The Difference Between Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Learning [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning [Accessed: 2020-09-02]'},{id:"B6",body:'Bozkurt A, Sharma, RC. Emergency remote teaching in a time of global crisis due to Corona Virus pandemic. Asian Journal of Distance Education. 2020;15,1: i-vi. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3778083'},{id:"B7",body:'Abdalellah OM, Basim AK, Abdul N, Vigil JV. 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Guidelines for online assessment in emergency remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Education in Medical Journal. 2020;12, 2:59-68. DOI: 10.21315/eimj2020.12.2.6'},{id:"B26",body:'Characteristics of Remote and Online Teaching – Learning and Teaching Services, Algonquin College [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.algonquincollege.com/lts/files/2020/05/Characteristics-of-Remote-and-Online-Teaching.pdf [Accessed: 2020-09-11]'},{id:"B27",body:'Characteristics of Remote and Online Teaching – Learning and Teaching Services, Algonquin College [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.algonquincollege.com/lts/files/2020/05/Characteristics-of-Remote-and-Online-Teaching.pdf [Accessed: 2020-09-11]'},{id:"B28",body:'Characteristics of Remote and Online Teaching – Learning and Teaching Services, Algonquin College [Internet]. 2020. 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