",isbn:"978-1-83969-600-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-599-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-601-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"47659401ffe512c28313440110c0a903",bookSignature:"Dr. Min Huang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10896.jpg",keywords:"Yield Potential, Grain Quality, Biotic Stress Resistance, Climatic Adaptation, Soil Management, Straw Management, Mechanical Transplanting, Direct Seeding, Nutrient Management, Water Management, Pest Management, Abiotic Stress Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 13th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 12th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"24 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Huang is a professor in crop science at the Hunan Agricultural University, a committee member of the Council of the International Forum on Rice Development, and a first and/or corresponding author of more than 70 publications in international journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"189829",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"min-huang",fullName:"Min Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189829/images/system/189829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Min Huang received his PhD in the major of Crop Cultivation and Farming System from the Hunan Agricultural University (HAU), China in 2011. He successively held the positions of Assistant and Associate Professor in the Department of Agronomy at the Guangxi University, China from 2012 to 2014. He joined the faculty as an Associate Professor in the Department of Agronomy at the HAU in 2015 and was promoted to the position of Professor in 2017. He worked as a visiting fellow at the International Programs-College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, USA in 2017 and 2018. He serves as a committee member of the Crop Cultivation Professional Council of the Crop Science Society of China and a committee member of the Council of the International Forum on Rice Development. He obtained 5 research grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Ministry of Science and Technology of China. He is a first and/or corresponding author of more than 70 publications in international journals and an editor of 2 books. He won the Excellent Doctoral Thesis Award of Hunan Province in 2014, and the Second Prize of Science and Technology Progress Award of the Ministry of Education of China in 2016.",institutionString:"Hunan Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Hunan Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72102",title:"Etiology of Cancer Associated Thromboembolism (CAT), and Diet, Lifestyle and Medicine to Reduce Cancer and Venous Thromboembolism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92379",slug:"etiology-of-cancer-associated-thromboembolism-cat-and-diet-lifestyle-and-medicine-to-reduce-cancer-a",body:'
1. Introduction
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in developed countries including Japan. According to the Japanese Cancer Institute registry data, 1,017,200 patients were estimated to be newly diagnosed with cancer, and 380,300 patients were estimated to die from cancer in 2019 [1]. Colon cancer is the most often diagnosed in Japanese people, followed by gastric and lung cancer. Lung cancer most often causes death related to cancer, followed by colon and gastric cancer. Approximately half of Japanese people suffer from cancer during their lifetime, and one-third die from cancer. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a common and serious complication in patients with cancer. The risk of VTE in cancer patients is severalfold higher than that in individuals without cancer [2, 3], and VTE is the second leading cause of death in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy after death directly related to cancer [4]. Therefore, it is important to prevent and treat cancer-associated VTE to improve prognosis of cancer.
2. History of cancer-associated thrombosis
French physician Armand Trousseau first described the relationship between cancer and thrombosis when he reported multiple cancer patients complicated with “phlegmasia alba dolens” caused by deep vein thrombosis in 1865 [5]. He speculated that excess of fibrin and hypercoagulable state of blood caused thrombosis in these patients. Two years later, he suffered from “phlegmasia alba dolens,” and he died from gastric cancer. Since then, many studies have revealed the relationships between cancer and thrombosis. Presently, it is well known that thrombosis, i.e., venous thromboembolism (VTE), arterial thrombosis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and thrombotic microangiopathy, often occurs in cancer patients, and thrombosis occurring in cancer patients become to be recognized as cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) (Table 1).
Table 1.
Cancer-associated thrombosis.
3. Epidemiology and etiology of venous thromboembolism
Among CAT, VTE most often occurs in cancer patients. VTE is a disease that includes deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which usually occurs in the lower legs, and pulmonary embolisms (PE). Most isolated distal DVTs do not extend to the proximal veins and remain uneventful, whereas parts of clot may break off from proximal DVTs and they may cause potentially life-threatening PE. VTE is the third frequent cardiovascular diseases in Western countries next to myocardial infarction and stroke, and it is estimated that annual incidence of VTE is 1–2 per 1000 adults in the USA [6]. Racial differences may exist in the incidence of VTE, and it is reported that the incidence of VTE in whites is five times higher than that in Asians [7]. Previously, the incidence of VTE in Japanese population was supposed to be low, but more Japanese patients have been diagnosed with VTE, recently. The number of patients diagnosed with PE was 28 per 1,000,000 people in 1996, and it increased to 126 in 2011 [8].
There are several risk factors that induce VTE, and cancer is one of the main risk factors for VTE (Table 2). It has been reported that cancer is associated with 18% of all VTE, and the overall risk of VTE was increased sevenfold in patients with a malignancy (odds ratio [OR], 6.7; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.2–8.6) vs. persons without malignancy [9].
Table 2.
Risk factors for venous thromboembolism.
4. Risk factors for cancer-associated venous thromboembolism
Incidence rates of VTE increase with age in the general population. Likewise, cancer-associated VTE occurs more often in the elderly population than younger population. Khorana et al. reported that age 65 or older is an independent risk factor for developing cancer-associated VTE. Cancer-associated VTE is more common in female sex and black race [3]. Obesity; complications such as respiratory disease, kidney disease, and infection; and poor performance status are also risk factors for cancer-associated VTE [10, 11, 12].
The risk of VTE varies by cancer site, and meta-analysis of several studies proves that the incidence of VTE is highest in the pancreatic cancer patients, followed by hematological malignancy and brain tumor patients [13]. VTE more often occurs in patients with advanced cancer than in patients with early cancer [14]. The incidence of VTE also varies by cancer histology, is higher in lung adenocarcinoma patients than in lung squamous cell carcinoma patients [15], and is higher in high-grade lymphoma patients than in low-grade lymphoma patients [16, 17].
Cancer treatment also affects VTE incidence. VTE is a common complication of surgery, regardless of whether it is cancer surgery or not, and adequate prophylaxis is recommended in guidelines including Japanese guideline [18]. However, among cancer patients who received adequate VTE prophylaxis after surgery, 2.1% of them developed massive VTE and 0.8% of them died [19]. Many types of anticancer drugs, such as cisplatin, l-asparaginase, and bevacizumab, also increase risk of thrombosis in cancer patients. Especially, the incidence of VTE is very high in multiple myeloma patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (e.g., thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide), and these patients need primary prevention of VTE by using antithrombotic drugs. Cancer patients often need indwelling central venous catheter (CVC) for delivery of intravenous drugs, parenteral nutrition, and collecting blood samples. Indwelling CVC increases risk of developing VTE, and it is estimated that the risk of symptomatic catheter thrombosis is 0.3–28% [20].
Considering these factors, several risk models to predict the occurrence of cancer-associated VTE have been published. Khorana score is the most widely used risk model among them [21]. Five predictive variables are identified in this score: site of cancer (2 points for very high-risk site, 1 point for high-risk site), platelet count of 350 × 109/L or more, hemoglobin less than 100 g/L (10 g/dL) and/or the use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, leukocyte count more than 11 × 109/L, and body mass index of 35 kg/m2 or more (1 point each). Rates of VTE have been reported to be 0.3% in low-risk (score = 0), 2% in intermediate-risk (score = 1–2), and 6.7% in high-risk (score ≥ 3) category over a median of 2.5 months.
5. Pathogenesis of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism
Stasis of blood flow, hypercoagulability, and endothelial injury are known as Virchow’s triad, and they are involved in thrombus formation. Stasis of blood flow caused by several factors, such as poor performance status, indwelling CVC, and venous compression by tumor, is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of VTE in cancer patients.
Blood cells also play an important role in the occurrence of VTE in cancer patients. Leukocyte count 11 × 109/L or above is a risk factor of VTE in cancer patients [21]. Increased leukocyte is found in 20–30% of cancer patients, and it is common in colon and lung cancer patients. Increased expression of granulocyte colony stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor, and interleukin-6 causes leukocyte increase in cancer patients [22, 23]. Neutrophils may enhance thrombosis through formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which take in erythrocytes and platelets, and bind to tissue factor (TF) resulting in activation of coagulation [24, 25]. Increased incidences of VTE are reported both in cancer patients with thrombocytosis prior to cancer diagnosis and thrombocytosis at cancer diagnosis [11, 26, 27]. Higher expression of platelet factor 4, which activates platelets, in cancer patients may be related to the development of VTE [28, 29]. Platelets also play a regulatory role in NETs formation. These may play an important role in the pathogenesis of cancer-associated VTE.
Some proteins also have been reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of cancer-associated VTE. TF plays an important role in hemostasis and activates factor IX and factor X to initiate extrinsic coagulation pathway by forming a complex with factor VII or activated factor VII. VTE most frequently occurs in pancreatic cancer patients, and pancreatic cancer expresses TF. Expression levels of TF correlate with histologic grades of cancer, and the incidence of VTE is higher in patients with pancreatic cancer with high TF expression level [30, 31]. Podoplanin is a protein which activates platelets by binding to platelet C-type lectin receptor 2 (CLEC-2) [32, 33]. The relationships between podoplanin and VTE are proven in patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Expression levels of podoplanin vary by GBM subtype. GBM with high podoplanin expression level has a high number of platelet aggregates in tumor vessels and is reported to have high incidence of VTE [34].
P-selectin is a protein that exists in platelets and endothelial cells, and soluble form of P-selectin exists in plasma. P-selectin induces leukocytes to damaged endothelium for thrombus formation. The incidence of VTE is reported to be higher in cancer patients with high levels of soluble P-selectin [35]. Inhibition of P-selectin reduces thrombus formation in animal models [36].
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) inhibits plasmin, which is synthesized from plasminogen to dissolve thrombus. Increased level of PAI-1 causes thrombotic tendency. The incidence of VTE is high in pancreatic cancer patients with increased levels of PAI-1 [37]. It is reported that administration of bevacizumab to mice transplanted with lung cancer cells increases PAI-1 expression and enlarges the size of thrombus. Administration of PAI-1 inhibitor to these mice decreases the thrombus size [38]. These findings suggest that increased PAI-1 may be related to the occurrence of cancer-associated VTE (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Pathogenesis of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism. Cancer cells express and release various proteins. These induce leukocytosis and thrombocytosis and activate coagulation resulting in thrombus formation.
6. Diet, nutrition, and VTE
Considering the pathogenesis of cancer-associated VTE described in the previous section, it is unlikely that certain diets and nutrition can suppress the development of cancer-associated VTE specifically. Then, are there any diets and nutrition which may prevent the development of VTE in general, not just cancer-associated? The association between diet and nutrition and thrombosis has not necessarily been well analyzed for VTE, but it has been well analyzed for arterial thrombosis such as ischemic heart disease or cerebral infarction. In 2010, the American College of Cardiology announced seven lifestyles to reduce deaths caused by cardiovascular and cerebral infarction by 20% by 2020: (1) nonsmoking, (2) body mass index <25 kg/m2, (3) physical activity at goal levels, (4) pursuit of a diet consistent with the current guideline recommendations, (5) untreated total cholesterol <200 mg/dL, (6) untreated blood pressure < 120/<80 mm Hg, and (7) fasting blood glucose <100 mg/dL [39]. Do these lifestyles also reduce the incidence of VTE? Hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes (these are related to diet and nutrition), and smoking are risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, and meta-analysis of nine clinical trials revealed that only smoking is a risk factor for VTE among them [40]. These results suggest that diets and nutrition to prevent arterial thrombosis are not necessarily effective for VTE prevention. On the other hand, obesity, one of the risk factors for arterial thrombosis, is also known to be one of the risk factors for the development of VTE. Analysis of the association between 95 BMI-related gene polymorphisms and VTE development proves that five of the polymorphisms are associated with VTE development [41]. Therefore, taking a diet without too much calories or carbohydrates to maintain proper body weight is considered to be useful for VTE prevention.
Other reports examining the relationship between diet and nutrition and VTE are as follow. The incidence of VTE is 22% lower for those who eat fish three or more times a week than for those who eat twice or less a week [42] and is low for those who eat enough fish, vegetables, and fruits and eat less red meat and processed meat [43]. These reports suggest that diets to prevent arterial thrombosis might also be useful to prevent VTE. Furthermore, consumption of grape suppresses thrombin generation and enhances fibrinolysis [44]. Diets with 20, 30, and 50% of their calories on protein, lipids, and carbohydrates for 12 months result in reduction of abdominal circumference, increased HDL-C, decreased fibrinogen, and significantly increased interleukin-10 in those with metabolic syndrome [45]. These reports suggest that diet and nutrition might directly affect the blood coagulation and fibrinolysis which play an important role in the development of VTE.
Several reports related to the alcohol consumption and VTE have also been published. Women consuming alcohol daily were at 26% lower risk of VTE than non-consumers [46], and the analysis of three large US cohorts showed no evidence of an association of alcohol consumption amount or frequency with PE risk [47]. These findings suggest that alcohol drinking is not a risk factor for VTE.
7. Factors associated with carcinogenesis
The accumulation of various genetic abnormalities in normal cells causes carcinogenesis. Some cancers are caused by congenital genetic abnormalities, but most genetic abnormalities causing cancers are acquired abnormalities. It is estimated that smoking contributes to 20% of cancers and 23% of cancer deaths and infection with helicobacter pylori, hepatitis virus, etc. contributes to 21% of cancers and 22% of cancer deaths in Japanese population, and these are thought to be the main risk factors for cancer in Japanese population. Drinking alcohol contributes to 6% of both cancers and cancer deaths, and it is also a significant risk factor for cancer in Japanese population. Consumption of salt more than 6 g per day, deficiency of fruit intake, and deficiency of vegetable intake also contribute to 1.6, 0.7, and 0.6% of cancers and 1.4, 0.8, and 0.6% of cancer deaths, respectively [48]. Diet and nutrition seem to have some effects on the development of cancer and cancer mortality.
8. Diet, nutrition, and cancer
According to a report “Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective” published by World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research, it is convincing that adult body fatness has increased risks of esophageal, pancreatic, liver, colorectal, postmenopausal breast, endometrial, and kidney cancer. As for diets and nutrition, there exist causal relationships between aflatoxin and liver cancer, lean and processed meat and colon cancer, arsenic in drinking water and lung cancer, and high-dose beta-carotene supplements and lung cancer. On the other hand, whole grains and food containing dietary fiber decrease colorectal cancer. Non-starchy vegetables and fruits decrease aerodigestive cancer and some other cancers [49]. It is not fully understood how each diet and nutrition has effects on carcinogenesis, a diet with enough vegetables and fruits, less lean and processed meat, reduced carbohydrate and fat to prevent obesity, and low in salt might be useful to reduce cancer incidence.
9. Alcohol, cigarette smoking, and cancer
In 2017, the American Society of Clinical Oncology announced that alcohol drinking had been established as a risk factor for cancer, and avoiding excessive drinking was important to prevent cancer [50]. The development of pharyngeal, laryngeal, esophageal, liver, breast, and colorectal cancer was obviously related to alcohol drinking. The incidence of esophageal cancer was 1.3 times higher for small drinkers, 2.2 times for moderate drinkers, and 5 times for heavy drinkers than non-drinkers. Ethanol itself is not carcinogenic, but acetaldehyde, its metabolite, binds to DNA and proteins to be carcinogenic and mutagenic. It is proven that administration of large amount of ethanol or acetaldehyde causes cancer in animal experiments [51]. Acetaldehyde is metabolized by aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2). Higher percentage of Japanese people has inactive form of ALDH2 compared to the Western. It might result in adverse effects of alcohol drinking on carcinogenesis in Japanese population.
Smoking is a well-known risk factor for cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IRAC) assessed causal relationships in 2009 and stated that smoking is related to oral, pharyngeal, laryngeal, esophageal, lung, gastric, colon, liver, pancreatic, renal cell, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, cervical, and ovarian cancer and chronic myelogenous leukemia. Passive smoking is a risk factor for lung cancer [52]. To prevent cancer of yourself, your family, and your colleagues, no smoking is mandatory (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Effects of diets and lifestyle on cancer and venous thromboembolism (VTE). Fish, vegetables, and fruits may decrease the incidences of both cancer and VTE. Cigarette smoking and obesity increase the incidences of both cancer and VTE. Drinking alcohol and consuming lean and processed meat increase the incidence of cancer. Whole grain and dietary fiber decrease the incidence of cancer.
10. Aspirin and cancer
Aspirin is a widely used antiplatelet drug that inhibits platelets’ cyclooxygenase (COX), resulting in decreased platelet aggregation. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effects of aspirin on the secondary prevention of arterial thrombosis, and several studies have investigated the effects of aspirin use for the primary prevention of atherosclerotic diseases. Meta-analyses of these studies have shown that daily regular aspirin use reduce the incidence of colon cancer, mortality of colon cancer, and metastasis of colon cancer. The incidence or mortality of other types of cancer might also be reduced [53, 54, 55]. Increased COX expression results in tumor growth and progression, and inhibition of COX reduces carcinogenesis in animal experiments. Platelets are known to play an important role in tumor metastasis [56]. These might be related to the inhibitory effects of aspirin on cancer reported in meta-analyses. On the other hand, some recent reports have shown that regular aspirin use does not decrease cancer incidence or cancer mortality [57, 58, 59] (Table 3). Further studies are needed to confirm the effects of aspirin on cancer incidence and cancer mortality.
Table 3.
Effects of aspirin on cancer incidence and cancer mortality.
11. Conclusion
Various factors are involved in carcinogenesis and occurrence of cancer-associated VTE. Certain diets and nutrition may reduce the risk of VTE. Some lifestyles may reduce cancer incidence, and other lifestyles increase the risk of cancer. Further studies are needed to create ideal diet, nutrition, and lifestyle to reduce the risk of cancer and cancer-associated VTE.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"cancer, venous thromboembolism, fish, vegetables, aspirin",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72102.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72102.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72102",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72102",totalDownloads:157,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 9th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"May 9th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in developed countries, and cancer patients often develop venous thromboembolism (VTE). VTE is the second leading cause of death in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. The incidence of VTE varies among cancers, and it is highest in pancreatic cancer patients. Increased white blood cells and thrombocytosis are risk factors for developing cancer-associated VTE. Some other proteins (tissue factor, podoplanin, P-selectin, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1) may also play roles in thrombus formation in cancer patients. Certain diets and nutrition (e.g., enough fish, vegetables, and fruits) may reduce the risk of VTE. Certain diets and nutrition also may reduce the risk of cancer, and alcohol drinking and cigarette smoking definitely increase risk of cancer. Some studies suggest that aspirin, a widely used antiplatelet drug, may reduce cancer incidence and mortality, but other studies fail to show the beneficial effects of aspirin.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72102",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72102",book:{slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome"},signatures:"Kenji Yokoyama",authors:[{id:"316711",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Yokoyama",fullName:"Kenji Yokoyama",slug:"kenji-yokoyama",email:"yk092750@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. History of cancer-associated thrombosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Epidemiology and etiology of venous thromboembolism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Risk factors for cancer-associated venous thromboembolism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Pathogenesis of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Diet, nutrition, and VTE",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Factors associated with carcinogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Diet, nutrition, and cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Alcohol, cigarette smoking, and cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Aspirin and cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Available from: https://ganjoho.jp/reg_stat/statistics/stat/short_pred.html'},{id:"B2",body:'Khorana AA, Francis CW, Culakova E, Lyman GH. Risk factors for chemotherapy-associated venous thromboembolism in a prospective observational study. Cancer. 2005;104:2822-2829'},{id:"B3",body:'Khorana AA, Francis CW, Culakova E, Kuderer NM, Lyman GH. Frequency, risk factors, and trends for venous thromboembolism among hospitalized cancer patients. Cancer. 2007;110:2339-2346'},{id:"B4",body:'Eichinger S. Cancer associated thrombosis: Risk factors and outcomes. Thrombosis Research. 2016;140:S12-S17'},{id:"B5",body:'Trousseau A. Phlegmasia alba dolens. In: Clinique Medicale de L’hotel-dieu de Paris. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Paris, France: J.-B. Bailliere et fils; 1865. pp. 654-712'},{id:"B6",body:'Naess IA, Christiansen SC, et al. Incidence and mortality of venous thrombosis: A population-based study. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2007;5:692-699'},{id:"B7",body:'Stein PD, Kayali F, et al. Pulmonary thromboembolism in Asians/Pacific islanders in the United States: Analysis of data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey and the United States Bureau of the Census. The American Journal of Medicine. 2004;116:435-442'},{id:"B8",body:'Nakamura M, Yamada N, et al. Current management of venous thromboembolism in Japan: Current epidemiology and advances in anticoagulant therapy. Journal of Cardiology. 2015;66:451-459'},{id:"B9",body:'Blom JW, Doggen CJ, et al. Malignancies, prothrombotic mutations, and the risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA. 2005;293:715-722'},{id:"B10",body:'Khorana AA, Francis CW, et al. Thromboembolism in hospitalized neutropenic cancer patients. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2006;24:484-490'},{id:"B11",body:'Khorana AA, Francis CW, et al. Risk factors for chemotherapy-associated venous thromboembolism in a prospective observational study. Cancer. 2005;104:2822-2829'},{id:"B12",body:'Al AD. Cancer-related venous thromboembolism: Insight into underestimated risk factors. Hematology Oncology and Stem Cell Therapy. 2010;3:191-195'},{id:"B13",body:'Horsted F, West J, et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine. 2012;9:e1001275'},{id:"B14",body:'Dickmann B, Ahlbrecht J, et al. Regional lymph node metastases are a strong risk factor for venous thromboembolism: Results from the Vienna cancer and thrombosis study. Haematologica. 2013;98:1309-1314'},{id:"B15",body:'Blom JW, Osanto S, et al. The risk of a venous thrombotic event in lung cancer patients: Higher risk for adenocarcinoma than squamous cell carcinoma. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2004;2:1760-1765'},{id:"B16",body:'Mahajan A, Wun T, et al. Lymphoma and venous thromboembolism: Influence on mortality. Thrombosis Research. 2014;133(Suppl 2):S23-S28'},{id:"B17",body:'Caruso V, Di Castelnuvo A, et al. Thrombotic complications in adult patients with lymphoma: A meta-analysis of 29 independent cohorts including 18 018 patients and 1149 events. Blood. 2010;115:5322-5328'},{id:"B18",body:'Available from: http://j-circ.or.jp/guideline/pdf/JCS2017_ito_h.pdf#search=%27'},{id:"B19",body:'Agnelli G, Bolis G, et al. A clinical outcome-based prospective study on venous thromboembolism after cancer surgery. The @RISTOS project. Annals of Surgery. 2006;243:89-95'},{id:"B20",body:'Verso M, Agnelli G. Venous thromboembolism associated with long-term use of central venous catheters in cancer patients. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2003;21:3665-3675'},{id:"B21",body:'Khorana AA, Kuderer MM, et al. Development and validation of a predictive model for chemotherapy-associated thrombosis. Blood. 2008;111:4902-4907'},{id:"B22",body:'Granger JM, Kontoyiannis DP. Etiology and outcome of extreme leukocytosis in 758 nonhematologic cancer patients: A retrospective, single-institution study. Cancer. 2009;115:3919-3923'},{id:"B23",body:'Kasuga I, Makino S, et al. Tumor-related leukocytosis is linked with poor prognosis in patients with lung carcinoma. Cancer. 2001;92:2399-2405'},{id:"B24",body:'Olsson AK, Cedervall J. NETosis in cancer - platelet-neutrophil crosstalk promotes tumor-associated pathology. Frontiers in Immunology. 2016;21:373'},{id:"B25",body:'Massberg S, Grahl L, et al. Reciprocal coupling of coagulation and innate immunity via neutrophil serine proteases. Nature Medicine. 2010;16:887-896'},{id:"B26",body:'Jensvoll H, Blix K, et al. Platelet count measured prior to cancer development is a risk factor for future symptomatic venous thromboembolism: The Tromsø study. PLoS One. 2014;9:e92011'},{id:"B27",body:'Simanek R, Vormittag R, et al. High platelet count associated with venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: Results from the Vienna cancer and thrombosis study (CATS). Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2010;8:114-120'},{id:"B28",body:'Riedl J, Hell L. Association of platelet activation markers with cancer-associated venous thromboembolism. Platelets. 2016;27:80-85'},{id:"B29",body:'Poruk KE, Firpo MA, et al. Serum platelet factor 4 is an independent predictor of survival and venous thromboembolism in patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2010;19:2605-2610'},{id:"B30",body:'Khorana AA, Adhrendt SA, et al. Tissue factor expression, angiogenesis, and thrombosis in pancreatic cancer. Clinical Cancer Research. 2007;13:2870-2875'},{id:"B31",body:'Khorana AA, Francis CW, et al. Plasma tissue factor may be predictive of venous thromboembolism in pancreatic cancer. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2008;6:1983-1985'},{id:"B32",body:'Suzuki-Inoue K, Inoue O, et al. Novel platelet activation receptor CLEC-2: From discovery to prospects. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2011;9(S1):44-55'},{id:"B33",body:'Watson SP, Herbert JM, et al. GPVI and CLEC-2 in hemostasis and vascular integrity. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2010;8:1456-1467'},{id:"B34",body:'Riedl J, Preusser M, et al. Podoplanin expression in primary brain tumors induces platelet aggregation and increases risk of venous thromboembolism. Blood. 2017;129:1831-1839'},{id:"B35",body:'Ay C, Simanek R, et al. High plasma levels of soluble P-selectin are predictive of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: Results from the Vienna cancer and thrombosis study (CATS). Blood. 2008;112:2703-2708'},{id:"B36",body:'Thomas GM, Panicot-Dubois L, et al. Cancer cell-derived microparticles bearing P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 accelerate thrombus formation in vivo. The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2009;206:913-1927'},{id:"B37",body:'Andren-Sandberg A, Lecander I, et al. Peaks in plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 concentration may explain thrombotic events in cases of pancreatic carcinoma. Cancer. 1992;69:2884-2887'},{id:"B38",body:'Chen N, Ren M, et al. Bevacizumab promotes venous thromboembolism through the induction of PAI-1 in a mouse xenograft model of human lung carcinoma. Molecular Cancer. 2015;14:1-7'},{id:"B39",body:'Lloyd-Jones DM, Hong Y, et al. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: The American Heart Association’s strategic impact goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 2010;121:586-613'},{id:"B40",body:'Mahmoodi BK, Cushman M, et al. Association of traditional cardiovascular risk factors with venous thromboembolism: An individual participant data meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation. 2017;135:7-16'},{id:"B41",body:'Lindstrom S, Germain M, et al. Assessing the causal relationship between obesity and venous thromboembolism through a Mendelian randomization study. Human Genetics. 2017;136:897-902'},{id:"B42",body:'Hansen-Krone IJ, Enga KF, et al. High fish plus fish oil intake is associated with slightly reduced risk of venous thromboembolism: The Tromsø study. The Journal of Nutrition. 2014;144:861-867'},{id:"B43",body:'Steffen LM, Folsom AR, et al. Greater fish, fruit, and vegetable intakes are related to lower incidence of venous thromboembolism: The longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Circulation. 2007;115:188-195'},{id:"B44",body:'Ammollo CT, Semeraro F, et al. Grape intake reduces thrombin generation and enhances plasma fibrinolysis. Potential role of circulating procoagulant microparticles. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 2017;50:66-73'},{id:"B45",body:'Rahamon SK, Fabian UA, et al. Changes in mediators of inflammation and pro-thrombosis after 12 months of dietary modification in adults with metabolic syndrome. African Health Sciences. 2017;17:453-462'},{id:"B46",body:'Lutsey PL, Steffen LM, et al. Diet and incident venous thromboembolism: The Iowa Women\'s health study. American Heart Journal. 2009;157:1081-1087'},{id:"B47",body:'Harrington LB, Hagan KA, et al. Alcohol consumption and the risk of incident pulmonary embolism in US women and men. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2018;16:1753-1762'},{id:"B48",body:'Inoue M, Sawada N, et al. Attributable causes of cancer in Japan in 2005--systematic assessment to estimate current burden of cancer attributable to known preventable risk factors in Japan. Annals of Oncology. 2012;23:1362-1369'},{id:"B49",body:'Available from: https://www.wcrf.org/dietandcancer/interactive-cancer-risk-matrix'},{id:"B50",body:'LoConte NK, Brewster AM, et al. Alcohol and cancer: A statement of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2018;36:83-93'},{id:"B51",body:'Poschl G, Seitz HK. Alcohol and cancer. Alcohol and Alcoholism. 2004;39:155-165'},{id:"B52",body:'Available from: https://monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/mono100E-6.pdf#search=%27IRAC、2009%2C+smoking%27'},{id:"B53",body:'Rothwell PM, Wilson M, et al. Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: 20-year follow-up of five randomized trials. Lancet. 2010;376:1741-1750'},{id:"B54",body:'Rothwell PM, Fowkes FG, et al. Effect of daily aspirin on long-term risk of death due to cancer: Analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials. Lancet. 2011;377:31-41'},{id:"B55",body:'Rothwell PM, Wilson M, et al. Effect of daily aspirin on risk of cancer metastasis: A study of incident cancers during randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2012;379:1591-1601'},{id:"B56",body:'Santilli F, Boccatonda A, et al. Aspirin, platelets, and cancer: The point of view of the internist. European Journal of Internal Medicine. 2016;34:11-20'},{id:"B57",body:'Yokoyama K, Ishizuka N, et al. Effects of daily aspirin on cancer incidence and mortality in the elderly Japanese. Research and Practice in Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2018;2:274-281'},{id:"B58",body:'McNeil JJ, Nelson MR, et al. Effect of aspirin on all-cause mortality in the healthy elderly. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2018;379:1519-1528'},{id:"B59",body:'Bowman L, Mafham M, et al. Effects of aspirin for primary prevention in persons with diabetes mellitus. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2018;379:1529-1539'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kenji Yokoyama",address:"yk092750@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp",affiliation:'
Department of Hematology/Oncology, Tokai University Hachioji, Hachioji, Japan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"72998",title:"Neural Control of Homeostatic Feeding and Food Selection",slug:"neural-control-of-homeostatic-feeding-and-food-selection",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yasuhiko Minokoshi",authors:[{id:"316613",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhiko",middleName:null,surname:"Minokoshi",fullName:"Yasuhiko Minokoshi",slug:"yasuhiko-minokoshi"}]},{id:"72366",title:"Neural Mechanisms of Feeding Behavior and Its Disorders",slug:"neural-mechanisms-of-feeding-behavior-and-its-disorders",totalDownloads:124,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hisao Nishijo and Taketoshi Ono",authors:[{id:"195251",title:"Prof.",name:"Hisao",middleName:null,surname:"Nishijo",fullName:"Hisao Nishijo",slug:"hisao-nishijo"},{id:"316631",title:"Prof.",name:"Taketoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ono",fullName:"Taketoshi Ono",slug:"taketoshi-ono"}]},{id:"71991",title:"Glucose or Sucrose Intakes and Plasma Levels of Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids",slug:"glucose-or-sucrose-intakes-and-plasma-levels-of-essential-and-nonessential-amino-acids",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Akikazu Takada, Fumiko Shimizu, Yukie Ishii, Mutsumi Ogawa and Tetsuya Takao",authors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada"},{id:"258324",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumiko",middleName:null,surname:"Shimizu",fullName:"Fumiko Shimizu",slug:"fumiko-shimizu"},{id:"258579",title:"Prof.",name:"Yukie",middleName:null,surname:"Ishii",fullName:"Yukie Ishii",slug:"yukie-ishii"},{id:"258580",title:"Prof.",name:"Mutsumi",middleName:null,surname:"Ogawa",fullName:"Mutsumi Ogawa",slug:"mutsumi-ogawa"},{id:"258581",title:"Prof.",name:"Tetsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Takao",fullName:"Tetsuya Takao",slug:"tetsuya-takao"}]},{id:"72055",title:"Mechanism of Thrombus Formation in Regard to Diet",slug:"mechanism-of-thrombus-formation-in-regard-to-diet",totalDownloads:148,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Shinya Goto",authors:[{id:"316667",title:"Prof.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Shinya Goto",slug:"shinya-goto"}]},{id:"73740",title:"Effects and Issues of Diet Fat on Cardiovascular Metabolism",slug:"effects-and-issues-of-diet-fat-on-cardiovascular-metabolism",totalDownloads:73,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yasuhiro Nishikawa",authors:[{id:"316622",title:"M.D.",name:"Yasuhiro",middleName:null,surname:"Nishikawa",fullName:"Yasuhiro Nishikawa",slug:"yasuhiro-nishikawa"}]},{id:"72102",title:"Etiology of Cancer Associated Thromboembolism (CAT), and Diet, Lifestyle and Medicine to Reduce Cancer and Venous Thromboembolism",slug:"etiology-of-cancer-associated-thromboembolism-cat-and-diet-lifestyle-and-medicine-to-reduce-cancer-a",totalDownloads:157,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kenji Yokoyama",authors:[{id:"316711",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Yokoyama",fullName:"Kenji Yokoyama",slug:"kenji-yokoyama"}]},{id:"72735",title:"Metabolic Syndrome and Pathogenesis of Obesity-Related Adverse Outcomes in Pregnancy",slug:"metabolic-syndrome-and-pathogenesis-of-obesity-related-adverse-outcomes-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:138,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Motoi Sugimura",authors:[{id:"317110",title:"Prof.",name:"Motoi",middleName:null,surname:"Sugimura",fullName:"Motoi Sugimura",slug:"motoi-sugimura"}]},{id:"73137",title:"Significance of Trans Fatty Acids and Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Japanese Men with Coronary Heart Disease",slug:"significance-of-trans-fatty-acids-and-omega-3-fatty-acids-in-japanese-men-with-coronary-heart-diseas",totalDownloads:185,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Shinji Koba, Tetsuya Takao, Fumiko Shimizu, Mutsumi Ogawa, Yuuya Yokota, Fumiyoshi Tsunoda, Ken Arai, Toshiro Shinke and Akikazu Takada",authors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada"},{id:"258324",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumiko",middleName:null,surname:"Shimizu",fullName:"Fumiko Shimizu",slug:"fumiko-shimizu"},{id:"258580",title:"Prof.",name:"Mutsumi",middleName:null,surname:"Ogawa",fullName:"Mutsumi Ogawa",slug:"mutsumi-ogawa"},{id:"258581",title:"Prof.",name:"Tetsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Takao",fullName:"Tetsuya Takao",slug:"tetsuya-takao"},{id:"84834",title:"Prof.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Koba",fullName:"Shinji Koba",slug:"shinji-koba"},{id:"317481",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuuya",middleName:null,surname:"Yokota",fullName:"Yuuya Yokota",slug:"yuuya-yokota"},{id:"325459",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunoda",fullName:"Fumiyoshi Tsunoda",slug:"fumiyoshi-tsunoda"},{id:"325460",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Arai",fullName:"Ken Arai",slug:"ken-arai"},{id:"325461",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiro",middleName:null,surname:"Shinke",fullName:"Toshiro Shinke",slug:"toshiro-shinke"}]},{id:"72172",title:"Metabolic Programming and Nutrition",slug:"metabolic-programming-and-nutrition",totalDownloads:113,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Poliana Guiomar de Almeida Brasiel and Sheila Cristina Potente Dutra Luquetti",authors:[{id:"317245",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Poliana Guiomar",middleName:null,surname:"Brasiel",fullName:"Poliana Guiomar Brasiel",slug:"poliana-guiomar-brasiel"},{id:"319615",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sheila Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Potente Dutra Luquetti",fullName:"Sheila Cristina Potente Dutra Luquetti",slug:"sheila-cristina-potente-dutra-luquetti"}]},{id:"71488",title:"Acidosis and Anion Gap",slug:"acidosis-and-anion-gap",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Md. Masudul Hassan",authors:[{id:"313410",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Masudul",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Md. Masudul Hassan",slug:"md.-masudul-hassan"}]},{id:"72321",title:"Regulatory Functions of α-Amylase in the Small Intestine Other than Starch Digestion: α-Glucosidase Activity, Glucose Absorption, Cell Proliferation, and Differentiation",slug:"regulatory-functions-of-amylase-in-the-small-intestine-other-than-starch-digestion-glucosidase-activ",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kimie Date",authors:[{id:"241226",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kimie",middleName:null,surname:"Date",fullName:"Kimie Date",slug:"kimie-date"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"497",title:"Soybean and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11aa0c9ed0f6ea8da765be93b50954bb",slug:"soybean-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"19972",title:"Nutritional Value of Soybean Meal",slug:"nutritional-value-of-soybean-meal",signatures:"Teresa Banaszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"51014",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Banaszkiewicz",fullName:"Teresa Banaszkiewicz",slug:"teresa-banaszkiewicz"}]},{id:"19973",title:"Soy as a Functional Food",slug:"soy-as-a-functional-food",signatures:"Jocelem Mastrodi Salgado and Carlos M. Donado-Pestana",authors:[{id:"47486",title:"Dr.",name:"Jocelem",middleName:null,surname:"Mastrodi Salgado",fullName:"Jocelem Mastrodi Salgado",slug:"jocelem-mastrodi-salgado"},{id:"68007",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Donado-Pestana",fullName:"Carlos Mario Donado-Pestana",slug:"carlos-mario-donado-pestana"}]},{id:"19974",title:"Use of Soybean in Cereal Based Food Formulation and Development of Nutritionally Improved Foods",slug:"use-of-soybean-in-cereal-based-food-formulation-and-development-of-nutritionally-improved-foods",signatures:"Silvina R. Drago, María S. Lassa, Roberto L. Torres, Dardo M. De Greef and Rolando J. González",authors:[{id:"46159",title:"Prof.",name:"Rolando",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"Rolando González",slug:"rolando-gonzalez"},{id:"51227",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Drago",fullName:"Silvina Rosa Drago",slug:"silvina-rosa-drago"},{id:"51228",title:"MSc.",name:"María Silvina",middleName:null,surname:"Lassa",fullName:"María Silvina Lassa",slug:"maria-silvina-lassa"},{id:"51229",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Roberto Luis Torres",slug:"roberto-luis-torres"},{id:"51230",title:"Mr.",name:"Dardo Mario",middleName:null,surname:"De Greef",fullName:"Dardo Mario De Greef",slug:"dardo-mario-de-greef"}]},{id:"19975",title:"Phytase: An Enzyme to Improve Soybean Nutrition",slug:"phytase-an-enzyme-to-improve-soybean-nutrition",signatures:"Xin Gen Lei and Jesus M. Porres",authors:[{id:"37513",title:"Prof.",name:"XINGEN",middleName:null,surname:"LEI",fullName:"XINGEN LEI",slug:"xingen-lei"},{id:"45337",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Porres",fullName:"Jesus Porres",slug:"jesus-porres"}]},{id:"19976",title:"Utilization of Soybean as Food Stuffs in Korea",slug:"utilization-of-soybean-as-food-stuffs-in-korea",signatures:"Dong Hwa Shin",authors:[{id:"45642",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Hwa",middleName:null,surname:"Shin",fullName:"Dong-Hwa Shin",slug:"dong-hwa-shin"}]},{id:"19977",title:"Soybean Meal Quality and Analytical Techniques",slug:"soybean-meal-quality-and-analytical-techniques",signatures:"W. A. Dozier, III and J. B. Hess",authors:[{id:"55833",title:"Dr.",name:"W. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dozier, Iii",fullName:"W. A. Dozier, Iii",slug:"w.-a.-dozier-iii"},{id:"136330",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph B. (Joe)",middleName:null,surname:"Hess",fullName:"Joseph B. (Joe) Hess",slug:"joseph-b.-(joe)-hess"}]},{id:"19978",title:"Advances in Soybean and Soybean By-Products in Monogastric Nutrition and Health",slug:"advances-in-soybean-and-soybean-by-products-in-monogastric-nutrition-and-health",signatures:"Samuel N. Nahashon and Agnes K. Kilonzo-Nthenge",authors:[{id:"41915",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"N.",surname:"Nahashon",fullName:"Samuel Nahashon",slug:"samuel-nahashon"},{id:"48133",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnes",middleName:null,surname:"Kilonzo-Nthenge",fullName:"Agnes Kilonzo-Nthenge",slug:"agnes-kilonzo-nthenge"}]},{id:"19979",title:"Soya, Human Nutrition and Health",slug:"soya-human-nutrition-and-health",signatures:"Sylvia Burssens, Ine Pertry, Delphin Diasolua Ngudi, Yu-Haey Kuo, Marc Van Montagu and Fernand Lambein",authors:[{id:"45563",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernand",middleName:null,surname:"Lambein",fullName:"Fernand Lambein",slug:"fernand-lambein"},{id:"46725",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Burssens",fullName:"Sylvia Burssens",slug:"sylvia-burssens"},{id:"46726",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Ingelbrecht",fullName:"Ivan Ingelbrecht",slug:"ivan-ingelbrecht"},{id:"46727",title:"Dr.",name:"Delphin",middleName:null,surname:"Diasolua Ngudi",fullName:"Delphin Diasolua Ngudi",slug:"delphin-diasolua-ngudi"},{id:"46728",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Haey",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",fullName:"Yu-Haey Kuo",slug:"yu-haey-kuo"}]},{id:"19980",title:"Feeds with Probiotics in Animals’ Nutrition",slug:"feeds-with-probiotics-in-animals-nutrition",signatures:"Joanna Biernasiak, Katarzyna Śliżewska and Zdzisława Libudzisz",authors:[{id:"39929",title:"Dr.",name:"Biernasiak",middleName:null,surname:"Joanna",fullName:"Biernasiak Joanna",slug:"biernasiak-joanna"},{id:"46832",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Slizewska",fullName:"Katarzyna Slizewska",slug:"katarzyna-slizewska"},{id:"46833",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdzisława",middleName:null,surname:"Libudzisz",fullName:"Zdzisława Libudzisz",slug:"zdzislawa-libudzisz"}]},{id:"19981",title:"Using Exogenous Enzymes to Increase the Nutritional Value of Soybean Meal in Poultry Diet",slug:"using-exogenous-enzymes-to-increase-the-nutritional-value-of-soybean-meal-in-poultry-diet",signatures:"Tuoying Ao",authors:[{id:"34231",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuoying",middleName:null,surname:"Ao",fullName:"Tuoying Ao",slug:"tuoying-ao"}]},{id:"19982",title:"Soybean Peptide: Novel Plant Growth Promoting Peptide from Soybean",slug:"soybean-peptide-novel-plant-growth-promoting-peptide-from-soybean",signatures:"Yoshiki Matsumiya and Motoki Kubo",authors:[{id:"33767",title:"Prof.",name:"Motoki",middleName:null,surname:"Kubo",fullName:"Motoki Kubo",slug:"motoki-kubo"},{id:"46758",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumiya",fullName:"Yoshiki Matsumiya",slug:"yoshiki-matsumiya"}]},{id:"19983",title:"Dietary Effect of Soybean (Glycine max) Products on Gut Histology and Microbiota of Fish",slug:"dietary-effect-of-soybean-glycine-max-products-on-gut-histology-and-microbiota-of-fish",signatures:"Daniel L. Merrifield, Rolf Erik Olsen, Reidar Myklebust and Einar Ringø",authors:[{id:"37424",title:"Prof.",name:"Einar",middleName:null,surname:"Ringø",fullName:"Einar Ringø",slug:"einar-ringo"},{id:"37436",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Merrifield",fullName:"Daniel Merrifield",slug:"daniel-merrifield"},{id:"91338",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolf Erik",middleName:null,surname:"Olsen",fullName:"Rolf Erik Olsen",slug:"rolf-erik-olsen"},{id:"91341",title:"Prof.",name:"Reidar",middleName:null,surname:"Myklebust",fullName:"Reidar Myklebust",slug:"reidar-myklebust"}]},{id:"19984",title:"Soybean Oil in Horses’ Diets",slug:"soybean-oil-in-horses-diets",signatures:"Fernando Queiroz de Almeida and Fernanda Nascimento de Godoi",authors:[{id:"44613",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",fullName:"Fernando Almeida",slug:"fernando-almeida"},{id:"44618",title:"MSc",name:"Fernanda",middleName:"Nascimento",surname:"Godoi",fullName:"Fernanda Godoi",slug:"fernanda-godoi"}]},{id:"19985",title:"Effect of Maternal Selenium and Methionine on Poultry Products (Egg and Meat) Qualities and Oxidative Stability",slug:"effect-of-maternal-selenium-and-methionine-on-poultry-products-egg-and-meat-qualities-and-oxidative-",signatures:"D. J. Wu, X. J. Pan, Z. G. Wang, Z. Q. Peng, L. Y. Zhao and Y. W. Zhang",authors:[{id:"32984",title:"Dr.",name:"zengqi",middleName:null,surname:"peng",fullName:"zengqi peng",slug:"zengqi-peng"},{id:"111670",title:"MSc.",name:"wu",middleName:null,surname:"Dingjing",fullName:"wu Dingjing",slug:"wu-dingjing"}]},{id:"19986",title:"Soy and Soy-Based Foods: Role in Health and Nutrition",slug:"soy-and-soy-based-foods-role-in-health-and-nutrition",signatures:"Ana Villares, Ana García-Lafuente, Irene Palacios, Miguel Lozano, Carlos Moro and Eva Guillamón",authors:[{id:"30083",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Villares",fullName:"Ana Villares",slug:"ana-villares"},{id:"46183",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Lafuente",fullName:"Ana García-Lafuente",slug:"ana-garcia-lafuente"},{id:"46184",title:"Ms.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Palacios",fullName:"Irene Palacios",slug:"irene-palacios"},{id:"46185",title:"Mr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano",fullName:"Miguel Lozano",slug:"miguel-lozano"},{id:"46186",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moro",fullName:"Carlos Moro",slug:"carlos-moro"},{id:"46187",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Guillamón",fullName:"Eva Guillamón",slug:"eva-guillamon"}]},{id:"19987",title:"“Okara” a New Preparation of Food Material with Antioxidant Activity and Dietary Fiber from Soybean",slug:"-okara-a-new-preparation-of-food-material-with-antioxidant-activity-and-dietary-fiber-from-soybean",signatures:"Kohei Suruga, Akihisa Kato, Kazunari Kadokura, Wataru Hiruma, Yoshihiro Sekino, C. A. Tony Buffington and Yasuhiho Komatsu",authors:[{id:"32686",title:"Dr.",name:"Kohei",middleName:null,surname:"Suruga",fullName:"Kohei Suruga",slug:"kohei-suruga"},{id:"136354",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihisa",middleName:null,surname:"Kato",fullName:"Akihisa Kato",slug:"akihisa-kato"},{id:"136355",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazunari",middleName:null,surname:"Kadokura",fullName:"Kazunari Kadokura",slug:"kazunari-kadokura"},{id:"136356",title:"Prof.",name:"Wataru",middleName:null,surname:"Hiruma",fullName:"Wataru Hiruma",slug:"wataru-hiruma"},{id:"136357",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sekino",fullName:"Yoshihiro Sekino",slug:"yoshihiro-sekino"},{id:"136358",title:"PhD.",name:"Tony",middleName:null,surname:"Buffington",fullName:"Tony Buffington",slug:"tony-buffington"},{id:"136359",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhiho",middleName:null,surname:"Komatsu",fullName:"Yasuhiho Komatsu",slug:"yasuhiho-komatsu"}]},{id:"19988",title:"Soybean: Friend or Foe",slug:"soybean-friend-or-foe",signatures:"Cristina M. Sena and Raquel M. Seiça",authors:[{id:"33878",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Sena",fullName:"Cristina Sena",slug:"cristina-sena"},{id:"45039",title:"Prof.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Seiça",fullName:"Raquel Seiça",slug:"raquel-seica"}]},{id:"19989",title:"Metabolism of α- Linolenic Acid (ALA) in Meat Animals",slug:"metabolism-of-linolenic-acid-ala-in-meat-animals",signatures:"Pilar Teresa Garcia",authors:[{id:"33493",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Pilar Teresa Garcia",slug:"pilar-teresa-garcia"}]},{id:"19990",title:"Soya Bean Meal and Its Extensive Use in Livestock Feeding and Nutrition",slug:"soya-bean-meal-and-its-extensive-use-in-livestock-feeding-and-nutrition",signatures:"Yulong Yin, Andrew A. Fatufe and Francois Blachier",authors:[{id:"32700",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Yin",fullName:"Yulong Yin",slug:"yulong-yin"},{id:"136352",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Fatufe",fullName:"Andrew Fatufe",slug:"andrew-fatufe"},{id:"136353",title:"Prof.",name:"Francois",middleName:null,surname:"Blachier",fullName:"Francois Blachier",slug:"francois-blachier"}]},{id:"19991",title:"Soybean and Allergy",slug:"soybean-and-allergy",signatures:"Keiji Sugiura and Mariko Sugiura",authors:[{id:"32619",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiji",middleName:null,surname:"Sugiura",fullName:"Keiji Sugiura",slug:"keiji-sugiura"},{id:"32625",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariko",middleName:null,surname:"Sugiura",fullName:"Mariko Sugiura",slug:"mariko-sugiura"}]},{id:"19992",title:"Soybean: Food or Remedy?",slug:"soybean-food-or-remedy-",signatures:"Sandra Maria Barbalho and Flávia, M. V. Farinazzi-Machado",authors:[{id:"32415",title:"Dr",name:"Sandra",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Barbalho",fullName:"Sandra Barbalho",slug:"sandra-barbalho"},{id:"33325",title:"MSc",name:"Flávia",middleName:"Maria Vasques",surname:"Farinazzi-Machado",fullName:"Flávia Farinazzi-Machado",slug:"flavia-farinazzi-machado"}]},{id:"19993",title:"Soybean the Main Nitrogen Source in Cultivation Substrates of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms",slug:"soybean-the-main-nitrogen-source-in-cultivation-substrates-of-edible-and-medicinal-mushrooms",signatures:"Diego Cunha Zied, Jean-Michel Savoie and Arturo Pardo-Giménez",authors:[{id:"29145",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Zied",fullName:"Diego Zied",slug:"diego-zied"},{id:"45408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Savoie",fullName:"Jean-Michel Savoie",slug:"jean-michel-savoie"},{id:"45409",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Pardo-Giménez",fullName:"Arturo Pardo-Giménez",slug:"arturo-pardo-gimenez"}]},{id:"19994",title:"Assessing Compositional Differences in Soy Products and Impacts on Health Claims",slug:"assessing-compositional-differences-in-soy-products-and-impacts-on-health-claims",signatures:"Joyce Boye and Sabine Ribéreau",authors:[{id:"29137",title:"Dr.",name:"Joyce",middleName:null,surname:"Boye",fullName:"Joyce Boye",slug:"joyce-boye"},{id:"136334",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabine",middleName:null,surname:"Ribéreau",fullName:"Sabine Ribéreau",slug:"sabine-ribereau"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"62430",title:"On the Origin of the Value of Cryptocurrencies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79451",slug:"on-the-origin-of-the-value-of-cryptocurrencies",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Bitcoin is based on three technologies: the Internet, encryption methods, and the new blockchain technology. Unlike these technologies, the Bitcoin revolution was both a technological revolution and a monetary one. It completely changed the monetary world, and it seems that its invention opened a Pandora box, whose effect cannot be underestimated or predicted. Since its inception in 2009, the Bitcoin project had many opponents, and like any successful project, their number increases gradually.
\n
It is not very surprising to hear criticism from the industries and organization, which feel intimidated by the new invention. One would expect to find criticism from leaders in the banking industries, the insurance, and investment industries and, of course, from politicians. It is not even surprising to find criticism in the academic world, since, after all, one of the main tasks of the academic world is to instill past knowledge into the future generation and to be skeptical of new ideas.
\n
On the other hand, since Bitcoin is a decentralized technology, it was warmly adopted by anarchist organizations worldwide [1, 2, 3], but for similar reasons, it was attacked by many others [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Some attacked the Bitcoin from the fear of shaking the current centers of powers, but most attacked it out of ignorance. Strangely enough, even in the libertarian community, which in general embraced the new currency, there are some that used allegedly Austrian economics arguments to debunk the foundation of the Bitcoin economy [10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
\n
In general, we encounter two strategies to attack Bitcoin: (1) presenting multiple minor or even clearly erroneous arguments. Consequently, the arguments keep reappearing, despite the fact that they are constantly refuted. And (2) using fundamental economic laws to allegedly demonstrate that Bitcoin does not possess the essential properties of money.
\n
The object of the chapter is twofold: (1) to present and refute all the main arguments in a single chapter and (2) to utilize these arguments to reinvestigate the origin of the source of money in general and cryptocurrency in particular.
\n
So, let us begin with the simple arguments:
\n
\n
\n
2. Is Bitcoin a Ponzi scheme?
\n
The most common criticism against Bitcoin is that Bitcoin is actually a Ponzi scheme [7, 10]. Clearly, there is no resemblance between the two. A Ponzi scheme is a fraudulent investment operation. The investors are made to believe that they gain from the investment operation, while in fact, the money comes from new investment, that is, a Ponzi scheme is a pyramid fraud.
\n
While some cryptocurrencies or tokens do seem to be a Ponzi scheme, Bitcoin is definitely not. Everything about Bitcoin: its algorithm, its network, and its development projects are completely transparent. The network, the mining process, and the entire project are all decentralized. There are no managers, no organizers, and no control. Therefore, there could be no fraud.
\n
Bitcoin does not even have a pyramid structure. An investor in Bitcoin can make a profit by selling it at a higher price, just like in any other trade. Unlike pyramid structures, the owner of Bitcoins does not have to convince multiple people to invest in order to make a profit.
\n
It is true that in both cases, the first investors gain more than the last ones, and that their profit rises with the number of traders. However, by the law of demand, it is clear that the price rises with the increase in demand, that is, the price increases with the number of buyers. This is valid for any commodity, and Bitcoin is no exception. This is definitely not a pyramid structure’s fingerprint. Moreover, the whole network structure is different. A pyramid is a centralized structure, where there is a clear asymmetry between investors and all profits eventually dissipate toward the founders of the pyramid (this is a “top-down” business model). Bitcoin is a decentralized network, where all the Bitcoins’ owners have the same status. Moreover, the founders of a crypto network may not even own a share in this network, or they can sell their share, if they have one (like Charlie Lee, the founder of the Litecoin network, who recently sold all his Litecoins).
\n
\n
\n
3. Bitcoin is a bubble
\n
Another common criticism is that Bitcoin and the other cryptocurrencies are a bubble [4, 6, 8]. This claim is not a very informative one. What does it mean? Does it mean that the Bitcoin price is too high? In a free market, the price is always right. If there is something “wrong” with the price, then it means that the market is not really free. When there is a housing bubble, it does not mean that there is something wrong with the houses, or that the sellers are greedier than they usually are, but it does mean that the government manipulates the interest rate and subsidizes bad mortgages, etc.
\n
Therefore, any “bubble” claim is actually not a criticism against Bitcoin, but a claim against something external to its network—probably against governments. If everyone buys cryptocurrencies, it is probably because the public has no other investment channels. The banking interest is practically zero; the stock market is too high after 10 consecutive years of rising prices; and the housing market is recovering from the latest collapse. The fact that Bitcoin is in a state of a bubble, whatever that means, cannot be used as evidence to the argument that Bitcoin is worthless.
\n
As Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote, “For whenever we test anything, we are already presupposing something that is not tested.” Similarly, when one believes the price of Bitcoin is too high, he presupposes that Bitcoin has some value.
\n
\n
\n
4. Bitcoin yields no return
\n
Another repeating argument is that Bitcoin is not a real asset in the sense that it does not yield any return. Unlike stocks or real estates, which yield dividends and rents, Bitcoin does not “yield” anything. People purchase Bitcoin only to sell it later.
\n
But this is a strange argument, since, after all, money never yields return. A one-dollar note does not yield a return. It will be worth 1$ forever. Nevertheless, people “purchase” dollars only to “sell” them later for goods. This is exactly the function of money and the same applies to Bitcoin.
\n
\n
\n
5. The Bitcoin’s volatility
\n
One very common attack on Bitcoin is that it must be useless as money (or currency) since it has very high volatility [12, 13].
\n
Clearly, if an asset’s value is very volatile, then it is less likely to be adopted as a unit of account, which is one of the properties of money. However, it should not considerably affect its prospects to be used as a medium of exchange. Even today, most Bitcoin transactions are quantified in US dollars, that is, in these transactions, Bitcoin is used as a medium of exchange, while the US dollar is used as a unit of account. However, it should be stressed that in these transactions, the dollar takes no role. Bitcoin is currently exploring a new territory, in which it is used as a medium of exchange, but yet to be used as a unit of account (on this discrepancy see Ref. [15]).
\n
Moreover, the usage of the volatility criterion is useful only in close-to-equilibrium’s markets. In the case of Bitcoin, the price increases exponentially, which is a clear sign of a nonequilibrium scenario. Exponential rise is an indication of a constant amplification process, which cannot occur in the vicinity of equilibria. In this case, it is clear that the volatility will increase exponentially as well. Therefore, there could be two options: (A) the approximately constant amplification process is close to its end, in which case the market will converge to a semiequilibrium state, and the volatility will decrease dramatically. (B) The constant amplification process is going to last for some time, in which case the value of Bitcoin will continue to rise dramatically.
\n
Therefore, in both cases, the attractiveness of Bitcoin will increase, and in any case, the high volatility in an exponentially growing process cannot be used as an argument for the claim that Bitcoin is worthless. It is only a sign that the crypto market is in its infancy stages.
\n
In an exponentially growing economy, the volatility should be evaluated in logarithmic scale, and in this scale, the Bitcoins’ volatility actually declines.
\n
\n
\n
6. The hoarding dilemma
\n
Another important claim is that Bitcoin is worthless as a medium of exchange because most people, who purchased it, hoard the coins [12, 13]. Since most people regard Bitcoin as a store of value and “Hodl” (the crypto nickname for hold) the coins, how can it be used as a medium of exchange? This claim is often heard even in the crypto community, where the holders are encouraged to exchange their coins with goods, that is, to sell and buy the coins repeatedly (e.g., Ivan Liljeqvist and Rick Falkvinge). However, the two properties of money are tightly linked. A good cannot be a store of value unless it is a medium of exchange and vice versa. How can an object be valuable, without the option of exchanging it for something else? How can something be a medium of exchange, unless it is valuable?
\n
Moreover, hoarding takes place only when people expect that the coins’ price will rise in the future. In this case, fewer coins are used in circulation and, as a consequence, their price increases. This is the mechanism that persuades the hoarders to part with their coins.
\n
\n
\n
7. A deflationary economy
\n
The hoarding dilemma is a very important point because it is related to another criticism: how can Bitcoin be used as a medium of exchange while being a deflationary currency? In a deflationary monetary economy, the argument continues, prices decrease perpetually, and therefore people have no incentive to buy anything, for they know that they will probably get it for less money in the future. In such an economy, consumption decreases, and the economy stagnates.
\n
There are several problems with this argument. First, there is a problem of definition. Bitcoin is an inflationary currency, not a deflationary one since the number of coins increases gradually. It is true, however, that its rate decreases, and eventually the total number of coins is limited (around 21 million). Consequently, in a progressing economy, which is based on Bitcoin, eventually, the Bitcoin inflation will be lower than the economy’s growth rate. In such an economy, the products’ prices will eventually decrease. This state is wrongly termed “deflationary” [16, 17]. However, and this brings us to the second misconception, there is nothing wrong with rising prices. In fact, the economic sectors, which experience decreasing prices, are the sectors with the highest growth rate. The computer industry belongs to this category. Computer prices perpetually decline for decades, while the industry is growing. Not only that people did not stop from buying computers, but computers’ sales are gradually increasing.
\n
People have needs, and as economists explain, they have a time preference, that is, they do not like to postpone gratifications [16, 17, 18]. If they need a computer, they will eventually buy it, and decreasing prices is a good incentive to make the purchase. Eventually, they will buy the computer.
\n
The third misconception is that saving is worse than spending and therefore people should be encouraged to spend their money. In fact, unlike the Keynesian thinking, over consumption is the enemy of economic growth. Clearly, people have to buy to encourage production; however, the economy cannot grow unless there is enough savings and investments. That is, as was explained by Hayek (in “the paradox of savings” [19]), when people save their money, they only postpone their consumption; they do not stop consumption altogether. Saving is a crucial ingredient in any economic growth, and therefore, there is nothing harmful in an economy with rising prices. In fact, at the end of the nineteenth century, when the American economy was based on the gold standard, the US experienced one of its best economic eras during a deflationary period [20, 21].
\n
Evidence shows that any economy will gain from a “deflationary” currency, such as Bitcoin (or even gold, for that matter). However, if, in the future, it will be clear that there are some benefits to inflationary currency, then there are many other coins, in which inflation is part of their algorithm, for which case there is no upper limit to the number of coins. Let the market decide on the best inflationary/deflationary algorithm.
\n
\n
\n
8. Bitcoin and the government
\n
There is a claim that governments may create a competitive coin to Bitcoin, and simultaneously, the governments can outlaw Bitcoin. Indeed, the government can create a token of its own, and it seems that some governments seriously think about such an enterprise [22, 23, 24]. However, it is not clear what would be their motives. If these governments intend to create simply a true decentralized competitor to Bitcoin, then they would face two problems: (1) a government would never be able to compete against the decentralization level of Bitcoin and (2) with a decentralized coin, the government would lose all its benefits of controlling the national currency, that is, by replacing fiat currency with cryptocurrency, the government literally kills the goose that lays golden eggs.
\n
If the government plans on creating a centralized coin (i.e., government-controlled currency), then it could not rely on the good reputation of decentralized coins. In this case, the government would encounter a great difficulty to sell the coin to the Bitcoin community (see what happens with the new Venezuela’s Petro).
\n
Governments can confront the problem differently, and it can try to ban Bitcoin. This is evidently possible de jure but not de facto. The more the government manipulates the currency, the more the people need cryptocurrencies (see, e.g., the case of Zimbabwe, India, and Venezuela).
\n
\n
\n
9. Technology-based money
\n
There is a good question regarding Bitcoin’s longevity. Bitcoin, the claim argues, is a technological invention. In principle, there is no reason that it would not be defeated by competing technologies. Unlike gold, which would exist forever, Bitcoin is a technology that changes in time. This is an interesting argument; however, in fact, this argument only emphasizes the similarities between gold and Bitcoin. Gold is here to stay, but so does Bitcoin. Actually, due to its decentralization, it would be extremely difficult to eliminate the entire Bitcoin blockchain. To achieve that, every copy of the blockchain should be erased. The chances of that are extremely low. Clearly, the value of the blockchain can decline substantially, but this is equivalent to a decline in the price of gold due to a lack of (technological or financial) interest. Therefore, gold is not better money than Bitcoin due to the fact that “while Bitcoin can be overthrown by competitive technologies, gold will exist forever.” In fact, they both will probably survive for a very long time, and both may lose their value due to competitive technologies, because, in its essence, gold is also a monetary technology.
\n
Having said that, it must be emphasized that a replacement of a monetary technology is a very challenging task. Financial markets are very conservative.
\n
Gold has no clear chemical advantage over (for example) platinum, palladium, or iridium, and the main reason that gold is preferred over these precious metals is its early adoption as a medium of exchange (possibly due to its unique yellowish color). It may be instructive to note that there have been several attempts in the history to replace gold with other metals (iron in Sparta, copper in Rome, and even silver in the US); however, these attempts did not affect the gold’s hegemony worldwide.
\n
The same thing applies to Bitcoin. Bitcoin enjoys the network effect due to its early adoption. The gold’s unique color and its plasticity made it relatively resistant to counterfeiting. However, gold counterfeiting is still possible (e.g., by covering tungsten with a layer of gold, because tungsten and gold have almost the same density), while Bitcoin cannot be counterfeited.
\n
\n
\n
10. Genuine scarcity
\n
This brings us to a well-known argument, that says that Bitcoin, like any other digital asset, is not scarce, and therefore can be repeatedly reproduced. The knowledgeable Bitcoin’s opponent, which uses this argument, does not mean that the number of Bitcoins can be increased ad infinitum. He means that the algorithm can be copied and an infinite amount of rival crypto networks can be created. In fact, during the writing of these lines, there are literally thousands of cryptocurrencies networks: Bitcoins, Ethereum, Ripple, Bitcoin Cash, Cardano, Litecoin, Stellar, NEO, EOS, and IOTA to mention only the first 10 within the highest market cap list. Moreover, each one of these coins can be forked to other coins. The original Bitcoin network was forked many times to Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold, Bitcoin diamond, Bitcoin segwit2x, etc.
\n
The argument is, therefore, that digital assets, like cryptocurrencies, can be even worse than fiat currencies, for while fiat currencies’ inflation is regulated by central banks, and the number of cryptocurrencies can be inflated uncontrollably. However, Bitcoin is not only an algorithm. Indeed, the cost of copying the algorithm is negligible. But Bitcoin is also a very secure network. Every new Bitcoin-clone does not benefit from the same level of security. The more computational power is invested in the network; the more secure the network is, and the more people would find it safe to invest their money in it.
\n
Bitcoin may lose its hegemony in the crypto sphere; however, as was explained above, it would be very difficult for new networks to pose a real threat to Bitcoin due to its proven high security and reliability.
\n
\n
\n
11. Bitcoin transactions are too slow and too expensive
\n
Recently, the Bitcoin adversaries took advantage of the heavy load on the Bitcoin network, which caused slow and high fee transactions, to claim that the Bitcoin does not deliver its promises—Bitcoin transactions are too slow and too expensive. Soon, they predict, the Bitcoin network will be so cumbersome, that transactions will become unfeasible, and the Bitcoin project will be abandoned. This is indeed a problem. But this is a technological problem and not a fundamental one. It may explain why the Bitcoin market dominance declines, but it can never be used to explain why Bitcoin should be worthless. Clearly, the Bitcoin developers are aware of these problems and work constantly to mitigate the harmful effects of the network load.
\n
Several technological improvements have been suggested and implemented (SegWit, lighting network, atomic swap, and even raising block size in a forked versions of Bitcoin).
\n
Moreover, there are countless other currencies, whose transactions are much quicker and cheaper, and yet their value is considerably lower than the value of the Bitcoin network. Despite the fact that the technology is yet in its infancy stages, and there are still numerous technological challenges, the value of Bitcoin keeps on growing.
\n
Therefore, these facts should be an argument for Bitcoin and not against it, because these problems show that the need for reliable decentralized currency in the modern markets is so high, that people keep purchasing it despite the high transaction costs (and despite the fact that there are low cost but less proven alternatives).
\n
\n
\n
12. Currencies backed by nothing
\n
A very popular argument against cryptocurrencies is that they are backed by nothing: “They are neither backed by gold nor are they backed by governments.”
\n
Clearly, these are two different arguments. President Nixon, in 1971, was responsible to complete the monetary experiment that began at 1944 with the Bretton Woods system. Since then, there is not a single fiat currency in the entire globe, which is backed by gold or by any other commodity. Hence, a commodity backup is not a crucial ingredient in the making of money. As for the second argument, what does it mean that the currency is backed by the government?
\n
Clearly, if the government backs its currency by forbidding the usage of other currencies (in its geographical territory), then it enforces a certain minimum value for the currency. However, not all governments can or do that. In most countries, the population can make economic transactions with many currencies. Most governments back their currencies by enforcing tax payment with them. Similarly, the governments pay their employees with the national currency. However, these conducts are equivalent to the presence of a rich man in a market, who declares that any economic transaction with him can take place only with a certain currency. As richer this man is, the higher will be the value of this currency. Clearly, a government is equivalent to a very rich man, but the differences are quantitative rather than qualitative ones.
\n
One of the most instructive examples in this regard is the Swiss dinars in northern Iraq during the gulf war [25]. This is a very interesting example, which vividly illustrates the fact that paper money can be used as a medium of exchange, despite the fact that it is backed neither by any commodity nor by any government.
\n
\n
\n
13. Dependence on the current monetary system
\n
An argument against Bitcoin, which was very common in its early years, is that Bitcoin is not a real medium of exchange because most traders, which accept Bitcoin, convert them to fiat currency almost immediately after the transaction.
\n
Nowadays, this argument is heard less since many sellers prefer Bitcoin over fiat money. They prefer spending their fiat money and receive and keep their cryptos. Moreover, nowadays many employees are paid in cryptocurrency.
\n
However, it is important to stress that whether the users of Bitcoin prefer to make an additional transaction after selling a product, that is, to convert the crypto to fiat, is irrelevant to the validity of Bitcoin as a medium of exchange. First, there is no praxeological difference between the exchange of Bitcoin with fiat and the exchange of Bitcoin with other goods. If a seller prefers to convert Bitcoin into fiat currencies, it only means that he had decided to use Bitcoin as a medium of exchange to purchase the fiat currencies. Moreover, one should not ignore the fact that the main reason that sellers prefer to convert their cryptos back into fiat is due to government regulations (mainly taxation) and has nothing to do with the fundamental monetary properties of Bitcoin.
\n
\n
\n
14. Bitcoin and economic calculations
\n
Some Austrian economists used the volatility problem and the last argument to claim that Bitcoin cannot be used for economic calculations. Since economic calculations are essential to any modern economy [16], it is futile, according to them, to replace the current fiat currency with Bitcoin. However, economic calculations can be made with any commodity. When a businessman has four bottles of wines, and he needs to choose between two production alternatives: one alternative that will eventually yield three additional bottles and a second one that will eventually yield five bottles, he will choose the latter. The same thing applies to Bitcoin. Crypto traders already practice this kind of economic calculations using Bitcoin.
\n
However, volatility is indeed a problem (mainly in intra-temporal calculations, i.e., interest rates), which prevents wide adoption. Nevertheless, as was explained above, the volatility gradually declines, and it is one of the infancy problems of Bitcoin, and it is not a fundamental one.
\n
\n
\n
15. Bitcoin and the division of labor
\n
Division of labor cannot exist in a nonmonetary economy. The presence of money drives people to specialize and increases their productivity beyond their personal needs. They can trade the surplus of their production in order to pursue higher gratifications (for the analysis of production in the presence of specialization, see Ref. [26]).
\n
Therefore, any adoption of Bitcoin as a medium of exchange should be accompanied by an upgrade of the division of labor. Is there any evidence for this?
\n
The problem is that it is almost impossible to attribute scientifically a specific improvement in the division of labor to a specific cause. However, it is clear that if a person prefers using Bitcoin than other currency, then he must have found it useful and more efficient for him. Therefore, this individual can spend the surplus time in further specialization.
\n
Consequently, in a free market, any unregulated usage of Bitcoin (or anything else for that matter) is a circumstantial evidence for upgrading the division of labor.
\n
\n
\n
16. Bitcoin and property rights
\n
Property rights are subtle issues. There is a fundamental claim that intangible objects, like digital assets or ideas, cannot be owned. The claim is based on the presumption that property rights and private ownership are essential to manage scarce resources in the real world. Thus, according to this view, only scarce resources (like, land, houses, gold, etc.) can be owned, while resources that are not scarce (like, ideas, patents, text, digital pictures, etc.) and that can be easily reproduced cannot be owned [27]. Bitcoin is a chimera, in that regard, since it is both digital, that is, intangible, and scarce. In fact, the essence of the blockchain technology is the creation of scarce digital assets. That is, the blockchain creates artificial scarcity.
\n
Therefore, despite the complex philosophical issue, I believe there is a consensus that Bitcoins can be owned, and property rights can and should be applied to it.
\n
There is a claim, however, that Bitcoin advocates ignore traditional property rights, contracts, and traditional legal systems, which were developed and refined for millennia [12].
\n
It is true that currently, it is easier to evade law enforcement using cryptocurrencies than using most bank transactions. The facts that there is nothing tangible in the Bitcoin network and that digital transactions can take place without the regulated banking system complicate law enforcement. However, on the one hand, it can be regarded as a technical difficulty, which may be solved using artificial intelligence technologies, and on the other hand, one may argue that these properties of the Bitcoin network only strengthen property rights, because they prevent government confiscation of private property (private money).
\n
Not only aren’t crypto networks against contracts, but also smart contracts are an integral part of these networks. The most well-known is the Ethereum network, but there are many more cryptocurrencies with this property (like Neo, EOS, Cardano, etc.), and even the Bitcoin network can support smart contracts (Mastercoin, Rootstock, Particl, etc.).
\n
Therefore, the blockchain technology eliminates the need for (external) law enforcement in some cases, because the contracts are enforced within the blockchain itself.
\n
In general, cryptocurrencies strengthen private property and property rights. They do not weaken them.
\n
\n
\n
17. Bitcoin and crime
\n
Some politicians and economists believe that Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies have no value to society since most of their users are outlaws and criminals [28].
\n
For one thing, one has to make a distinction between the different cryptocurrencies. Most of the criminal activity was transferred from the Bitcoin network to the more private cryptos (such as Monero, Zcash, Verge, etc.) since transactions in the Bitcoin network can be traced.
\n
Moreover, most of the illegal trade that takes place on the Internet belongs to the category of victimless crimes (like drugs, gambling, and tax evasion), whose prohibition is disputed.
\n
In any case, the illegal activities that take place on the network only emphasize the fact that the crypto networks are valuable for at least some of the people, and in a market economy, when a commodity is valuable for some of the people, then it is valuable to the entire economy.
\n
\n
\n
18. Bitcoin and egalitarianism
\n
There is a claim that a Bitcoin-based economy would increase wealth inequality. This argument is based on the fact that most of the Bitcoin wealth is concentrated in a minuscule amount of Bitcoin addresses [29]. But clearly, wallets and addresses are not persons. Almost every user holds several wallets, and a wallet can and does generate multiple addresses mainly for privacy reasons.
\n
This argument suffers from an additional fallacy: the distribution of money in a population does not determine the distribution of wealth. Quite the contrary, the distribution of wealth determines the distribution of money. In a free economy, people are paid for creating wealth. Since Bitcoin economy has a higher resemblance to a free economy than our current fiat economy, it seems that in a Bitcoin-based economy, the money distribution will be fairer than the current one.
\n
\n
\n
19. The value of Bitcoin
\n
There is a claim that Bitcoin is worthless, because it answers no real need and solves no real problem. This claim can easily be refuted.
\n
Bitcoin is a global, decentralized, highly liquid, and pseudo-anonymous asset. Therefore, in any transaction, which requires all these properties, the benefits of using Bitcoin over other currencies are clear. Moreover, that is exactly the reason that most people do not appreciate these properties. First, most people are unaware of the damage caused by centralized monetary systems. Second, only rarely do they perform international financial transactions in large volumes. Third, most people are against anonymous transactions.
\n
However, the benefits of Bitcoin are widely recognized in the following cases:
\n
(1) Where the centralized monetary system completely collapses (e.g., Venezuela and Zimbabwe). (2) Where the government confiscates its own citizen’s assets (e.g., Cyprus and Saudi Arabia). (3) Among populations, which are excluded from the financial and banking systems (e.g., bankrupted citizens and minors). (4) Among outcasted populations (e.g., drug users and gamblers). (5) Among people who are keener on their privacy (e.g., tax evaders and porn users). (6) Among frequent travelers/flyers.
\n
In general, it is clear that the Bitcoin technology has a clear value wherever censorship-resistance is required. Money is one example, social media is another (e.g., Steem, LBRY, Memo).
\n
As was mentioned above, in a market economy, when an asset is valuable to some people, then it is valuable to the entire economy. Consequently, people who do not belong to any of these populations can still regard Bitcoin as a safe haven for their money.
\n
However, the fact that Bitcoin is valuable only increases the mystery as for the origin of its value. In the previous sections, we have presented the problems in arguments, which claim that Bitcoin should be worthless. Before we present the last argument, which will lead us to the origin of the Bitcoin’s value, it is instructive to discuss incorrect explanations, from which we will learn what cannot explain the origin of the value of Bitcoin.
\n
\n
\n
20. Backed by energy
\n
It is repeatedly mentioned by crypto advocates that Bitcoin is backed by proof-of-work, or, that it is backed by energy or by the mining’s electricity.
\n
In particular, such an explanation was used by John McAfee to justify his prediction of the Bitcoin price at the end of 2020 [30]. The argument goes like that: currently, it costs several million dollars to mine 1800 BTC (the current daily yield). Within few decades, the mining rate will decrease substantially, while there is no reason to assume that the cost will decline (more plausible that it will rise). Therefore, one may conclude that because Bitcoin’s mining cost will rise, its price must rise as well.
\n
This is a very common error that is based on the classical economists’ theory of value—the labor theory of value. This theory, which was developed by Smith, Ricardo and their followers (including Marx), was based on the premises that the labor is the source of value. This theory helped them to explain the water-diamond paradox, namely, why the value of diamonds is higher than the value of water, while clearly water is much more useful than diamonds. The classical economists would reply that it costs more to mine and to shape diamonds than to pump water from a nearby well. The subjectivist schools of economics, in general, and the Austrian school, in particular, would strongly disagree. Bohm-Bawerk, the well-known economist, would argue that it may be very costly to prepare a mud pie, nevertheless, the mud pie is still worthless. The Austrian economists would argue that the classical economists made it all wrong. It is the price of the product that determines its cost and not the vice-versa. That is, if a producer evaluates that he can sell a product for 1000$, he will be willing to pay production costs, which are lower than 1000$. Clearly, the competition enforces the producer to lower the product’s price until it is close to the product’s cost. However, had he not known that he could sell the product at a price higher than the cost he would not have produced it.
\n
The same thing applies to any product, and mining is not an exception. As long as the market price of gold is higher than the cost of mining, then mining will continue, otherwise, the miners would stop the mining process. That is, the market cost of gold (approximately 1200$/ounce today) determines the maximum cost of mining. In the case of Bitcoin, the mining process cannot stop. In fact, since every 10 min a new block is added to the blockchain, then the algorithm keeps adjusting the mining difficulty to maintain a constant rate of block production. Therefore, the algorithm makes sure that the mining cost would remain below the market price so that mining would never stop.
\n
\n
\n
21. Too costly to mine
\n
A similar reasoning appears in a different argument against Bitcoin: the Bitcoin mining costs are extremely high, and even now, its electricity consumption is equal to that of a small country (like Ireland). Within several years, the costs would be gigantic, and it would be unprofitable to mine additional coins.
\n
Again, this is a complete misunderstanding of the mining process. As was explained above, unlike gold mining, there is no given external cost for mining Bitcoin. The causality between cost and prices works in the opposite direction—Bitcoin prices determine the cost of mining. Therefore, at any given time, the users of the Bitcoin network are the ones who determine the amount of money they are willing to invest in the network security. That is, first, the mining cost cannot increase beyond the amount the users are willing to pay, and second, the electricity cost is not a wasted investment; it is a measure of the network security. The more people trust the Bitcoin network, the more they are willing to invest in it. Consequently, the Bitcoin price increases, and so does, as a byproduct, the mining cost, which measures the network computation power. That is, the more secure the network is, the more trustworthy it becomes in practice via the price mechanism. This is a positive feedback, which strengthens the network. However, there is a limit to the cost of security, which people are willing to pay in any financial transaction. This limit determines the mining cost.
\n
It is interesting that a similar argument was put against the gold standard. Followers of the monetary school of economics argued that unlike fiat money, gold mining is a waste of useful resources, which can be directed to other useful industrial sectors. The answer of the Austrian school was that it is a small price to pay to prevent the government from inflating the amount of money [31]. The Austrian economists have a nice analogy: why so many resources are invested in steel locks? Wouldn’t it be smarter had we replaced them with paper locks and allocate the steel to better uses? This is clearly a rhetorical question. Security is a costly business. We pay for security and safety.
\n
This is an important point. In a stationary economy, or, in the Austrian school terminology, the Evenly Rotating Economy (ERE), the future is already known, and there are neither surprises nor risks. Consequently, there is no need for money. In the ERE, money has no function. People need money only in states of uncertainty. Money helps relieve the sense of uncertainty. However, counterfeiting is a source of concern. Fiat money is susceptible to the whims of the government. Governments can (and do) inflate the money supply indefinitely.
\n
The supply of gold, on the other hand, is regulated by the market, since gold counterfeiting is extremely difficult. Only when the market price exceeds the mining cost, new gold is generated by mining.
\n
The same reasoning applies to Bitcoin. However, there are some very important differences: as was explained above, it is more difficult to counterfeit Bitcoin than gold, let alone fiat currency. Moreover, the ability to counterfeit fiat currency and gold is independent of their value. Therefore, as their value rises, additional counterfeiting attempts are made.
\n
The opposite is true for Bitcoin. The difficulty to attack the Bitcoin network is proportional to the Hash power of the Bitcoin mining; however, the cost of this power is proportional to the price of Bitcoin (since most of the Bitcoins have already been mined). Therefore, unlike fiat money and unlike gold, as the price of Bitcoin rises, it becomes more difficult to attack the network (Bitcoin’s equivalent of counterfeiting).
\n
To summarize this point, the high mining cost is not a waste—it is a security investment.
\n
\n
\n
22. Scarcity and value
\n
Another misconception about the origin of the value of Bitcoin is that unlike fiat money, which is created “out of thin air,” the number of Bitcoins is fixed and cannot be changed, and this inherent scarcity is the source of its value.
\n
First, as was explained above, Bitcoin is also inflationary. In fact, the important characteristic of the decentralized crypto coins is not that coins cannot be created “out of thin air,” but that their creation is fully determined by the well-known protocol and cannot be manipulated by a central entity (i.e., governments). Therefore, the users can take account of the inflation parameters into their future financial contracts. This property of cryptocurrencies is a clear advantage they have over fiat currencies. In fact, this is a major advantage even over commodities backed currencies, such as gold, since the future mining rate of gold is unknown, while cryptocurrencies are created in a predetermined manner.
\n
Second, scarcity, by itself, cannot be the source of value. Using Bohm-Bawerk example, the fact that a certain mud pie cannot be reproduced is, in itself, an insufficient demand to make it valuable. Scarcity is a necessary but insufficient condition for value creation.
\n
\n
\n
23. The regression theorem and the origin of value
\n
It was Karl Helfferich who formulated in 1903 the vicious circle of money [32]. The marginal value theory of Menger, the forefather of the Austrians school, can explain why a handful of diamond worth considerably more than the buckets of water, despite the fact that water is clearly more essential to human existence than diamonds are [33]; however, it could not explain why a seemingly worthless object like pieces of papers can have a high value. In other words, it cannot explain why people would be willing to exchange them with commodities, which have a clear intrinsic value. It was clear that if people, for some reason, attribute value to money, then it would be a logical behavior for the individual to attribute value for money, even if he does not find it useful to himself. However, how did money gain its value in the first place, or, in others word, it is a vicious circle to say that people want money simply because people want money [32].
\n
Mises, apparently, solved this conundrum. He said that people want money today because they anticipate that other people would want it tomorrow since they wanted it yesterday, that is, money has value today because it has value yesterday. By introducing time schedule into the description of the process, Mises circumvented the vicious circle. But he did it with a cost. This logic leads to the unavoidable conclusion that any money had, prior to its use as a medium of exchange, an intrinsic value [34].
\n
Thus, there is an argument that Bitcoin cannot be money since it never had an intrinsic value, that is, while the US fiat dollar is valuable today since it was based on the original value of the gold dollar, which was based for millennia on the currency value of gold, which was based somewhere in the past on the commodity value of gold, they claim that Bitcoin does not have such a chain of events. One cannot find any intrinsic value in the Bitcoin genesis. While gold has an extensive commodity use in its premonetary era, Bitcoin, according to them, had no nonmonetary history and therefore cannot evolve into money.
\n
This claim has several flaws. First, they turn Mises’ argument on its head—Mises used his argument to explain how apparently worthless object can be used as a medium of exchange. Bitcoin is already a medium of exchange, which means that there are only two options, either Mises argument is erroneous or that they are missing something about Bitcoin. In fact, Mises was not entirely accurate and Bitcoin does have a nonmonetary value.
\n
I would like to harness a physical analogy to explain this point—the laser.
\n
When a laser is connected to a power supply, it emits coherent light almost instantaneously. Nowadays, lasers are very common and there is nothing special about this; however, a laser is not a light bulb, the origin of light in a laser can be regarded as a similar mystery. A laser consists of two basic elements: a light amplifier and a resonator, which is actually a feedback mechanism. Hence, a laser is a giant amplifying machine. Using the feedback, the laser keeps on amplifying the light. But wait! Where did the light originally come from? The laser has no element that generates the “original” light (i.e., the primordial photons), it only amplifies it. So where did the light originally come from? Well, actually, this is quite a mystery that nobody really knows. The source can be thermal noise, scattered light, or maybe the zero point energy. While academically it may be an interesting question, it is practically irrelevant to the laser operation. Moreover, it teaches us an important lesson—in the presence of a highly efficient amplifying process, the increase is exponential, and therefore the initial trigger is practically irrelevant. It doesn’t matter whether the process started from a single photon, ten photons or a hundred, the changes in the time till it reaches equilibrium (the time, in which it grows exponentially) is negligible.
\n
The same goes for Bitcoin. It was proven to be a rapidly accelerating phenomenon. In fact, just like the laser intensity or any other phenomenon with an approximately constant rate increase, the value of Bitcoin grew exponentially: within about 4 years it increased by a factor of a million! The technology was proven so successful that the initial value, people attributed to Bitcoin, is unimportant.
\n
The legendary pizza transaction, which allegedly determined its initial market value (in which a couple of pizzas were sold for 10,000 BTC), could be totally different. It could have been sold for 1000 or 100,000 BTCs, and the final outcome would be almost the same and it would be determined by the equilibrium value. In fact, the entire process can start from a whim of a handful of strange geeks (see, for example [35]). That is totally sufficient, exactly like the amplifying process in a laser, which can start, for all we know, from a single photon, which accidentally was present in the laser’s cavity.
\n
In the previous paragraphs, it was explained why one does not have to prove that Bitcoin currently has an intrinsic use value in order to show that its exchange value, that is, its value as a medium of exchange, does not contradict Mises’ regression theorem; nevertheless, Bitcoin had and still has an intrinsic use value.
\n
Clearly, even prior to the Pizza transaction, the initial miner group attributed value to Bitcoin since they spent their time and the energy consumption of their computers to generate these Bitcoins.
\n
Bitcoin is not the only thing that can be sent via the blockchain, in fact, almost any kind of information can be sent via the transactions, and this is an irreversible process, since any such information will remain in the blockchain for eternity, and everyone in the network will have an access to this information. Bitcoins are the cost of perpetuating the information. In other words, Bitcoins can be regarded as the “real estate” of the blockchain. The more Bitcoins a person has, the more information he can send on the blockchain. There are all kinds of data encapsulated on the blockchain: poems, prays, political statements, commercials, and even photos [36]. In fact, it is amazing how many kinds of information can be found there. It is not difficult to find many applications for this kind of information retention.
\n
One of the special applications is the announcement of contracts. Such contracts will be confirmed by the blockchain. Or another important application is a decentralized registrar of real estate (or any other type of property). With the Bitcoin network, one can announce ownership of objects, the information will be available instantaneously, and since it is not centralized, then there is no fear of losing this information.
\n
The important thing is to realize that there is no direct connection between this information and the value of Bitcoin. The relation is indirect. The value of these announcements is directly related to the number of nodes in the network. The more people are connected to the Bitcoin network, the more valuable this information is. Therefore, if the network is large enough, then people will like to use it by sending and announcing information. However, it is clear that when the network grows, sending information becomes more valuable, and therefore the value of the network’s coin, which controls it, increases as well. The more coins a person owns, the more he controls the network. Again we see that owning Bitcoin is like owning real estate on the blockchain.
\n
Clearly, at its inception, when the Bitcoin network was small, the value of publishing data over it was low, but then the Bitcoin’s value was accordingly small. In fact, in its genesis, the Bitcoin’s value could have been only the subjective value of the first few geeks, who mined it (including Satoshi himself). When the network grows, the Bitcoin value increases exponentially, just like the laser power.
\n
Nowadays, the fees of sending information over the blockchain are quite high, and therefore people seldom use the blockchain for broadcasting information. As a consequence, they tend to forget that the Bitcoin network has a clear nonmonetary use, and therefore it has a subjective use value. In any case, the fact that Bitcoin has a nonzero value does not and cannot contradict Mises’ regression theorem.
\n
\n
\n
24. Conclusions
\n
Bitcoin has many enemies, and, as a consequence, there are many arguments, which allegedly explains, why Bitcoin should be worthless or should be banned. The truth is that Bitcoin is extremely valuable and is here to stay because it cannot be banned. On the other hand, Bitcoin has many advocates, which use inaccurate arguments to justify the origin of its value.
\n
The fact that these arguments were presented by renowned economists shows us that our understanding about the origin of money did not change much during the last century. The mysterious Satoshi Nakamoto gave us the opportunity to revive these century-old conundrums.
\n
The main conclusions are:
Bitcoin is not a scheme; it is a great monetary invention, which has a clear economic value.
It cannot and should not be banned by governments. In fact, any government’s manipulation and regulation emphasize and increase the need for cryptocurrencies.
Criminals are not the only ones who see the benefits in using cryptocurrencies. In the third world (e.g., Venezuela and Zimbabwe), cryptos are lifesavers. In general, cryptos are extremely valuable wherever censorship resistance is required, and in a global market economy, that fact creates value for everyone.
Bitcoin does suffer from infancy problems (high volatility and high transaction costs); however, these issues are not fundamental and will be resolved eventually (we already see many signs for that). The fact that the crypto market exceeded 800B$, despite these issues, only emphasizes the need of the markets in them.
The energy which is spent in crypto mining is not a wasted energy. It is the source of the network’s security which increases the trust in the system, and in a market economy trust is a very valuable commodity.
The easiness in the creation of new coins is not equivalent to fiat money inflation. Fiat inflation is a counterfeiting process, while the creation of new cryptos is equivalent to the creation of a new invention, which may be better, but it has to surmount the former coins’ network effect.
Bitcoin does not contradict any economical law. In particular, it does not contradict Mises’ regression theorem for two grounds: first, Bitcoin was valuable for the first miners even before it was used as a medium of exchange, and the regression process can be kindled by any subjective whim; second, even now Bitcoin has a nonmonetary value (just like gold) as a “real-estate” on the Bitcoin network.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"cryptocurrencies, Bitcoin, blockchain, regression theorem, Mises, Austrian school of economics, the value of money",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62430.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62430.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62430",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62430",totalDownloads:615,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"August 28th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies received a lot of criticism during the last 9 years. It is not surprising that this criticism came from organizations that are threatened by the crypto revolution (banks, government, central banks, finance companies, etc.). Nevertheless, it is very surprising to hear criticism from economics schools, which oppose central banking and advocate free choice in currencies (such as the Austrian school of economics). Unlike the ordinary criticism (that Bitcoin is a scam, a bubble, etc.), which can easily be refuted, the criticism of part of the Austrian school economists is based on interesting arguments, which requires a different level of explanation. For example, it was claimed that Bitcoin should be worthless; otherwise, it contradicts Mises’ regression theorem. The object of the chapter is twofold: first to explain why the criticism is unfounded and second to analyze the origin of the value of Bitcoin and other cryptocoins from the perspective of the Austrian school of economics. In particular, it is explained that Bitcoin does not contradict the regression theorem for two reasons. First, the initial value estimation can be a random event, and second, the Bitcoin network (even now) has a nonmonetary value.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62430",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62430",signatures:"Er'el Granot",book:{id:"7228",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",publishedDate:"August 28th 2019",bookSignature:"Asma Salman and Muthanna G. Abdul Razzaq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7228.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206443",title:"Dr.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",middleName:null,surname:"Granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot",slug:"er'el-granot",email:"erelgranot@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Ariel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Is Bitcoin a Ponzi scheme?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Bitcoin is a bubble",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Bitcoin yields no return",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The Bitcoin’s volatility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The hoarding dilemma",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. A deflationary economy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Bitcoin and the government",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Technology-based money",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Genuine scarcity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Bitcoin transactions are too slow and too expensive",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"12. Currencies backed by nothing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"13. Dependence on the current monetary system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"14. Bitcoin and economic calculations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"15. Bitcoin and the division of labor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"16. Bitcoin and property rights",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"17. Bitcoin and crime",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"18. Bitcoin and egalitarianism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"19. The value of Bitcoin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"20. Backed by energy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"21. Too costly to mine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"22. Scarcity and value",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"23. The regression theorem and the origin of value",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"24. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kharpal A. WikiLeaks Founder Assange Claims he Made 50,000% Return on Bitcoin Thanks to the US Government. CNBC. October 16, 2017. Available from: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/10/16/wikileaks-julian-assange-bitcoin-50000-percent-return-thanks-to-us-government.html\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Lujan S. Bitcoin was Built to Incite Peaceful Anarchy. Bitcoin.com. January 9, 2016. Available from: https://news.bitcoin.com/bitcoin-built-incite-peaceful-anarchy/\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'del Castillo M. Guns & Crypto: How Bitcoin is Helping Keep Cody Wilson\'s Anarchist Dream Alive. October 1, 2017. Available from: https://www.coindesk.com/guns-crypto-bitcoin-helping-keep-cody-wilsons-anarchist-dream-alive/\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Kim T. Seth Klarman Calls Bitcoin a ‘Trading Sardine,’ Others Say ‘Speculative Mania’—They are Right. CNBC. December 15, 2017. Available from: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/15/seth-klarman-calls-bitcoin-a-trading-sardine-others-say-speculative-mania--they-are-right.html\n\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Torres C. Yellen Says Bitcoin Is a ‘Highly Speculative Asset’. Bloomberg Technology. December 13, 2017. Available from: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-13/yellen-says-cryptocurrency-bitcoin-is-highly-speculative-asset\n\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Gil-Pulgar J. Former Chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan argues: Bitcoin is not rational. Bitcoin News. December 8, 2017. Available from: http://bitcoinist.com/greenspan-declares-bitcoin-irrational/\n\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Pollock D. Billionaire Investor Warns Bitcoin is Pyramid Scheme. Cointelegraph. July 27, 2017. Available from: https://cointelegraph.com/news/billionaire-investor-warns-bitcoin-is-pyramid-scheme\n\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Lovelace B Jr. Warren Buffett Watcher Echoes Warning on Bitcoin: We\'re Probably near the Top of a bubble. CNBC. January 11, 2018. Available from: https://www.cnbc.com/2018/01/11/warren-buffett-watcher-were-near-the-top-of-a-bitcoin-bubble.html\n\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Nullen C. Bitcoin is Worthless, Bubble May Pop Soon, Allianz Global Says. Bloomberg Businesweek. March 14, 2018. Available from: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-14/bitcoin-is-worthless-bubble-may-pop-soon-allianz-global-says\n\n'},{id:"B10",body:'North G. Bitcoins: The Second Biggest Ponzi Scheme in History. November 29, 2013. Available from: https://www.garynorth.com/public/11828.cfm\n\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Bennington A. Bitcoin Bear Peter Schiff Doubles Down: Even at $4,000 it\'s Still a ‘Bubble’. Coindesk. August 17, 2017. Available from: https://www.coindesk.com/bitcoin-bear-peter-schiff-doubles-even-4000-still-bubble/\n\n'},{id:"B12",body:'North GI. Broken Pencil: An Economic Analysis of Bitcoins. December 6, 2013. Available from: https://www.garynorth.com/public/11857.cfm\n\n'},{id:"B13",body:'LeRoux C. The Inability of Bitcoin to Serve for Rational Economic Calculation. June 11, 2014. Available from: https://peacefreedomprosperity.com/7776/inability-bitcoin-serve-rational-economic-calculation/\n\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Shostak F. The Bitcoin Money Myth. Mises Institute. April 17, 2013. Available from: https://mises.org/library/bitcoin-money-myth\n\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Graf KS. Bitcoin as Medium of Exchange Now and Unit of Account Later: The Inverse of Koning’s Medieval Coins. September 14, 2013. Available from: http://konradsgraf.com/blog1/2013/9/14/bitcoin-as-medium-of-exchange-now-and-unit-of-account-later.html\n\n'},{id:"B16",body:'von Mises L. Human Action: A Treatise on Economics. Scholar’s ed. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute; 1940/1998. Available from: http://mises.org/document/3250/Human-Action\n\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Rothbard Murray N. Man, Economy, and State, with Power and Market. Auburn, AL: Mises Institute; 1970. Available from: http://mises.org/document/1082/Man-Economy-and-State-with-Power-and-Market\n\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Herbener JM. The Pure Time-Preference Theory of Interest. Auburn, Alabama: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform; 2011\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Hayek F. “The ‘Paradox‘ of Saving”. Originally Appeared in the Zeitschrift für Nationalökonomie, Bd. I, Heft III, 1929, Under the Title “Gibt es einen Widersinn des Sparens?. The Translation is the Work of Mr. Nicholas Kaldor and Dr. Georg Tugendhat and was First Published in Economica, May, 1931\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Bordo MD, Lane JL, Redish A. Good versus bad deflation: Lessons from the gold standard era. NBER (The National Bureau of Economic Research) Working Paper No. 10329; February, 2004. Available from: http://www.nber.org/papers/w10329\n\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Lewis N. Let\'s Resolve the Gold Standard ‘Deflation’ Fallacy. Forbes, Economics & Finance. May 21, 2015. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/nathanlewis/2015/11/21/lets-resolve-the-gold-standard-deflation-fallacy/\n\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Karsten J, West DM. Venezuela’s “Petro” Undermines other Cryptocurrencies–and International Sanctions. Brookings. March 9, 2018. Available from: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2018/03/09/venezuelas-petro-undermines-other-cryptocurrencies-and-international-sanctions/\n\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Hosia H, Perry N. This is the First Country to Adopt a Cryptocurrency as its Official Currency. Time. March 5, 2018. Available from: http://time.com/money/5186316/this-is-the-first-country-to-adopt-a-cryptocurrency-as-its-official-currency/\n\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Althauser J. Race Towards the First ‘Crypto-Country’ in the World. Cointelegraph. October 13, 2017. Available from: https://cointelegraph.com/news/race-towards-the-first-crypto-country-in-the-world\n\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Foote C, Block W, Crane K, Gray S, et al. Economic policy and prospects in Iraq. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 2004;18(3):47-70\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Granot E. Ricardo\'s law of comparative advantage and the Law of Association: A subjective analysis. In: Economics and Development. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech; 2017. Chapter 3\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Kinsella S. Against Intellectual Property. Auburn, AL: Mises Institute; 2008\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Sampathkumar M. Bitcoin should be ‘Outlawed’, says Nobel Prize-Winning The Economist. Independent. November 30, 2017. Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/bitcoin-latest-news-outlawed-nobel-prize-winner-joseph-stiglitz-comments-a8083416.html\n\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Smart E. 1% of the Bitcoin Community Controls 99% of Bitcoin Wealth. CCN. May 18, 2015. Available from: https://www.ccn.com/1-bitcoin-community-controls-99-bitcoin-wealth/\n\n'},{id:"B30",body:'John McAfee Ups Bitcoin Target Price to $1 Million by End 2020. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bo9zaBZ1VIo&t=917s\n\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Salerno J. Money, Sound and Unsound. Auburn, Alabama: Mises Institute; 2010\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Helfferich EG. Das Geld [English Translation, “Money”]. London: Ernest Benn; 1927\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Menger C. Principles of Economics. Auburn, Alabama: The Mises Institute; 2004\n'},{id:"B34",body:'von Mises L. The Theory of Money and Credit. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1912/1953. Translated by Batson HE\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Graf Konrad S. IN-DEPTH | Bitcoins, the Regression Theorem, and that Curious but Unthreatening Empirical World. February 27, 2013. Available from: http://konradsgraf.com/blog1/2013/2/27/in-depth-bitcoins-the-regression-theorem-and-that-curious-bu.html\n\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Shirriff K. Hidden Surprises in the Bitcoin Blockchain and how they Are Stored: Nelson Mandela, Wikileaks, Photos, and Python Software. Available from: http://www.righto.com/2014/02/ascii-bernanke-wikileaks-photographs.html\n\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Er'el Granot",address:"erel@ariel.ac.il",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7228",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",publishedDate:"August 28th 2019",bookSignature:"Asma Salman and Muthanna G. Abdul Razzaq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7228.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206443",title:"Dr.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"171624",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi",middleName:null,surname:"Murph",email:"mmurph@uga.edu",fullName:"Mandi Murph",slug:"mandi-murph",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Autotaxin – An Enzymatic Augmenter of Malignant Progression Linked to Inflammation",slug:"autotaxin-an-enzymatic-augmenter-of-malignant-progression-linked-to-inflammation",abstract:null,signatures:"David N. Brindley, Matthew G.K. Benesch and Mandi M. Murph",authors:[{id:"171624",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi",surname:"Murph",fullName:"Mandi Murph",slug:"mandi-murph",email:"mmurph@uga.edu"}],book:{title:"Melanoma",slug:"melanoma-current-clinical-management-and-future-therapeutics",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"32219",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"D'Orazio",slug:"john-d'orazio",fullName:"John D'Orazio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"32924",title:"Dr.",name:"Estelle",surname:"Leclerc",slug:"estelle-leclerc",fullName:"Estelle Leclerc",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"North Dakota State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"47145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felisbina",surname:"Queiroga",slug:"felisbina-queiroga",fullName:"Felisbina Queiroga",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"57946",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Pires",slug:"isabel-pires",fullName:"Isabel Pires",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"57947",title:"Prof.",name:"Justina",surname:"Prada",slug:"justina-prada",fullName:"Justina Prada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"157174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Norma E.",surname:"Herrera",slug:"norma-e.-herrera",fullName:"Norma E. Herrera",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"171547",title:"Ms.",name:"Erin",surname:"Wolf Horrell",slug:"erin-wolf-horrell",fullName:"Erin Wolf Horrell",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"171548",title:"Ms.",name:"Kalin",surname:"Wilson",slug:"kalin-wilson",fullName:"Kalin Wilson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172047",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Resende",slug:"luis-resende",fullName:"Luis Resende",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172048",title:"Dr.",name:"Joana",surname:"Moreira",slug:"joana-moreira",fullName:"Joana Moreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172048/images/4255_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"partnerships",title:"Partnerships",intro:"
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
",metaTitle:"Partnerships",metaDescription:"IntechOpen was built by scientists, for scientists. We understand the community we serve, but to bring an even better service to the table for IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we partnered with the leading companies and associations in the industry and beyond.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/partnerships",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
ALPSP
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\\n
\\n\\n
OASPA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\\n
\\n\\n
STM
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\\n
\\n\\n
COPE
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\\n
\\n\\n
Creative Commons
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Crossref
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\\n
\\n\\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\\n
\\n\\n
CLOCKSS
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\\n
\\n\\n
Counter
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DORA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\\n
\\n\\n
iThenticate
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\\n
\\n\\n
Enago
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\\n
\\n\\n
SPi Global
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\\n
\\n\\n
Amazon
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DHL
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\n
\n\n
OASPA
\n\n
\n\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\n
\n\n
STM
\n\n
\n\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\n
\n\n
COPE
\n\n
\n\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\n
\n\n
Creative Commons
\n\n
\n\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Crossref
\n\n
\n\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\n
\n\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\n\n
\n\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\n
\n\n
CLOCKSS
\n\n
\n\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\n
\n\n
Counter
\n\n
\n\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\n
\n\n
DORA
\n\n
\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\n
\n\n
iThenticate
\n\n
\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\n
\n\n
Enago
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\n\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\n
\n\n
SPi Global
\n\n
\n\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\n
\n\n
Amazon
\n\n
\n\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\n
\n\n
DHL
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15790}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5238},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"996",title:"Dental Public Health",slug:"dental-public-health",parent:{title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:234,numberOfWosCitations:105,numberOfCrossrefCitations:57,numberOfDimensionsCitations:135,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"dental-public-health",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5908",title:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1dbc12a9a3a85664682fd8f81033996f",slug:"insights-into-various-aspects-of-oral-health",bookSignature:"Jane Francis Manakil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68285",title:"Dr.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Manakil",slug:"jane-manakil",fullName:"Jane Manakil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4540",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea749600b092375e2437f3c639c207af",slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",bookSignature:"Mandeep Singh Virdi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4540.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89556",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandeep",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Virdi",slug:"mandeep-virdi",fullName:"Mandeep Virdi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1442",title:"Oral Health Care",subtitle:"Pediatric, Research, Epidemiology and Clinical Practices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc9cd3e64b2f0e750c0fac74d6983746",slug:"oral-health-care-pediatric-research-epidemiology-and-clinical-practices",bookSignature:"Mandeep Singh Virdi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1442.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89556",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandeep",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Virdi",slug:"mandeep-virdi",fullName:"Mandeep Virdi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2116",title:"Oral Health Care",subtitle:"Prosthodontics, Periodontology, Biology, Research and Systemic Conditions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0d5f8110fc46ac49a935b2e5f0992ce",slug:"oral-health-care-prosthodontics-periodontology-biology-research-and-systemic-conditions",bookSignature:"Mandeep Singh Virdi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2116.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89556",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandeep",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Virdi",slug:"mandeep-virdi",fullName:"Mandeep Virdi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"29340",doi:"10.5772/31951",title:"Epidemiology of Dental Caries in the World",slug:"epidemiology-of-dental-caries-in-the-world",totalDownloads:14514,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"oral-health-care-pediatric-research-epidemiology-and-clinical-practices",title:"Oral Health Care",fullTitle:"Oral Health Care - Pediatric, Research, Epidemiology and Clinical Practices"},signatures:"Rafael da Silveira Moreira",authors:[{id:"89468",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:"Da Silveira",surname:"Moreira",slug:"rafael-moreira",fullName:"Rafael Moreira"}]},{id:"48103",doi:"10.5772/59517",title:"Oral Health and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes",slug:"oral-health-and-adverse-pregnancy-outcomes",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Sukumaran Anil, Raed M. Alrowis, Elna P. Chalisserry, Vemina P.\nChalissery, Hani S. AlMoharib and Asala F. Al-Sulaimani",authors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil"}]},{id:"29333",doi:"10.5772/33898",title:"Early Childhood Caries: Parent’s Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Towards Its Prevention in Malaysia",slug:"early-childhood-caries-parent-s-knowledge-attitude-and-practice-towards-its-prevention-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:8377,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"oral-health-care-pediatric-research-epidemiology-and-clinical-practices",title:"Oral Health Care",fullTitle:"Oral Health Care - Pediatric, Research, Epidemiology and Clinical Practices"},signatures:"Shani Ann Mani, Jacob John, Wei Yen Ping and Noorliza Mastura Ismail",authors:[{id:"97650",title:"Dr.",name:"Shani Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"shani-ann-mani",fullName:"Shani Ann Mani"},{id:"98763",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:null,surname:"John",slug:"jacob-john",fullName:"Jacob John"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"47895",title:"Panoramic Radiography — Diagnosis of Relevant Structures That Might Compromise Oral and General Health of the Patient",slug:"panoramic-radiography-diagnosis-of-relevant-structures-that-might-compromise-oral-and-general-health",totalDownloads:3737,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Ticiana Sidorenko de Oliveira Capote, Marcela de Almeida\nGonçalves, Andrea Gonçalves and Marcelo Gonçalves",authors:[{id:"87871",title:"Prof.",name:"Ticiana",middleName:"Sidorenko De Oliveira",surname:"Capote",slug:"ticiana-capote",fullName:"Ticiana Capote"},{id:"172270",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcela",middleName:"De Almeida",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"marcela-goncalves",fullName:"Marcela Gonçalves"},{id:"172407",title:"Prof.",name:"Andréa",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"andrea-goncalves",fullName:"Andréa Gonçalves"},{id:"172416",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"marcelo-goncalves",fullName:"Marcelo Gonçalves"}]},{id:"47872",title:"Ultrasonic Instrumentation",slug:"ultrasonic-instrumentation",totalDownloads:2528,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Ana Isabel García-Kass, Juan Antonio García-Núñez and Victoriano\nSerrano-Cuenca",authors:[{id:"68134",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"García-Nuñez",slug:"juan-antonio-garcia-nunez",fullName:"Juan Antonio García-Nuñez"},{id:"76543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"García-Kass",slug:"ana-isabel-garcia-kass",fullName:"Ana Isabel García-Kass"},{id:"173164",title:"Prof.",name:"Victoriano",middleName:null,surname:"Serrano-Cuenca",slug:"victoriano-serrano-cuenca",fullName:"Victoriano Serrano-Cuenca"}]},{id:"54942",title:"Cleft Lip and Palate Management from Birth to Adulthood: An Overview",slug:"cleft-lip-and-palate-management-from-birth-to-adulthood-an-overview",totalDownloads:1997,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"insights-into-various-aspects-of-oral-health",title:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health",fullTitle:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health"},signatures:"Maen Hussni Zreaqat, Rozita Hassan and Abdulfattah Hanoun",authors:[{id:"38245",title:"Dr.",name:"Maen",middleName:"Hussni",surname:"Zreaqat",slug:"maen-zreaqat",fullName:"Maen Zreaqat"},{id:"52438",title:"Dr.",name:"Rozita",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"rozita-hassan",fullName:"Rozita Hassan"},{id:"205482",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulfattah",middleName:null,surname:"Hanoun",slug:"abdulfattah-hanoun",fullName:"Abdulfattah Hanoun"}]},{id:"47781",title:"Early Treatment of Anterior Crossbite Relating to Functional Class III",slug:"early-treatment-of-anterior-crossbite-relating-to-functional-class-iii",totalDownloads:2915,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Sanaa Alami, Hakima Aghoutan, Farid El Quars, Samir Diouny and\nFarid Bourzgui",authors:[{id:"172553",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanaa",middleName:null,surname:"Alami",slug:"sanaa-alami",fullName:"Sanaa Alami"}]},{id:"47825",title:"Clinical Consideration and Management of Impacted Maxillary Canine Teeth",slug:"clinical-consideration-and-management-of-impacted-maxillary-canine-teeth",totalDownloads:3888,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Belma Işık Aslan and Neslihan Üçüncü",authors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işık Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işık Aslan"},{id:"48330",title:"Prof.",name:"Neslihan",middleName:null,surname:"Üçüncü",slug:"neslihan-ucuncu",fullName:"Neslihan Üçüncü"}]},{id:"47827",title:"Advances in Radiographic Techniques Used in Dentistry",slug:"advances-in-radiographic-techniques-used-in-dentistry",totalDownloads:4751,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Zühre Zafersoy Akarslan and Ilkay Peker",authors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"},{id:"172257",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilkay",middleName:null,surname:"Peker",slug:"ilkay-peker",fullName:"Ilkay Peker"}]},{id:"55701",title:"Oral Health Promotion: Evidences and Strategies",slug:"oral-health-promotion-evidences-and-strategies",totalDownloads:1677,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"insights-into-various-aspects-of-oral-health",title:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health",fullTitle:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health"},signatures:"Vikram R. Niranjan, Vikas Kathuria, Venkatraman J and Arpana\nSalve",authors:[{id:"200270",title:"Dr.",name:"Vikram",middleName:null,surname:"Niranjan",slug:"vikram-niranjan",fullName:"Vikram Niranjan"},{id:"208707",title:"Dr.",name:"Vikas",middleName:null,surname:"Kathuria",slug:"vikas-kathuria",fullName:"Vikas Kathuria"},{id:"208708",title:"Dr.",name:"Venkatraman",middleName:null,surname:"J",slug:"venkatraman-j",fullName:"Venkatraman J"},{id:"208709",title:"Dr.",name:"Arpana",middleName:null,surname:"Salve",slug:"arpana-salve",fullName:"Arpana Salve"}]},{id:"48160",title:"Herbal Dentifrices for Children",slug:"herbal-dentifrices-for-children",totalDownloads:2019,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Marisa Alves Nogueira Diaz, Isabela de Oliveira Carvalho and\nGaspar Diaz",authors:[{id:"171933",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisa",middleName:null,surname:"Diaz",slug:"marisa-diaz",fullName:"Marisa Diaz"},{id:"172523",title:"BSc.",name:"Isabela",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira Carvalho",slug:"isabela-oliveira-carvalho",fullName:"Isabela Oliveira Carvalho"}]},{id:"47896",title:"Oral Health Related Quality of Life",slug:"oral-health-related-quality-of-life",totalDownloads:3780,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Javier de la Fuente Hernández, Fátima del Carmen Aguilar Díaz and\nMaría del Carmen Villanueva Vilchis",authors:[{id:"172040",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"De La Fuente",slug:"javier-de-la-fuente",fullName:"Javier De La Fuente"},{id:"172557",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fatima",middleName:"Del Carmen",surname:"Aguilar-Diaz",slug:"fatima-aguilar-diaz",fullName:"Fatima Aguilar-Diaz"},{id:"172558",title:"Dr.",name:"Ma. Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Vilchis",slug:"ma.-carmen-villanueva-vilchis",fullName:"Ma. Carmen Villanueva-Vilchis"}]},{id:"47954",title:"Fissure Sealing in Occlusal Caries Prevention",slug:"fissure-sealing-in-occlusal-caries-prevention",totalDownloads:2576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry",title:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry",fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Oral Health Sciences and Dentistry"},signatures:"Kristina Goršeta",authors:[{id:"171951",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristina",middleName:null,surname:"Goršeta",slug:"kristina-gorseta",fullName:"Kristina Goršeta"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"dental-public-health",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/171624/mandi-murph",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"171624",slug:"mandi-murph"},fullPath:"/profiles/171624/mandi-murph",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()