\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9377",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Non-Coding RNAs",title:"Non-Coding RNAs",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are an attractive research field in the RNA world. ncRNAs play important roles in regulating gene expression in animals, plants, and various human diseases. It is clear that current and further research on ncRNAs will change our knowledge of the nature of genome composition by editing previous dogmas. This book provides an overview of current knowledge on ncRNA research by dealing with miRNA and ncRNA-related human diseases, plant miRNA markers, and the roles of lncRNAs in cancer and epigenetics.",isbn:"978-1-78985-656-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-655-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-708-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84808",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"non-coding-rnas",numberOfPages:148,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ff4f15e339216fa9426d2b9fdf3b5901",bookSignature:"Lütfi Tutar, Sümer Aras and Esen Tutar",publishedDate:"March 4th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9377.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3049,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 26th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"158530",title:"Dr.",name:"Lütfi",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"lutfi-tutar",fullName:"Lütfi Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158530/images/system/158530.jpg",biography:"Dr. Lütfi Tutar is currently an Assistant Professor at the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Art and Sciences at Ahi Evran University in Kırşehir, Turkey. His inter-disciplinary research focuses on bioinformatics analysis of high-throughput data, microRNAs, smallRNAs, and Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) in human diseases and other multicellular organisms.",institutionString:"Ahi Evran University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ahi Evran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"40615",title:"Prof.",name:"Sumer",middleName:null,surname:"Aras",slug:"sumer-aras",fullName:"Sumer Aras",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40615/images/system/40615.jpg",biography:"Sümer Aras was educated at the Middle East Technical University,\nBiology Department, Ankara, Turkey, and obtained her BS degree\nin 1988. She finished her Master of Science studies at Cleveland\nState University and Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Department\nof Molecular Biology, Ohio, USA, in 1994. She obtained her PhD\ndegree in 1998 at Ankara University. Her area of interest is plant\nmolecular biology and biotechnology. She has more than 140 publications in the field of molecular biology of which 70 are full text articles in respected\njournals. Currently, she works as a full professor at Ankara University in the Biology\nDepartment. She is also Chair of the Biotechnology Section.",institutionString:"Ankara University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"295100",title:"Dr.",name:"Esen",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"esen-tutar",fullName:"Esen Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/295100/images/system/295100.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esen Tutar is currently an assistant professor at Kırşehir Ahi\nEvran University (Mucur Health Services Vocational School, Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Medical Laboratory Techniques Program), Kırşehir, Turkey. Her research focuses\non microRNAs, non-coding RNAs, molecular identification of\nmicrobial pathogens, and heat shock proteins.",institutionString:"Kırşehir Ahi Evran University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Ahi Evran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"396",title:"Molecular Genetics",slug:"genomics-molecular-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"71032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Noncoding RNAs—A Brief Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91332",slug:"introductory-chapter-noncoding-rnas-a-brief-overview",totalDownloads:236,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sümer Aras, Esen Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71032",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71032",authors:[{id:"158530",title:"Dr.",name:"Lütfi",surname:"Tutar",slug:"lutfi-tutar",fullName:"Lütfi Tutar"},{id:"40615",title:"Prof.",name:"Sumer",surname:"Aras",slug:"sumer-aras",fullName:"Sumer Aras"},{id:"295100",title:"Dr.",name:"Esen",surname:"Tutar",slug:"esen-tutar",fullName:"Esen Tutar"}],corrections:null},{id:"69180",title:"MicroRNA-335-5p and Gastrointestinal Tumors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88895",slug:"microrna-335-5p-and-gastrointestinal-tumors",totalDownloads:485,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Pablo M. Santoro, Alejandra Sandoval-Bórquez and Alejandro H. Corvalan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69180",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69180",authors:[{id:"53562",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Corvalan",slug:"alejandro-corvalan",fullName:"Alejandro Corvalan"},{id:"297069",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",surname:"Sandoval",slug:"alejandra-sandoval",fullName:"Alejandra Sandoval"},{id:"308428",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Santoro",slug:"pablo-santoro",fullName:"Pablo Santoro"}],corrections:null},{id:"67642",title:"Role of MicroRNA in Smoking–Induced Periodontitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86756",slug:"role-of-microrna-in-smoking-induced-periodontitis",totalDownloads:298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Herman S. Cheung, Carlos Carballosa and Jordan Greenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67642",authors:[{id:"60386",title:"Dr.",name:"Herman S.",surname:"Cheung",slug:"herman-s.-cheung",fullName:"Herman S. Cheung"},{id:"297294",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Carballosa",slug:"carlos-carballosa",fullName:"Carlos Carballosa"},{id:"318649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordan",surname:"Greenberg",slug:"jordan-greenberg",fullName:"Jordan Greenberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"69556",title:"Role of Virus-Encoded microRNAs in Avian Viral Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89688",slug:"role-of-virus-encoded-micrornas-in-avian-viral-diseases",totalDownloads:257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Venugopal Nair and Yongxiu Yao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69556",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69556",authors:[{id:"297499",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxiu",surname:"Yao",slug:"yongxiu-yao",fullName:"Yongxiu Yao"},{id:"305518",title:"Prof.",name:"Venugopal",surname:"Nair",slug:"venugopal-nair",fullName:"Venugopal Nair"}],corrections:null},{id:"69509",title:"MicroRNAs in the Functional Defects of Skin Aging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89689",slug:"micrornas-in-the-functional-defects-of-skin-aging",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Fabien P. Chevalier, Julie Rorteau and Jérôme Lamartine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69509",authors:[{id:"101931",title:"Prof.",name:"Jérôme",surname:"Lamartine",slug:"jerome-lamartine",fullName:"Jérôme Lamartine"},{id:"297823",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabien",surname:"Chevalier",slug:"fabien-chevalier",fullName:"Fabien Chevalier"},{id:"309924",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Julie",surname:"Rorteau",slug:"julie-rorteau",fullName:"Julie Rorteau"}],corrections:null},{id:"68010",title:"MicroRNA-Based Markers in Plant Genome Response to Abiotic Stress and Their Application in Plant Genotyping",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88064",slug:"microrna-based-markers-in-plant-genome-response-to-abiotic-stress-and-their-application-in-plant-gen",totalDownloads:307,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Katarína Ražná, Jana Žiarovská and Zdenka Gálová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68010",authors:[{id:"257512",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Žiarovská",slug:"jana-ziarovska",fullName:"Jana Žiarovská"},{id:"298187",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Katarína",surname:"Ražná",slug:"katarina-razna",fullName:"Katarína Ražná"},{id:"298189",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdenka",surname:"Gálová",slug:"zdenka-galova",fullName:"Zdenka Gálová"}],corrections:null},{id:"68344",title:"The Role of Noncoding RNAs in Brain Cells during Rat Cerebral Ischemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88402",slug:"the-role-of-noncoding-rnas-in-brain-cells-during-rat-cerebral-ischemia",totalDownloads:244,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ivan B. Filippenkov, Lyudmila V. Dergunova and Svetlana A. Limborska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68344",authors:[{id:"41925",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Limborska",slug:"svetlana-limborska",fullName:"Svetlana Limborska"},{id:"301808",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Filippenkov",slug:"ivan-filippenkov",fullName:"Ivan Filippenkov"},{id:"302027",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila",surname:"Dergunova",slug:"lyudmila-dergunova",fullName:"Lyudmila Dergunova"}],corrections:null},{id:"69297",title:"lncRNAs in Hallmarks of Cancer and Clinical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88903",slug:"lncrnas-in-hallmarks-of-cancer-and-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Leandro Garcia, Erika Zambalde, Carolina Mathias, Jéssica Barazetti, Daniela Gradia and Jaqueline Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69297",authors:[{id:"302818",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaqueline",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"jaqueline-oliveira",fullName:"Jaqueline Oliveira"},{id:"302822",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Gradia",slug:"daniela-gradia",fullName:"Daniela Gradia"},{id:"302823",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",surname:"Garcia",slug:"leandro-garcia",fullName:"Leandro Garcia"},{id:"302824",title:"MSc.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Mathias",slug:"carolina-mathias",fullName:"Carolina Mathias"},{id:"308943",title:"MSc.",name:"Erika",surname:"Zambalde",slug:"erika-zambalde",fullName:"Erika Zambalde"},{id:"308945",title:"MSc.",name:"Jéssica",surname:"Barazetti",slug:"jessica-barazetti",fullName:"Jéssica Barazetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"68146",title:"The Function of lncRNAs as Epigenetic Regulators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88071",slug:"the-function-of-lncrnas-as-epigenetic-regulators",totalDownloads:535,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Ana Luisa Pedroso Ayub, Debora D’Angelo Papaiz, Roseli da Silva Soares and Miriam Galvonas Jasiulionis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68146",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68146",authors:[{id:"39866",title:"Prof.",name:"Miriam",surname:"Jasiulionis",slug:"miriam-jasiulionis",fullName:"Miriam Jasiulionis"},{id:"297523",title:"Ms.",name:"Ana Luisa",surname:"Ayub",slug:"ana-luisa-ayub",fullName:"Ana Luisa Ayub"},{id:"297524",title:"Ms.",name:"Débora",surname:"Papaiz",slug:"debora-papaiz",fullName:"Débora Papaiz"},{id:"297527",title:"Dr.",name:"Roseli",surname:"Soares",slug:"roseli-soares",fullName:"Roseli Soares"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1723",title:"DNA Methylation",subtitle:"From Genomics to Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b3809ec24719b565e1c788038b43870",slug:"dna-methylation-from-genomics-to-technology",bookSignature:"Tatiana Tatarinova and Owain Kerton",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1723.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Tatarinova",slug:"tatiana-tatarinova",fullName:"Tatiana Tatarinova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2748",title:"Functional Genomics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7bc4d180a8c0993b1c3e084aa4c47819",slug:"functional-genomics",bookSignature:"Germana Meroni and Francesca Petrera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2748.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"137670",title:"Dr.",name:"Germana",surname:"Meroni",slug:"germana-meroni",fullName:"Germana Meroni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1719",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",subtitle:"Examples from Current Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"204480b394b0ba9a43580a1e04d53c50",slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",bookSignature:"David Figurski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1719.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104812",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Figurski",slug:"david-figurski",fullName:"David Figurski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7995",title:"Epigenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33c1f5868ce0c29fbde6eafdc50af702",slug:"epigenetics",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8891",title:"Gene Editing",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f0d7de56709fc0558c0bb8212a0d03",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9394",title:"Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Test Methods",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ee7e597358dbbfb5e33d0beb76e6fff",slug:"genotoxicity-and-mutagenicity-mechanisms-and-test-methods",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6987",title:"Antisense Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d60550dc1e3afbb083fe61925b33caa",slug:"antisense-therapy",bookSignature:"Shashwat Sharad and Suman Kapur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6987.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80113",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashwat",surname:"Sharad",slug:"shashwat-sharad",fullName:"Shashwat Sharad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8029",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"19e7bd55dd90a5187ee806a307ef112d",slug:"transcriptome-analysis",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8605",title:"DNA Repair",subtitle:"An Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f32305a1299fabc5119b721f69cc97cb",slug:"dna-repair-an-update",bookSignature:"Maddalena Mognato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8605.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41691",title:"Dr.",name:"Maddalena",surname:"Mognato",slug:"maddalena-mognato",fullName:"Maddalena Mognato"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7331",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",subtitle:"Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"436fdc4857ca5c7f496e439de1034b6b",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",bookSignature:"Aditi Singh and Mohammad W. Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7331.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240724",title:"Dr.",name:"Aditi",surname:"Singh",slug:"aditi-singh",fullName:"Aditi Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66066",slug:"erratum-microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",title:"Erratum - Microbial Responses to Different Operating Practices for Biogas Production Systems",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66066.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66066",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66066",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66066",chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7142",leadTitle:null,title:"Human Herpesvirus Infection",subtitle:"Biological Features, Transmission, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The relationship between herpesviruses and humans probably dates from thousands of years ago. In the last few decades, many aspects of herpesvirus infections have been understood, such as infections with a range of manifestations (severe, mild, or subclinical). Herpesvirus can remain latent during a lifetime and sometimes their reactivation can cause different clinical features in the patient. Several conditions have been related to herpesvirus reactivation such as complications in transplant organ recipients and immune regulatory modification in the elderly. Aspects of human herpesvirus simples, varicella-zoster virus, and cytomegalovirus are presented and discussed in this book.",isbn:"978-1-83881-159-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-158-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-160-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73940",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"human-herpesvirus-infection-biological-features-transmission-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"beb076fbfc65deb69820f12f934bfdcd",bookSignature:"Ronaldo Luis Thomasini",publishedDate:"April 1st 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7142.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2957,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 6th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 26th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"81175",title:"PhD.",name:"Ronaldo Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Thomasini",slug:"ronaldo-luis-thomasini",fullName:"Ronaldo Luis Thomasini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81175/images/system/81175.jpeg",biography:"Ronaldo Luis Thomasini is a Professor of Microbiology, Parasitology, Pathology, and Pharmacology at the Faculty of Medicine of Diamantina-Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys - UFVJM, Brazil. He is a Coordinator of The Center for Studies of Inflammatory and Infectious Diseases and a Professor in the Multi-Centric Post-Graduation Program in Physiological Sciences (PMPGCF-UFVJM), and Post-Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences (PPGCiFarm-UFVJM). He is a graduate (Licenciate and Bachelor) in Biological Sciences by Herminio Ometto University Center (2002), Master degree in Pharmacology by State University of Campinas - UNICAMP (2007), and PhD in Clinical Medicine by the same university (2011). He has a post-doctoral fellow in Biochemistry and Immunology from the Federal University of Minas Gerais-UFMG and develops studies in clinical pathology, microbiology, virology, immunology and biochemistry, techniques on molecular biology applied to the diagnosis of infectious disease and host-parasite interactions.",institutionString:"Federal University of Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"State University of Campinas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"69359",title:"Introductory Chapter: Human Herpesvirus - A Short Introduction",slug:"introductory-chapter-human-herpesvirus-a-short-introduction",totalDownloads:198,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"81175",title:"PhD.",name:"Ronaldo Luis",surname:"Thomasini",slug:"ronaldo-luis-thomasini",fullName:"Ronaldo Luis Thomasini"}]},{id:"64844",title:"Sunlight and Herpes Virus",slug:"sunlight-and-herpes-virus",totalDownloads:839,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"273350",title:"Prof.",name:"Vittorio",surname:"Mazzarello",slug:"vittorio-mazzarello",fullName:"Vittorio Mazzarello"},{id:"274197",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Ferrari",slug:"marco-ferrari",fullName:"Marco Ferrari"},{id:"283742",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Alessandra",surname:"Sotgiu",slug:"maria-alessandra-sotgiu",fullName:"Maria Alessandra Sotgiu"},{id:"283744",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Decandia",slug:"stefano-decandia",fullName:"Stefano Decandia"}]},{id:"64988",title:"Neurologic Complications of Varicella-Zoster Virus Infection",slug:"neurologic-complications-of-varicella-zoster-virus-infection",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"43262",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideto",surname:"Nakajima",slug:"hideto-nakajima",fullName:"Hideto Nakajima"},{id:"286199",title:"Dr.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Hara",slug:"makoto-hara",fullName:"Makoto Hara"},{id:"286200",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihiko",surname:"Morita",slug:"akihiko-morita",fullName:"Akihiko Morita"},{id:"286201",title:"Prof.",name:"Satoshi",surname:"Kamei",slug:"satoshi-kamei",fullName:"Satoshi Kamei"}]},{id:"71254",title:"Extracranial Herpetic Paresis",slug:"extracranial-herpetic-paresis",totalDownloads:207,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"271733",title:"Prof.",name:"Vesna",surname:"Martic",slug:"vesna-martic",fullName:"Vesna Martic"}]},{id:"67401",title:"Human Cytomegalovirus Infection: Biological Features, Transmission, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment",slug:"human-cytomegalovirus-infection-biological-features-transmission-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:367,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"269379",title:"M.D.",name:"Şule",surname:"Gökçe",slug:"sule-gokce",fullName:"Şule Gökçe"}]},{id:"69076",title:"The Role of the Epstein-Barr Virus Lytic Cycle in Tumor Progression: Consequences in Diagnosis and Therapy",slug:"the-role-of-the-epstein-barr-virus-lytic-cycle-in-tumor-progression-consequences-in-diagnosis-and-th",totalDownloads:272,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"220812",firstName:"Lada",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220812/images/6021_n.jpg",email:"lada@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/825.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"799",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba452d8a24ef16b1267d2854b28f6e6a",slug:"salmonella-a-dangerous-foodborne-pathogen",bookSignature:"Barakat S. M. Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/799.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"322",title:"Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"269535b3a2f21a46216f4ca6925aa8f1",slug:"flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Daniel Růžek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33830",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Ruzek",slug:"daniel-ruzek",fullName:"Daniel Ruzek"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2068",title:"Understanding Tuberculosis",subtitle:"New Approaches to Fighting Against Drug Resistance",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"077a11a53e4b135020092b8c1143f93c",slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-new-approaches-to-fighting-against-drug-resistance",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3842",title:"Leishmaniasis",subtitle:"Trends in Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"861f3ca84eede677ba6cd863093d62f8",slug:"leishmaniasis-trends-in-epidemiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"David M. Claborn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"977",title:"Understanding Tuberculosis",subtitle:"Global Experiences and Innovative Approaches to the Diagnosis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cb8288ea48f14bd22680c6ae5b13745b",slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-global-experiences-and-innovative-approaches-to-the-diagnosis",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/977.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"971",title:"Malaria Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7a9d672f9988a6d5b059aed14188896",slug:"malaria-parasites",bookSignature:"Omolade O. Okwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/971.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99780",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Omolade Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-olayinka-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1273",title:"Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa857119b76ce546ccf16503e982a08e",slug:"non-flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1273.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62638",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2061",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"Distribution, Adaptation, Control Measures and Molecular Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64584b0d61f32814e0ed682bf052b088",slug:"salmonella-distribution-adaptation-control-measures-and-molecular-technologies",bookSignature:"Bassam A. Annous and Joshua B. Gurtler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2061.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101172",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",surname:"Annous",slug:"bassam-annous",fullName:"Bassam Annous"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72759",title:"Smart Coatings with Carbon Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92967",slug:"smart-coatings-with-carbon-nanoparticles",body:'Smart coatings are special covering materials which are able to sense and respond to an external stimulus. They are made with programmable materials, which respond to changes in light, chemical, thermal, or other stimuli. This brings them new performances, typically self-healing, self-cleaning, self-sensors, etc. due to their piezoelectric, thermoelectric, piezoresistive, and chemical properties (Figure 1). Most of the current smart coatings are based on nanoreinforced polymers. The incorporation of functional organic and inorganic nanofillers usually improves the thermal and mechanical properties of polymers, providing them new functionalities. As it is well-known, one of the main advantages to add nanofillers is their high specific area, which reduces significantly the nanofiller content and enhances the load transfer from the matrix, when the interface is suitable.
Summary of smart coatings with carbon nanoparticles.
In this work, we focused on the addition of carbon nanoparticles, mainly graphene (G), graphene nanoplatelets (GNP), and carbon nanotubes (CNT). They have extraordinary electrical and thermal conductivity and a unique combination of mechanical properties with great stiffness and high toughness [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. They are composed of carbon, exhibiting low toxicity and environmental friendliness. For all these reasons, they are considered as multifunctional fillers of polymer matrix. In fact, polymer nanocomposites reinforced with carbon nanoparticles usually present enhanced mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties together with new performance as smart materials.
They can act as strain sensors due to their piezoresistive behavior, varying the electrical resistance of composite induced by the deformation of the electrical network formed by graphitic nanofillers. On the other hand, the nanofillers can be used as actuators, for example, as self-heater due to Joule’s heating or as chemical absorbents. In this case, the matrix is a neat stimulus-responsive polymer, while the carbon nanofillers provide the stimuli to induce the polymer response.
The synthesis and processing of nanocomposite polymer coatings usually have at least two separated stages: the dispersion of nanofillers into the monomers, prepolymers, or polymers and the coating manufacture.
There are numerous different techniques to disperse the carbon nanofiller into monomers and polymers. In fact, there are numerous articles and reviews published. For this reason, in this chapter, they are only mentioned. It is well-known that the improvement of properties, in special mechanical ones, on nanocomposites is strongly dependent on the dispersion quality together with the polymer-nanofiller interface, which relies on the chemical and physical interaction between functionalized nanofillers and polymer matrix. Good dispersion of nanoparticles is critical to achieve high-performance nanocomposite. The most common processing techniques of nanocomposites can be organized on three ways: direct mixing, in situ polymerization in the presence of nanoparticles, and solution mixing. One more processing way is the in situ synthesis of particles, which is usually based on in situ sol–gel process inside polymers, but it is only used for inorganic nanofillers.
Carbon nanofillers must be dispersed on polymer or prepolymers depending on the polymer nature. The dispersion of nanofillers on thermoplastic polymers often carries out during the polymer manufacturing process, as extrusion or calandering. However, the nanofiller dispersion on rubber and thermosetting polymers is usually carried out in a previous step of curing process into monomers or prepolymers. In this last case, different dispersion techniques can be also applied, based on the application of mechanical forces or an electric or magnetic field.
As it was mentioned above, the second step consists on manufacturing the own coating, applying different common processing techniques of coatings. Cold spray process is commonly used for processing polymer nanocomposite coatings, avoiding the thermal deterioration of substrate. Dispersion, emulsion, and latex in situ polymerizations are other applied manufacturing processes.
Graphitic nanofillers are often used to improve the mechanical properties of polymer coatings. The poor tribological performance of polymer coatings can be improved by adequately addition of graphitic nanofillers into the matrix because graphite is a solid lubricant. Polymer coating containing graphene can present excellent tribological properties, with low friction coefficient and reduced wear rate [7]. The increment of graphene content gradually decreases both friction coefficient and wear rate of composite coating. Under high temperature, graphene-reinforced thermosetting coatings show better friction reduction and wear resistance than neat coating. The values of these properties are enhanced by the increase of graphene content. Meanwhile, the friction coefficient and the wear rate of the graphene/composite coatings do not show a clear tendency with the increase of temperature. This behavior could be explained by the formation of a transfer film on the surface, which suppresses the huge heat and contact pressure [7]. CNT/polymer coatings can induce anti-friction, wear-proof, and self-lubrication performance [8], reducing the friction and improving the wear resistance. However, numerous factors affect their tribological behavior, such as the composition and properties of sliding pairs, such as their surface roughness and main mechanical properties (hardness, stiffness, and fracture toughness) and the sliding parameters, such as load, speed, temperature, and lubrication state, among others. This behavior is explained by the different involved mechanisms: bridge crack of CNT and lock the propagation of cracks, lubricant effect by dislodgement of individual graphene layers, strengthening of reinforced polymer matrix and dissipation of heat, and reducing the temperature induced wear [8]. It is worthy to note that there is an optimum carbon nanoparticle content to achieve the best tribological properties. However, this value depends on many factors such as aspect ratio of nanofiller, the dispersion degree and orientation of nanofillers, and the interactions with polymer matrix at interfaces.
The incorporation of carbon nanoparticles into polymer composites also increases their hardness. Increasing nanofiller content leads to improvement of hardness; however, the slope of the curve is reduced as the amount of graphitic nanofiller increases, which is attributed to agglomerations in the composite coating [9].
One of the most important applications of polymers reinforced with graphitic nanofillers is as anticorrosive coatings. The anticorrosive coatings can be classified in accordance to the protection mechanism against corrosion [10]: barrier protection, cathodic protection, anodic passivation, electrolytic inhibition, and active corrosion inhibition.
Graphitic nanoparticles enhances the barrier properties of polymer coating due to the “torturous path effect” and “nano-barrier wall effect,” which strongly depends on exfoliation, dispersion, and orientation degree of nanofiller, their aspect ratio, the polymer-nanofiller interface, and the crystallinity of thermoplastic polymer or cross-linking degree of thermosetting resins. The presence of nanofillers constructs tortuous paths, decreasing the diffusion coefficient. The orientation of graphene and their high surface area forms a zigzag diffusion pathway hindering the diffusion of corrosion species. In addition, their excellent electrical conductivity prevents the electrons form the cathodic site by providing an alternative path [11]. The functionalization of graphitic nanofillers with polar groups [12] enhances the ionic resistance of coating by the creation of negative charge on the graphitic nanofillers surface when exposed to alkaline and neutral environment, preventing the diffusion of chlorine and hydroxyl anions.
In the last years, the development of superhydrophobic surfaces is being extensively researched. Superhydrophobic coatings have a wide range of applications in textile, automotive parts, construction, agriculture, optical, and maritime industry. It is well established that three factors are needed to create a superhydrophobic surface: low surface energy, microscaled roughness, and nano- and microscaled hierarchical surfaces [13]. The hierarchical multiscale surface can be achieved in coatings with high CNT content, forming CNT agglomerates at the microscale and CNT themselves at nanoscale. Polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF) are commonly used as hydrophobic polymer coating. Water contact angle increases from 105° for neat PVDF to 170° with very high content of CNT [14]. Similar enhancement of hydrophobicity is reached by the addition of graphene nanoplatelets [15]. The superhydrophobicity is usually requested together with other functionalities, such as self-cleaning, anti-icing, and deicing, which will be addressed further on.
The incorporation of graphene into polymers allows increasing the thermal stability of polymer composite [16]. Higher specific area and aspect ratio of carbon nanofillers induce higher stability [17]. This enhancement is also accompanied with an important increase of the low thermal conductivity of polymers. Very high enhancements have been reported, from 0.2 W/mK for neat epoxy coating to 20 W/mK for composite with 30% graphene [16]. Graphene is more effective nanofiller than CNT in order to enhance the thermal conductivity of polymer composites. The thermal conductivity of graphene is attributed to phonons and electrons [18], justifying their excellent thermal conductivity (2000 W/mK). For example, copper is considered a good thermal conductor, whose conductivity is 400 W/mK. Here, the contribution of phonons is limited to 1–2% of total. The addition of nonfunctionalized graphene can induce an enhancement of 50% of thermal conductivity. However, when graphene is modified with functional groups, which is able to form covalent and non-covalent bonds with the polymer matrix, the increment can reach 100%. Moreover, a higher 300% of thermal conductivity increment is reached when graphene is modified with a titanium-coupling agent [19]. The researchers [18, 19] explained it by the reduction of interfacial thermal resistance between graphene and polymer due to the surface modification. For the same reason, higher dispersion degree of graphene into polymer matrix also enhances the thermal conductivity of composite.
It is well-known that the electrical conductivity is also increased by the addition of graphitic nanofillers. Higher specific area and higher aspect ratio of nanofillers decrease the nanoparticles which lead to reach an important enhancement of electrical conductivity, from 10−8 to 1010 S/m for the isolating polymers to 0.01–10 S/m for nanocomposites. Here, the functionalization of nanofillers usually implies a low enhancement of electrical conductivity of composites. This is associated to the reduction of the electrical conductivity of neat nanofillers due to the partial breakage of some C-C structure during the functionalization and the surrounding isolating polymer layer formed over the functionalized nanofillers, which hinders the direct contacts between electrical nanoparticles.
Nanoreinforced coatings are being studied to improve the flame retardancy (FR) of flammable substrates [20]. The addition of graphene usually reduces the total heat release (THR) because they reduce the release of deleterious gas during thermal decomposition, arising from the radical trapping and layered hindering effect. CNT also enhances the FR behavior due to the strengthening of carbonized layers [21]. Also, they act as excellent physical barrier, reducing significantly the peak heat release rate (PHRR).
Among other functionalities, the concept of structural health monitoring (SHM) is of great interest in polymer coatings. It is based in an online inspection of the damage extent. In this context, a proper SHM technique must accomplish the following four levels, established by Rytter et al. [22]: (1) detection, (2) localization, (3) quantification of the damage, and (4) the estimation of remaining life, also known as prognosis (Figure 2).
Schematics of the four SHM levels established by Rytter et al.
Nowadays, there are a lot of different SHM techniques such as lamb waves, fiber optics, and acoustic emission, among others. However, they usually involve complex mathematical and statistical tools and do not often give an overall information of the health of the structure [23, 24]. Therefore, the development of SHM techniques is now gaining a great deal of attention.
As commented before, carbon nanoparticles present unique mechanical and, especially, electrical properties in comparison to other materials [25]. Therefore, their addition into an insulating media promotes the creation of electrical networks. This fact induces an enhancement of the electrical conductivity of several orders of magnitude, becoming the polymer coating electrically conductive [26, 27].
Here, it is important, firstly, to define the concept of percolation threshold. It is the critical volume fraction of nanoparticles in which an efficient electrical network is formed, allowing the current flow. It depends on several factors mainly related to the geometry of the nanofiller (including their 0D, 1D, or 2D nature) as well as their dispersion state, that is, their distribution inside the nanocomposite. The determination of the percolation threshold is a crucial factor that determines the minimum content of nanofiller that is needed for electrical applications.
Furthermore, the influence of the different parameters of the nanoparticle network in the percolation threshold has been widely studied in the last years. Li et al. [28] proposed a simple analytical model correlating the geometry, aspect ratio, and dispersion state with the value of the percolation threshold. They concluded that the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the degree of agglomeration of nanoparticles, the higher the percolation threshold. In this context, carbon black (CB) reinforced polymers show very high values of percolation threshold [29] due to their low aspect ratio Bauhofer et al. [30] did an extensive review of percolation threshold in carbon nanotube (CNT)-based polymer nanocomposites by analyzing the effect of nanofiller geometry and dispersion technique. It was observed that the most aggressive dispersion procedures, such as ultrasonication, although leading to the most homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles, lead to a very significant breakage of the CNTs. This prevalent reduction of the aspect ratio leads to increasing values of percolation threshold.
However, the effect of dispersion procedure varies depending on the nanofiller. In this case, ultrasonication has proved to be a good dispersion technique for graphene nanoplatelet (GNP)-based nanocomposites. GNPs are formed by several layers of graphene, and it is widely used as reinforcement in polymer nanocomposites because of the lower cost. Here, ultrasonication promotes the exfoliation of the graphene layers [31]. Therefore, these exfoliating mechanisms induce a reduction of the percolation threshold due to an increase of the aspect ratio of the nanofillers. The combination of an ultrasonication stage with three roll milling can promote the creation of GNP nanocomposites with very low percolation threshold due to the combination of exfoliation stretching effects.
The concept of SHM with nanoparticles, therefore, is based in the monitoring of the changes of the electrical network when subjected to strain or damage. However, for a better understanding of these SHM techniques, it is important to know which are the main conducting mechanisms in the electrical network. Here, three different mechanisms can be identified: the intrinsic conductivity of the nanofiller, the contact between adjacent nanoparticles, and the tunneling transport that takes places between two neighboring particles that are not in intimate contact. Among them, the tunneling transport plays a dominant role in the electrical network of the nanocomposite [32]. It is explained because the associated tunneling resistance is several orders of magnitude higher than the intrinsic and contact resistance. Therefore, the variations of the electrical network when subjected to strain or damage will be ruled by the variation of the tunneling distance between nanoparticles.
In this regard, Simmons [33] established a linear-exponential correlation between the tunneling resistance and the interparticle distance, also known as tunneling distance. It means that the higher the separation between neighboring nanoparticles, the higher the electrical resistance is. More specifically, when subjected to strain, there is a variation of the electrical resistance that is correlated to an increase of the tunneling distance between adjacent nanoparticles:
where
In this context, the concept of percolation threshold that has been discussed before plays a key role. In fact, the linear-exponential dependence means that the higher the tunneling distance at the initial situation, that is, when no strain is applied, the higher will be the electrical resistance variation associated to the variation in the tunneling distance when applying strain, as can be observed in Figure 3.
Variation of the tunneling resistance as a function of the tunneling distance between nanofillers.
Here, it is necessary to define the concept of gauge factor (GF), as the variation of the normalized resistance
Therefore, in order to achieve the highest GFs, it would be necessary to work with volume fractions of nanofiller near the percolation threshold, as the distance between adjacent nanoparticles will be the highest possible to form an efficient electrical network and, thus, the variation of the tunneling distance will be the highest. This has been observed in both GNP and CNT nanocomposites, where the contents near the percolation threshold achieved the highest GFs [34, 35].
However, in this sense, there are significant differences among the different nanoparticles. For example, GNP-based nanocomposites have shown a more accused exponential behavior of the electrical resistance with applied strain [35] than CNT-based ones [36]. It means that the values of GF at low strain levels are much lower than at high strain levels.
This accused exponential behavior of GNP nanocomposites can be explained accordingly to the different interactions that take place inside the electrical network. In fact, the tunneling area of these 2D particles is, generally, much higher than in the case of CNTs, and it leads to the fact that the value of the interparticle distance can be much higher for an efficient tunneling transport. Therefore, as explained before, the higher the tunneling distance, the more accused the exponential correlation between the electrical resistance and the applied strain will be.
Moreover, there is also a correlation between the exponential behavior and the sensitivity of the nanocomposite, and, thus, GNP-based ones show higher GF values than CNT nanocomposites (from 12–15 to 2–4 at low strain levels, respectively, for nanocomposites manufactured following similar techniques) [35, 36].
The enormous potential of the nanoparticles for SHM applications has been widely exploited in the development of surface sensors and smart coatings. More specifically, their use as substitutes of strain gages is gaining attention nowadays.
Basically, a strain gauge is a device for indicating the strain level of a structure at the point of attachment. To date, the most used are based in conventional metallic foils in which the strain is obtained from the electrical resistance variation due to the deformation of the metallic foil when subjected to this strain level. GF values of conventional strain gauges are around 2 and usually show a very linear dependence of electrical resistance change with applied strain.
The research in strain-sensing devices with carbon-based nanocomposites is mainly focused in the development of highly stretchable sensors. In this regard, graphene, carbon nanotubes, and other carbon nanoparticles, such as carbon black, have been widely explored, among others. The addition of these nanoparticles to polymers with high strain capabilities such as fluoroelastomers [37], thermoplastic polyurethane [38], or vulcanized silicone [39] has demonstrated excellent sensing capabilities. More specifically, they present enormous potential for human motion sensing or wearable electronics [37] as the GF at high strain levels (>20%) can be in the range of 400–4000 depending on the content and morphology of the carbon nanofiller. Here, a highly accused exponential behavior is observed at higher strain levels due to the prevalence of tunneling mechanisms in the carbon nanoparticle network. In addition, they can be also used as pressure sensors, with excellent sensing capabilities in comparison to others [40] as they are able to detect very small pressure changes due to the strain induced fail that they promote.
Here, it can be stated that the 2D nature of the electrical network in a nanocomposite coating promotes an increase of the percolation threshold when compared to a bulk nanocomposites, where a 3D uniform disposition of the nanofillers is supposed to be [41]. Moreover, the cross-sectional area of the coatings is obviously much lower than 3D nanocomposites, so the electrical resistance is much higher. Therefore, the amount of nanofiller necessary for SHM purposes is much higher in polymer coatings.
Furthermore, apart from flexible devices such as strain gauges, wearable electronics, or human motion sensors, their SHM capabilities in other polymer coating based on thermosetting polymers have been widely demonstrated. More specifically, GNP-based coatings have proved to be very sensitive at low strain levels to both tensile and compressive loading, as well as a good repeatability under cyclic loads [42]. In addition, CNT-based ones have also demonstrated good sensing properties with a high linearity [43].
Although the interest as strain sensing devices is very significant, their crack sensing capabilities can be even of more interest. Here, the crack detection is based in a sudden breakage of the electrical pathways due to the presence of the crack itself. It will be reflected in a sharp increase of the electrical resistivity of the coating, and, thus, the electrical resistance during the measurement will increase as well, as shown in the schematics of Figure 4.
Schematics of the effect of a crack in the electrical network.
In this regard, electrical impedance tomography is gaining a great deal of attention as an SHM technique. It is based in a mapping of the electrical conductivity of a structure based in the electrical resistance measurements on its surface. Therefore, by using this technique, it will be possible to detect, locate, and even quantify superficial defects by analyzing the changes of its surface resistivity. In this context, their effectiveness has been widely demonstrated in polymer coatings for the detection of superficial cracks [43], where the electrical resistance measurement between adjacent channels can easily detect an artificial damage (Figure 5), as well as in sensing skins for spatial pressure mapping, where the strain induced by the applied pressure is monitored [44]. Here, the main issue is correlated to the positioning of the electrodes and the data processing, which usually involves the use of complex mathematical tools. However, the results for SHM applications are very promising and give a new functionality to nanoreinforced polymer coatings.
(a) Schematics of electrode disposition and (b) mapping of variation of the electrical resistance correlated to an induced damage [43].
Surface heating is a challenge for several applications, and it is usually carried out by different approaches such as external heating source (portable equipment) or heating elements positioned on the surface (i.e., electrical resistances) which, in fact, modifies the surface quality of the parts where they are positioned. Heat is required in organic coatings for different purposes:
Deicing systems: ice accretion to surfaces when subjected to cold and humid environments is something very common that requires the use of deicing alternatives, and, among them, heat of the surface to create a liquid film can be of great interest.
Self-curing coatings: the use of coatings with curing temperatures above 23°C is often limited because of the need of external heating sources that makes the production more difficult. Nevertheless, the glass transition temperatures or hardness are usually higher for higher cross-linked coating, thus making more interesting the use of higher curing/post-curing temperatures.
Heat activated self-healing mechanisms: as previously mentioned, the main source for self-healing activation is UV radiation and temperature. Nevertheless, the requirement of a heating source limits the application of these promising coatings to structures with easy access to be heated.
These applications will be further explored after an explanation of basic aspects of self-heating coatings based on the introduction of conductive nanoparticles inside polymer matrices, such as CNTs and GNPs. Nevertheless, these types of coatings are not limited to these applications, and they can find a potential field to be implemented in any product that need to be heated such as heating seats for commercial vehicles [45], floor heating, heating textiles, etc. where temperatures required are usually below 100°C [46].
The addition of carbon nanoparticles inside a polymer matrix above the percolation threshold, which has been previously explained, allows getting an electrically conductive material. The electrical current that flows through the material will generate heat according to Joule’s law (Eq. (1)), which is commonly known as Joule effect in materials:
where Q is the heat generated, i is the current flow, R is the electrical resistance, and t is the time the current is applied.
The first thing that can be analyzed from Eq. (1) is that higher current intensity would lead to higher heat generated and, consequently, higher contents of carbon nanoparticles will be desired for this purpose in order to increase the temperature reached or to reduce the voltage required. Although all common carbon nanostructures can be used for this purpose (carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphene nanoplatelets, or even graphite flakes), the importance of reaching high intensity values usually gives the best results for CNT-filled materials [47]. In fact, very high CNT amounts can be found in the literature in order to increase the electrical conductivity and, consequently, the current flowing at lower voltages applied. This is the case of the study based on ABS as matrix where CNT was added up to 15 wt.% in order to allow reaching temperatures over 200°C when voltages of only 12 V were applied [48] or the research carried out by Chu et al. where similar results in terms of temperature and voltage at contents of 7.5 wt.% of CNT in PDMS were found [49]. The interest in the use of low voltages is based on the use of batteries commonly installed in cars and trucks, among others.
Apart from the heat generated, there is an important fact regarding these percolated electrically conductive networks, which is the homogeneous distribution of heat through the coating. Two important effects must be taken into account for this aspect: (1) thermal conductivity of polymers which is particularly low, thus making heat transfer through the coating more difficult, and (2) homogeneous presence of the carbon nanoparticles through the polymer matrix, which is not always easily reached.
Both CNTs and GNPs show extremely good thermal conductivity individually. Nevertheless, in spite of their similar intrinsic thermal conductivity, the morphology of GNPs makes them more interesting for this purpose, even when compared to SWCNT [50]. Even at the same content of both types of nanoparticles, Zakaria et al. found that the thermal conductivity was higher for GNP nanocomposites than the MWCNT ones. In fact, although for electrical properties, higher contents of GNPs are usually required to meet similar properties to the ones found for MWCNT, in that case, at only 3 wt.% of nanoreinforcement, GNP nanocomposites showed an increase of 126.4% in thermal conductivity while 3 wt.% of MWCNT only increased this property by 60.2% [51]. In fact, experimental values of thermal conductivity are usually lower than those predicted theoretically, and it has been attributed mainly to waviness, dispersion, alignment, interfacial resistance, and contact resistance [52].
Proper exfoliation of GNPs causes an important increment on thermal conductivity related to an increase of the aspect ratio. Chu et al. [53] proposed a model to calculate the thermal conductivity of nanocomposites based on randomly oriented nanoparticles which takes into account geometrical aspects of the nanoparticles (aspect ratio) as well as differences in the intrinsic thermal conductivity of the nanofiller in each direction. In the case of GNPs, these aspects will be strongly related to their exfoliation and dispersion in the polymer matrix. On the other hand, the waviness of the nanoreinforcement may reduce the effective aspect ratio of the nanofillers which lead to propose few layers GNPs as an optimal solution instead of individual monolayers that tend to roll up easier during dispersion stage.
These self-heating coatings do not require extremely high thermal conductivities, but they should be high enough to ensure good heat transfer through the whole surface for the purposes mentioned above.
The formation of aggregates is very common in this type of materials, and this may cause that at very low carbon nanoparticle loadings, some resin areas are free of nanoreinforcement, which leads to nonuniform heating of the samples. In that cases, the thermal conductivity of the sample is even more important, as heat will not be homogeneously generated, thus making more important its thermal conduction. Prolongo et al. showed this effect when comparing MWCNT loaded with GNP ones, and they found that differences between maximum and minimum temperatures were much higher in those specimens based on MWCNT [47]. When adding GNPs, also this effect was found as lower contents of GNPs lead to areas with lower nanoreinforcement concentration, thus leading to higher temperature differences between different areas in the same sample, while the samples containing higher GNP contents (12 wt.%) showed more uniform heating (Figure 6).
Joule effect heating of epoxy nanocomposites containing (a) 8 wt.%, (b) 10 wt.%, and (c) 12 wt.% of GNPs [54].
Icing on structure surface can seriously affect the function of the system, and, even, it may cause its damage and consequently the need for replacement which leads to economic, environmental, and security issues. Wind turbines or aircraft surfaces are examples in which ice accretion has a detrimental effect on operation conditions by modifying the aerodynamic profile, structural weight, etc. [55, 56]. Most strategies currently used are based on two different approaches that affect the coatings used:
Passive methods which do not require external energy source. The main advantage of these methods is their lack of energy consumption to operate; nevertheless, their effectiveness is usually lower, so they are commonly used in combination with active methods to reduce the power needed [57]. Hydrophobic coatings are one of the passive methods most widely accepted which can be achieved by different approaches such as the addition of nanoparticles or tuning of surface textures in multiple length scales based, among others, in biomimetic techniques [58, 59]. This aspect has been discussed in Section 2.2.
Active methods which require external energy source. These methods are usually more effective to avoid icing problem and can be used in combination with passive methods. Among these active methods, heating systems are the most reliable ones in spite of the power consumption although mechanical ice breakage by means of inflatable rubber boots can be found in small airplanes. When heating the surface, several approaches can be used (infrared heating and warm air conduction, among others), but electrical resistance heating seems to be one of the most promising ones. To avoid the use of additional membranes or layers, multifunctional coatings with heating capability by thermoresistive methods at the same time they protect the underlying structural material are very interesting.
The use of carbon nanostructures has been studied for this purpose trying to create an active method based on Joule effect heating at the same time that hydrophobicity is increased by the addition of these nanoreinforcements. With this purpose, several research efforts have been already done reaching very promising results in terms of temperature, homogeneity, heat rate, and power consumption. By the use of GNPs, Redondo et al. achieved 35°C of temperature increments at 800 V with a heat rate of 13.6°C/min and a power consumption of less than 3 W. This temperature increment should be enough to produce ice melting on the coating and, consequently, separation of the ice accreted to the surface, even at severe ambient temperatures below −20°C [54]. When using CNTs, the electrical conductivity of the materials is usually higher than GNPs, thus increasing the value of the intensity at a constant voltage which is useful for heat generation according to Eq. (1). CNT/PVA films with very high CNT concentration have been produced in order to get very low electrical resistance and, consequently, higher electroresistive heating. The same procedure, using high MWCNT loadings (10 wt.% in poly-1,3,4-oxadiazole), allowed to reach temperatures above 100°C by the application of only 40 V in these nanoreinforced films. Prolongo et al. compared the temperature reached by the use of CNTs and GNPs as nanoreinforcements, and with contents of 0.5 wt.% of CNTs, the temperature reached almost 100°C with only 90 V applied, while 300 V were required to go over 65°C when 8% GNP were added [47]. Nevertheless, the authors claimed that temperature was more homogeneous when GNPs were used as nanoreinforcement.
Finally, the authors are currently exploring the possibility of using the electrical network of CNTs to sense the temperature and, consequently, activate the voltage application when required because of the weather conditions measured by the coating itself. Coatings based on CNT/PDMS were manufactured and showed an effect-denominated negative temperature coefficient (NTC). This effect on electrical response was nonlinear with temperature changes, being the sensitivity more than six times higher in the range −5 to 5°C than at room temperature, which makes them potential candidates for temperature measurement for smart coatings being able to detect temperature and activate the voltage required accordingly [60].
Based on the same basics of previous applications, self-heating nanoreinforced polymers have been developed in order to allow curing by electrical voltage application. This issue has been already explored to take advantage of the uniform heat as far as the heat is generated from the material itself and, also, of the absence of power loses associated to heat transmission from the heating element to the material itself, as it happens when ovens are used [61]. Mas et al. proved the efficiency of this curing method by the addition of MWCNT to an epoxy matrix, and they found uniform thermal properties in the resin cured by Joule heating. In fact, they were able to control the real curing temperature by the coupling of thermocouples to the voltage source with a PID controller. The input of the thermocouples was used by the PID to adjust the power supply in order to keep the curing temperature constant during the process. One of the main advantages they found was the high heating rate as the heat emerges from the material itself.
This fact was also proved by Jang et al. in the research conducted to prove that curing by Joule heating of thin films of PDMS reinforced with high loadings of CNT (7 wt.%) could lead to even better performance than the equivalent oven-cured samples. They measured the mechanical properties of both materials, and they found that stiffness of samples cured by Joule effect heating was slightly higher, which was associated to faster and more uniform heating of the whole material volume. So they conclude that this curing technique could allow obtaining materials at shorter curing times, more homogenous, and with higher cross-linked structures [62].
Other carbon nanostructures different from CNTs have been also studied to cure thermoset materials out of the oven, such as the previously study from Mas et al. established [61]. Xia et al. proposed the use of GNP to cure epoxy matrices by adding contents over 8.5 wt.% as they found this value to be the percolation threshold for the GNP morphology and dispersion technique used. They found curing degrees similar to those found for oven-cured samples but with much faster heating rates and more homogenous curing, similar to the studies previously mentioned. Nevertheless, they found preferential orientation of the GNPs which was associated to the presence of an electric field during curing stage as it was not observed in oven-cured samples. This fact is very important as they found improved electrical and mechanical performance in this direction, but this anisotropic behavior must be taken into account when designing elements with these materials [63].
So, the application of curing by Joule effect heating has been proved as possible in electrically conductive networks based on carbon nanoparticles inside polymer matrices with particular interest due to faster curing cycles, more uniform curing degree, and easy application in large structures/surfaces.
Any thermally activated mechanism could be beneficiated from the previously explained self-heating by thermoresistive heating. Thermo-reversible Diels-Alder reactions are one of these examples, in which the Diels-Alders and retro-Diels-Alder reactions are favored at different temperatures allowing the restoration of the covalent bonds, thus repairing the cracks generated. This method was used by Willocq et al. to produce MWCNT nanoreinforced polymer matrices with self-healing capabilities by Joule effect heating at low voltages of 25 V which were enough to reach the retro-Diels-Alder reaction temperature in the vicinity of the macroscopic damage (crack) due to local higher heating around the crack. This local temperature increment around the crack was strongly dependent on the position of the electrodes with respect to the direction of the crack [64].
Huang et al. used GNPs dispersed in a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) matrix in order to create a percolated network and reach 98% self-healing efficiency by the application of 220 V to the material. The use of GNPs in this case allowed improving alternative self-healing approaches such as heating by IR radiation absorption which is also enhanced by the presence of GNPs in the matrix, thus allowing different alternatives to improve the thermal self-healing process of the TPU [65].
Also, this Joule effect-based heating can be used to activate self-healing in thermosetting/thermoplastic blends which self-healing capabilities. This mechanism is activated by a temperature increase above the melting temperature of the thermoplastic material used and high enough to allow its proper flow through the cracks created. Several materials have been studied for this purpose, and, among them, polycaprolactone (PCL) has been widely studied due to its low melting temperature which can allow self-healing mechanism to take place at temperatures around 100°C to allow its proper flow [66]. Zhang et al. proved the efficiency of the addition of CNT to EVA/PCL composites with shape memory purposes, which allowed heating the blends up to 100°C which would be enough to activate self-healing mechanisms in blends containing PCL as healing phase [67]. All these recent studies reveal that the use of self-heating can help to develop self-healing polymer-based materials with the main advantages to avoid the use of external heat sources, use electrical voltage that could be remotely activated, allow heat to emerge from the material itself avoiding heating other materials parts, and reduce losses due to heat transfer.
Self-cleaning is a surface property consisting in keeping the surface clean under severe environmental conditions [68]. It is inspired from lotus effect with a specific micro- and nano-hierarchical surface morphology and low surface energy, providing superhydrophobicity. A surface can be considered as superhydrophobic when the water contact angle is higher than 150° (WCA > 150°) and the low sliding angle is lower than 10° (SA < 10°). Another opposite approach for getting self-cleaning surfaces is the incorporation of photocatalytic fillers affording hydrophilic surfaces (WCA < 5–10°) able to keep free of organic contaminants and moisture. The self-cleaning surfaces can be developed with nanodoped polymer coatings and with neat graphitic coating, such as it is shown in Figure 7.
Scheme of the main approaches of self-cleaning coatings with carbon nanoparticles.
One of the most studied self-cleaning materials is based on titanium oxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) due to their superhydrophobicity and photocatalytic decomposition ability of organic pollutants. These coatings are usually manufactured by sol-gel process. Modifying these nanofillers with graphene or its derivatives can enhance their visible light response. Hybrid TiO2/graphene nanofillers can exhibit strong electronic overlap and high interfacial binding energy; thus, photoexcited carriers can transfer from TiO2 to graphene, and its band gap is reduced, improving the visible light photoresponse [69, 70]. Nevertheless, graphene enhances the photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO due to that graphene accepts the electron from ZnO nanoparticles, preventing the recombination of photo-generated electron hole in the semiconductor. These nanocoatings show superhydrophobicity when they are irradiated with visible light. An interesting alternative approach is the impregnation of cotton fibers to manufacture industrial self-cleaning textiles [71]. The treated fabrics exhibit an increase anti-bacteriological behavior and high biocompatibility.
Another possibility to develop superhydrophobic self-cleaning coatings is the use of hydrophobic polymer matrix, such as polysiloxanes or fluoro-polymers, doped with graphitic nanofillers, giving high electrical conductivity [72]. These coatings present high water contact angle and low sliding angle. In addition, they exhibit high wear resistance and excellent anticorrosion performance [73]. The presence of polymer matrix enhances the adherence with substrate and increases the chemical resistance. When the matrix is not hydrophobic polymer, the nanocomposite coating can be chemically etched (i.e., fatty acids such as stearic acid, palmitic acid, and oleic acid) in order to decrease the surface energy. This approach allows using very different matrices (i.e., acrylic resin, epoxy, etc.), looking for other advantages, such as superior adhesion, mechanical properties, low cost, etc., making it suitable for many industrial fields. Together with self-cleaning behavior, other related properties are commonly developed in smart coating based on carbon nanoparticles, such as antifouling, antimicrobial, anticorrosion, anti-soiling, etc. Graphetic nanostructures hold antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities, although the involved mechanisms are not completely understood and accepted [74]. For these applications, other nanoparticles of gold, silver, copper, TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, and CuS, are anchored to the graphene nanosheets to enhance the bactericidal efficiency. Now, current efforts consist on developing membranes and films with polymer matrix, such as chitosan, poly(vinyl alcohol), polyamides, polyethyleneimine, etc., for applications in disinfection, gas separation, and water desalination.
The development of polymer coatings with carbon nanoparticles is now gaining a lot of interest. They present enhanced electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties that can be used to confer new functionalities, turning into smart materials, able to interact with the environment, responding appropriately to external stimuli. These new functionalities are possible thanks to the creation of an effective electrical, thermal, or mechanical network inside the polymer matrix, making it possible for their use for structural health monitoring applications, resistive heating by Joule’s effect among others such us self-cleaning and self-healing.
This work was supported by the Young Researchers R&D Project (SMART-MULTICOAT M2183) financed by the Comunidad de Madrid government and Rey Juan Carlos University.
With medical and pharmaceutical costs rising and the politicization of healthcare, not a week goes by without mention of the industry in news reporting. New media aside, the print news has been a stronghold news source for centuries covering a wide range of topics. Though journalism is meant to be impartial to cultural values, news-content, including the editorial cartoon, can be filled with the implicit opinions of the author no matter the topic of the story or the medium used. The author’s voices and opinions are at the forefront of mass media with potential to influence the masses. These voices are what define and maintain culture. On trend with current debates surrounding healthcare, the analysis presented in this work asks what beliefs are present in medical interactions, how they are represented in mass media such as through editorial cartoons, and the implications that these beliefs have on society. This work uses a methodology that attempts to further relations between medical and humanities scholarship [1, 2].
It was formerly assumed that mass media had a grand influence on the minds of its viewers with the ability to directly influence their actions [3]. Though recent theorists suggest that media plays a lesser role—rather than directly influencing people’s decision-making and actions, societal discourse may frame or position receivers versus producers, or in other words, it may build society by elevating certain roles [1]. In this theory, culture may be viewed as formed from discourse through a reflexive process.
Cultural discourse, such as news media, simultaneously influences and is influenced by culture [4] and may cause the social environment of the individual to slightly change. This could influence cognitive processing in individuals during opinion formation [3]. This theory of framing within cultural discourse follows suit with media communication models of cultivation and media ecology theory. Cultivation theory states that media may cultivate beliefs in viewers [5], while Moreno and Koff’s media ecology theory [6] posits that media is within every aspect of society, influences perceptions, and has an inescapable presence. Regardless of the depth of media’s grasp in society, it is known to have an influence.
Mass media’s influence extends from television commercials, to podcasts, to editorial cartoons; how society feels about various issues is extended into various media. Coming from news-media, the editorial cartoon can be seen as a product of society [7]. Not only do editorial cartoons reflect the artists’ opinion on politics and pop culture, but they also reflect, describe, poke fun of, and document the experiences of the everyday person. Just as editorial cartoons are a product of society, they are also a product of their time; ideas and storylines represented reflect cultural beliefs. This extends to the experiences people have with healthcare. Unlike written language contained in articles, comics provide readers with a different way of understanding, coping with complex issues, and creating a deeper bond with the stories told and the information given [1, 8].
One way to further understand the ideologies and beliefs behind comics is to perform a close reading through a discursive framework. In the study of discourse, more than just language is considered—the study of discourse goes well beyond the sentence, including conversations, literature, storytelling, and written, spoken, and visual texts [1]. Through the examination of visual discourses, such as comics, the reader can interpret the way in which the author of the work positions characters within the visual text. These visual texts oftentimes point to the world views of the authors [4, 9].
In an attempt to further understand the view of the creators of a discourse, this analysis employs a visual semiotic framework. Within semiotics, the authors employ on the existence of the study of the sign and the meaning-making practices [10, 11, 12].
Meaning-making is the design apparatus combining all elements both visual and textual as well as their size, color, distance, and arrangement. This interplay of design elements simultaneously creating meaning, or perhaps more properly worded, as telling a story, are what the viewer of a discourse interprets as according to Kress and Van Leeuwen’s ongoing research and writings [2, 10, 11]. The interpretation may vary depending on the complexity and obviousness of the symbols, signs, and everything else represented. In the meaning-making process, viewers may interpret overt meanings through obvious symbols but also may interpret, subconsciously that is, the covert meanings, or stories, and a visual discourse displays [12].
Using this type of spatial display, art has the power to create deeper imagery and bond with the audience [1]. It is through the analysis of these elements that viewers will discover cultural values and beliefs influencing the visual text [7].
Language or narrative, as created by the ego, works to maintain and construct culture and is the lingua franca of human life. Medicine is to treat the human as a whole and as the body exists within a specific cultural narrative, the discourses of the culture in which the patient exists must be kept in mind. This means not treating the human body as simply a corpse on a cadaver cart, but resisting the medical gaze [13] and treating both the body and the ego [14]. The ego as lived through narrative is one of the few things that set humans apart from other flora and fauna. Whether it is dialogue between a patient and a practitioner, survivor stories, billing statements from an insurance company, or comics depicting medical contexts, language is hugely important in the treatment and cure of the human body.
Graphic medicine, or comics depicting illness and medical narrative, is a form of storytelling in clinical settings through the use of paneled visual and text. These stories are not limited to that of the patient but can include the family’s and practitioner’s perspective as well [15]. The study and creation of graphic medicine was born out of a push toward the intersection of the humanities with the medical sciences as a medium with potential to lead clinicians toward a more empathetic approach to medical treatment [8]. Comics in medical contexts can help patients and families come to terms with hospital visits, illness, and trauma.
Aside from graphic medicine created in hospitals, comics with medical contexts, such as popular comics in newspapers, may be viewed as having a similar effect: an ability to create further understanding of difficult topics. This further understanding is partially created through the medium of pen and paper. Drawings are ineffable: they can speak to the human mind in different ways than language and can express things that language cannot. Comics have an accessible and informal approach to the presentation of their information—neither language nor image needs to be intricate to depict intricate meanings. Along with an informal approach, comics often remove the jargonous vocabulary of doctors and replace it with images that are compelling, easier to understand, and create a larger impact on the viewer [15, 16, 17, 18].
The comics presented in graphic medicine are “also potentially far more complex, in that a narrative arc provides a scaffold within which an almost endless array of cultural values and preconceptions can be set up, questioned, reinforced, or negotiated” [1, 18]. These comics can present a range of storylines from sweet, to funny, to serious, and to depressing, all of which can appeal to a wide variety of audiences, and are potentially filled with cultural markers [19, 20].
For years, detached concern was an accepted approach to take in the medical field. Detached concern is a method in which doctors may be viewed as looking beyond the patient’s narrative and not considering aspects of identity when making diagnoses. In other words, detached concern is an ideology stating that physicians should not engage emotionally with, or be influenced emotionally by, patients [21]. Though envisioned with good intent, this method has been found to be dehumanizing and could be viewed as an aloofness on the job or a lack of caring from the patient’s perspective which could further patient distrust [14]. Detached concern stems from the argument that an over-emotional physician’s judgment would be clouded and therefore leaving them unable to make the best decisions for their patient. It could also be viewed as a method of burnout prevention for practitioners [16, 22]. Though detached concern is losing favor as an accepted form of practice, it can still be found in the medical field today even as medical care shifts toward developing the patient-practitioner relationship [14].
This idea that attachment, or perhaps viewing the patient with empathy, would negatively affect a physician’s ability to diagnose could be interpreted as an extension of the medical gaze. According to Foucault [13], the medical gaze is the concept of separating the patient’s ailment and body from their personality and identity, thus allowing the doctor to diagnose without regard to the patient’s self. This medical gaze has been criticized as presenting the doctor fully as the decision-maker, or “the eye that knows and decides, the eye that governs” [13]. The mindset of the doctor being in total power could be interpreted as hegemonically positioning patients as the lesser individual in the interaction. This could be viewed as problematic when it comes to treating patients across a variety of cultures. For example, without considering the patient’s identity, a doctor may perform a treatment deemed unacceptable or taboo in the culture of the patient; by listening to the patient’s story, regardless of lack of medical knowledge, the practitioner could gain valuable insight into the patient’s narrative, increase treatment efficacy, and decrease feelings of inferiority within the patient.
By interacting with the patient’s narrative, the doctor becomes more invested in the relationship increasing treatment efficacy and patient satisfaction [23]. A big part of the patient’s story that could be viewed through graphic medicine is the reclamation of the story that may have been diminished or dehumanized by long hospital visits or indifferent doctors [24]. Spending time in medical institutions can be frustrating, and patients’ voices can be replaced by numbers, medical records, and diagnoses [24, 25]. The reclamation or retelling of the patient’s story can be a therapeutic process in which the story-teller gets in touch with their own feelings and gets back on track to healthy recovery [26]. By reading graphic medicine, viewers can discover new ways of thinking about hospital visits and illness in order to gain an increased understanding of the patient experience [27, 28].
It is no surprise that in clinical settings, patients may feel powerless. This could be attributed to the all-seeing eye or the medical gaze of the doctor; the powerful apparatus is the doctor possesses that allowing them to diagnose, operate, and drastically change the patient’s life without much input from the patient themselves [13]. In some cases, perceived unprofessionalism or insensitivity can cause environments where patients are not speaking up to get the care they need [29]. The professional-looking white laboratory coats were not always the status quo in the medical profession. They could have been adopted to visually distinguish the doctor over others within a medical setting. The white may represent purity or the doctor’s vow to do no harm, and the coat itself positions doctors as scientists. Altogether, the outfit could be viewed as positioning physicians as authority figures with the hanging of medical school diplomas as the final mark of authority [30].
When it comes to trusting practitioners, patients are often stressed, vulnerable, and may grant more discretionary power to doctors than normal [31]. Trust is at the forefront of patient care. Without trust in a doctor, a patient may not reveal the full extent of what they are experiencing, and it may prevent proper care. With a disproportionate power dynamic between doctors and patients, as well as the stressful setting of these interactions, it is no surprise that a lack of trust can be found within these interactions. However, trust is of huge importance and may go so far as to positively influence patient outcomes including enhancing the prescribed treatment [31]. Along with enhancing treatment by psychologically building trust, humor is known to play an important role in coping [32]. Humor can help patients come to terms with the psychological trauma that may be experienced in clinical settings.
Though it is not known if the authors of the following comics create specifically from their own illness experiences, these experiences can be viewed as originating from somewhere. Human thought is so nebulously intertwined with society that it would be nearly impossible for authors to eschew cultural context. With the importance of communication in medical contexts and the knowledge of graphic medicine as laden with cultural markers, medical comics have great potential to shed light into the life of the clinical experience.
It is with all this in mind that this study seeks a further understanding of comics and their role in the expression of the human experience in medicine. A random survey of popular cartoons from well-circulated publications was analyzed. The comics surveyed include Bizarro by Dan Piraro, Carpe Diem by Niklas Eriksson, Dustin by Steve Kelley and Jeff Parker, Intelligent Life by David Reddick, Sherman\'s Lagoon by Jim Toomey, The Lockhorns by Bunny Hoest and John Reiner, Rhymes with Orange by Hilary Price, and Six Chix by Bannerman et al. [33].
Using Kress and Van Leeuwen’s research on meaning-making [34], this study will focus on the three metafunctions: the representational, interpersonal, and compositional. The three metafunctions are resources that can be interpreted to find the meaning of a visual [35]. The representational metafunction encompasses all of the things represented in the images, including characters and non-human elements also known as represented participants (RPs) [1]. Usually connected by vectors, or strong lines, the participants within the image tell a story through hand gestures, gazes, and planes [34, 36].
The interpersonal metafunction focuses on how the creators convey meaning to their audiences through the elements of the representational. Various devices can be used by creators of images to connect with their viewers, including demand and social distance. Demand is the use of a character in an image to connect directly with a viewer by appearing to look directly at them [34]. The distance between two characters or elements take from each other can also inform the audience. Characters closer to each other or to the audience are building relationships, while characters further from each other or the audience are not [34].
Where the representational and interpersonal are somewhat sequestered from each other, the compositional examines elements together for effectiveness. Authors have the ability to use salience, or size and focus, iconic displays of emotion, including happiness, anger, and sadness to portray complex emotional situations. The compositional metafunction also looks at modality or whether or not the images are convincing in general [1]. This analysis gains inspiration from the related works of Kaplan-Weinger [34], Juricevic and Horvath [36], Kowalewski [37], and Dalbeto and Oliveira [38], to name a few. This research uses methods founded in the humanities to seek insight into the medical industry and the surrounding ideologies, as well as how these ideologies are conveyed in graphic narrative. The following chart based on Kress and Van Leeuwen’s [12] work on metafunctions, with inspiration from the previously cited visual analyses, will serve as the foundation for this study:
Representational metafunction: In the representational metafunction, who and what is being represented will be considered. Vectors and themes will be gathered from both human and non-human RPs.
Interpersonal metafunction: This metafunction will examine the interpersonal relationships created between the viewer and author by the use of visual demand and conceptions of social distance.
Compositional metafunction: This metafunction examines the piece as a whole considering the salience of the RPs and the information they provide, as well as modality and iconic displays of emotion.
With the consideration of the three metafunctions, the selected comics were analyzed in three rounds. During the first round of analysis, the representational metafunctions were considered. The represented participants, both human and non-human, were identified, vectors were highlighted and analyzed, and themes were interpreted. After the representational metafunctions of the comics were mapped out, the interpersonal metafunctions were studied. During this time, the represented participants were examined in relation to the viewer of the comics—the interpersonal relationship between the RP (or the represented participant) and the reader as created through social distance and visual demand was identified and analyzed. Finally, the compositional metafunctions were examined. The comics as a whole were studied to determine which RPs were most salient; facial displays of emotion were interpreted, and modality was considered.
For each of the metafunctions belonging to each of the comics, the author created a spreadsheet to organize the results side-by-side for a comparison. This comparison yielded the major themes as identified in this study.
About 24 comics were chosen for analysis from King Features Syndicate. As syndicated in around 5000 newspapers worldwide, the comics of King Features Syndicate have distinguishable breadth, potentially reaching millions of readers. After choosing a syndicate with extensive reach in order to use data that have measurable influence, the data pool was selected. On King Features’ website, 24 comics were chosen at random using key words such as doctor, nurse, medicine, and illness, entered into an appendix, and assigned an arbitrary letter (a–x). To further randomize and refine this selection, an Excel algorithm was used to select four comics from the data pool. Each letter (a–x) was entered in a spreadsheet and assigned a random number. Through the Excel RANDBETWEEN function, each letter was given a number (1–24). The final step of the selection process used the Filter and Sort function to order the numbers (and the letters) from lowest to largest (between 1 and 24). The four lowest numbers were selected for a more thorough investigation as presented below.
After a close reading of the four comics selected, the following themes have been identified: (a) the salience of the doctor over the patient, (b) the expression of vectors, (c) the salience of white coats and hanging diplomas, (d) patient distrust of medical professionals, (e) humor, and (f) the role of women in medical care. To merit analysis, discussed themes occurred at least twice within the comics analyzed.
Salience of the doctor over the patient
In many of the comics surveyed, the doctors were often portrayed in positions more salient than that of the patient. This presents a rather interesting dichotomy between the competing represented participants as those that created these cartoons are likely composing from the patient’s perspective and have still chosen, whether consciously or not, to portray the doctor in a position of power over the patient.
Vectors from the doctor’s gaze
One of the tools used in comics to give meaning, or tell stories, is that of vectors. Vectors are lines that are drawn—whether verbatim lines, or lines creatively displayed—and used to direct the reader’s eye in order of importance. Of the comics analyzed, many vectors were drawn from the eye-level plane of the doctor. In many cases, the doctor is portrayed looking down upon the patient or looking through the deep sides of the eyes toward the patient. This could be interpreted as the doctor being portrayed as higher status than patients, or the doctor as being annoyed or unbothered by the patients.
Diploma and coat
From a critical perspective, the white laboratory coat and the framed and hanging medical diploma of the doctors can be seen as setting the tone of the interaction. Framing the interaction by positioning the doctor as the one with power as expressed through the coat and diploma could be compared to the scepter and cape of that of royal authority. By extension, without such agency-granting artifacts, the patient may be portrayed as inferior.
Patient distrust
Within the selected comics for analysis, many of the authors portray the patients as dumb or air-headed. This paints an interesting perspective as the authors likely have more experience from the side of the patient than that of the practitioner. Through the portrayal of patients as dumb or air-headed, the authors could be interpreted as expressing feelings of inferiority. These feelings of inferiority, as displayed through visual and textual evidence, may lead to distrust in the exam room and are supported through both visual and textual evidence. Doctors are often portrayed as aloof or even lazy when it comes to practitioner-patient interactions, which could be viewed as adding to patient misgivings. Nurses, however, are sometimes portrayed as compensating for these incoherencies by extending compassion to the patient, which the doctor does not.
Funny, Doc
Comics are known and often assumed to be humorous [39]. Some of the comics analyzed give way to humor. Though, perhaps these comics, while using humorous appeals, are actually showing readers something further. Humor is a known coping mechanism for many when experiencing increased stress levels during medical visits. These comics could be seen as appealing to humor as a means to make due with tough situations. That humor used in this way could suggest that medical experiences are stressful in and of themselves.
Women can be doctors too
Within this data pool, all doctors are portrayed as male. Though fewer instances of the portrayal of nurses occur, when nurses are depicted, they always appear as female. The viewer may interpret an implicit bias toward men in the role as physicians, though recent statistics show that the number of women enrolling in medical school is higher than men [40].
Bizzaro is a highly satirical comic with larger than life characters and a bizarre worldview. Starting in 1985, this comic has been entertaining readers with explosives and thought-provoking dry humor. The author offers eccentric visualizations and commentaries on the oddities of our everyday life and culture; oftentimes poking fun of things, we may consider normal. To make commentaries on society and human interaction, the author places visual devices in the comics, including things such as The Eyeball of Observation, The Fish of Humility, and The Crown of Power to name a few. This comic has won many awards such as “best newspaper cartoon panel.”
In this frame (Figure 1) by Wayno and Piraro, the audience is invited to view what appears to be an exam room interaction. The authors use vivid colors which draw attention to the patient and a rather minimalistic style throughout the rest of the image. In this image, the viewer can see the patient sitting atop an exam table and a doctor standing next to them. The doctor is wearing a white laboratory coat with a stethoscope around their neck and a reflex-hammer in hand. The patient is dressed as a clown and above the scene is hanging what appears to be a diploma from a medical school.
Bizarro by Dan Piraro and Wayno, published on February 24, 2018 [41].
In this image, the main represented participants include the doctor, the patient, the exam room, and the diploma. As it appears, the doctor is in the middle of an exam having just tested the patient’s gag reflex. In a word bubble, the doctor states, “Your gag reflexes are fine but we still need to get your jinks a little higher.” The major themes in this image include the salience of the white coat and diploma, and the portrayal of the patient as of a lesser intellectual level.
At first glance, the eye of the viewer may go straight to the patient then travel along vectors from the patient’s head, to the diploma, to the doctor. While the patient is where the eye seems to land at first glance, this could be viewed as the authors placing emphasis on how doctors may make patients feel belittled. Whether or not the patient is an actual clown or is portrayed as a clown in this image may not matter—clowns are traditionally used to denote people who are not to be taken seriously. For example, one might say about a friend who is perceived as unintelligent that they should go to clown college. Clowns are also often portrayed in media as clumsy, humorous, or dopey. This representation of the patient as a clown could be seen as serving to increase the gap between perceived intellectual levels between the doctor and the patient. The patient is displayed as sitting, as most patients are; sitting is a weaker social position than standing in many circumstances.
The represented participants within this panel are represented in close social distance to each other; this could be interpreted as suggesting a closer relationship between this doctor and patient even with the anticipated torment that comes with “jinks” testing. Though the two human RPs are close in proximity to one another, neither are directly addressing the reader of the strip. Even as not directly facing the reader, the reader may still interpret the patient’s face as an iconic facial expression of anger or perhaps more accurately, frustration. As far as modality goes, this image is purely fictional in its situation, though it may be argued to still have a sense of believability to it. The viewer of this comic might find it obvious that this situation would never happen in a medical setting, but at the same time, they recognize the frustration the authors may be trying to convey.
Another important theme is the salience or positioning of the doctor’s diploma and laboratory coat. Represented participants in this frame are given the positions of power. The white laboratory coat is a symbol of power. It is known that doctors wear such coats to stand out among colleagues and patients [42]. This practice as is manifest in this comic form could be seen as drawing attention to the prestige associated with medical practice. The diploma could also be interpreted as a symbol of power. The diploma is more salient in this frame than the white coat and is seemingly looming over the room. This framed document could be interpreted as an artifact that lends authority to the practitioner. The diploma also contains an eye peering toward the doctor, directing the reader’s attention to them. This could be interpreted as the authors suggesting that the doctor has the power of audience in this interaction. Along with the hidden eyeball, under the exam table is a stick of dynamite. This can be seen as contrasting the eye: stating that while eyes are on the doctor, the patient may find themselves in trouble.
This comic by Wayno and Piraro uses the three metafunctions to tell a story that is anything but superficial. At the surface, someone reading the comic might see a funny exam room scene. But with a closer examination, themes of power dichotomies between practitioners and patients are represented. As we know from media and cultural studies, both culture and media are interdependent and constantly shaping one another. Whether or not the authors intentionally represented these themes to publicly disclose their opinions on medical practice, or whether they did so subconsciously, these themes have become present in this comic and are a byproduct of society.
From aliens, to pets, to demons, and to ghosts, you will never know what Carpe Diem will hold. Translated as “seize the day,” this comic is about a day in the life of a seemingly endless number of characters. Tackling issues such as iPhone versus Android, self-automated cars, and three-dimensional printers, the author offers commentary on contemporary life. Along with the contemporary is the ancient and the metaphorical—from cavemen, to Vikings, and to knights, historical humor can be found. And for figurative scenes, the commentary is no less humorous; it is simply coming from the mouths of fictional characters, such as the Grim Reaper, the Devil, dogs and cats, or even talking volcanos. This satirical panel has a far reach and has received international attention and awards.
In Niklas Eriksson’s comic (Figure 2), we see the first example as shown in this analysis of a doctor and what is arguably a nurse in the frame alongside the patient with the identifying factor being the nurse’s cap. This picture portrays a doctor attempting to read an X-ray and a nurse intervening. This panel uses pastel colors and is simplistic in illustration.
Carpe Diem by Niklas Eriksson, published on January 30, 2017 [43].
The main represented participants in this image include the doctor, the patient, the nurse, and the word-bubbles. In this image, the doctor appears to be yelling at the X-ray atop of the X-ray film viewer and saying, “Hell’s bells, Dawson, there’s a skeleton inside you!” As the patient looks dumbfounded, a nurse is hurrying behind with a mug of coffee replying, “Really sorry, sir. The doctor hasn’t had his morning coffee yet.” This panel introduces the patient’s distrust of the doctor and the salience of the white coat.
In this panel, the doctor is arguably portrayed in the strongest position and claims authority through the framing-work done by their laboratory coat. Although the nurse is dressed in a similar white coat, her position of authority is questioned because of nurse’s cap which could be viewed as outdated and perhaps insulting that a nurse is portrayed in this particular uniform, and is arguably portrayed as female, may be interpreted as a reflection of society’s view of nurses in healthcare.
The patient in this image has the least powerful position as can be reckoned by their lack of height. Even as the doctor is portrayed as aloof, the patient too could be interpreted as being portrayed as rather goofy, dumbfounded, or inferior to the doctor who is calling the shots, no matter how off they may be. By illustrating the patient with such a mountainous head and bulbous nose, the author could be viewed as suggesting the patient’s inferiority through humorous assets.
With a closer social distance, the author of this comic may be suggesting something about the relationship between the three human RPs. Compared with the other comics, the people in this image are portrayed from the waist up suggesting close proximity, which could be viewed as an invitation to gain a closer relationship with the RPs in this panel.
Along with this close proximity, the author may be reaching out to the readers by using an iconic representation of anger in the doctor’s face. This representation is immediately recognizable, and the reader of this comic may quickly connect with this RP. This image is both believable and unbelievable. It may be interpreted as highly believable that a groggy doctor may make a mistake without caffeine, but could be viewed as implausible that a doctor could have such huge oversight.
The portrayal of the patient also gives insight into their feelings. With bulging eyes and a slightly opened mouth, the patient could be interpreted as dumbfounded at the doctor’s incoherence on the job. This portrayal may lend itself to the theme of patients distrust in medical professionals.
In Eriksson’s work, readers can interpret the author as highlighting the perceived aloofness of doctors, the patient’s distrust of practitioners, the authority of doctors as partially maintained by the laboratory coat, and the positioning of doctors versus nurses. Arguably, the most prominent theme in this panel as can be interpreted by the viewer is that of patient distrust and the aloofness of medical professionals. The author of this comic uses coffee-humor and alludes to the doctor’s lack of caffeine as the source of incoherence. As the reader may interpret, even without coffee, a doctor should not be so much aloof as to misread an X-ray in this way. The patient’s bulging eyes give away their emotion as they stand behind the doctor.
To make fun of married couples and the trials and tribulations they experience, the author illustrates sticky scenarios through two recurring characters: Loretta and Leroy Lockhorn. Whether it is Leroy rolling eyes after Loretta says something, or Loretta telling the therapist how Leroy never helps around the house, readers cannot help but relate to this couple’s experiences. Leroy is a stark contrast to Loretta with a strong personality, stubbornness, and ability to sit for hours in front of a TV sleeping. When not worried about Leroy, Loretta is a shopping addict and spends more than any person should. Loretta loves to cook and helps Leroy’s strong character type.
In this image (Figure 3) by Hoest and Reiner, readers view the inside of an exam room in a doctor’s office. In the upper right, a doctor is portrayed holding an X-ray, and in the off-center left, the patient sitting on an exam table. The color choices of the authors are very minimal with two tones of a yellowish-beige being the most vivid. The scene of the exam room is represented with straight lines and angles and is altogether very uncluttered. The patient is wearing socks and a hospital gown and the doctor is wearing a laboratory coat.
The Lockhorns by Bunny Hoest and John Reiner, published on December 1, 2017 [44].
The main represented participants in this frame include the patient, the doctor, the diploma, the laboratory coat, the X-ray, and the exam room. The patient as a represented participant in this frame is portrayed wearing a blue hospital gown, sitting down on an exam table, and looking sideways toward the doctor, and appears to be irate. The doctor as an RP in this image is portrayed facing away from and glancing at the patient from the side, wearing a laboratory coat, and holding an X-ray of what could be interpreted as a knee joint, and appears to be mid-sentence. The exam room as a whole is represented in a minimalistic or sterile way with one of the focal points being the framed med-school diploma. In terms of the lack of detail, or sterility of the scene, the authors could be portraying a sense of bleakness or an emotionally cold experience in a medical context. At the bottom of the frame, the doctor is saying to the patient, “What you have is curable, Mr. Lockhorn…the tough part will be figuring out the paperwork.” The themes identified in this frame include the salience of the diploma and the coat, vectors from the doctor’s gaze, and patient distrust.
In this image, the medical school diploma seems to dominate the horizontal plane. Framed with thick black lines and surrounded by empty white space, the eye tends to wander to the diploma. In this image, the laboratory coat is neither as salient as the diploma nor as salient in comparison with the other comics. In fact, the laboratory coat could be interpreted as grey in this image. While the diploma could be seen as hovering over the room as with the previous example, vectors are a stronger form at play within this image.
Looking over their shoulder and down the patient, the doctor could be interpreted as positioned or framed in a position of power via vectors. Not only standing is a more powerful position than sitting, the position in the upper right-hand corner places the doctor at a higher eye-level-plane than the patient. The reader might question why the authors have decided to portray the doctor speaking to the patient in this way while giving a diagnosis or speaking of a cure rather than turning around and addressing the patient directly. This could be interpreted as the doctor placing a higher-level importance on handling the X-ray and other tasks than the patient’s needs for an empathetic delivery of medical information.
The two human RPs in this image are not portrayed in close proximity—this far distance between them suggests a degree of separation. While the doctor and patient are looking at each other, neither is creating visual demand with the audience of this image. However, through the iconic display of anger on the patient’s face, the reader is invited to empathize with the RP. Along with the distance between the two human RPs, the authors have chosen to show the reader the entire bodies of these characters; by doing so, the authors have presented the scene as further away, or perhaps given us the perspective of an outsider looking in, rather than being up close and a part of the conversation.
Through the facial expression of the patient in response to the doctor’s comments, the reader may interpret the distrust of or frustration with medical care by the patient. The eyes of the patient may be viewed as frustrated or defeated upon the delivery of this news while already out of their comfort zone from being in the hospital. This may be viewed as a metacommentary on societal opinions of medical care in the United States and that of the authors, however, infinitely intertwined the two may be.
Discursive analysis of this comic by Hoest and Reiner yields themes of patient distrust or dissatisfaction, positioning of the doctor at a higher level, and the authority of the medical-school diploma. While looking at this image in terms of modality scope, considering all of the elements, the reader may interpret this image as highly plausible and likely to have happened.
With over 400 non-recurring characters, the author still has not found anything that rhymes with orange. This high energy comic strip examines the universal truths of the ordinary: in-laws, driving, pets, children, and love. With recreations of daily life of its readers, this comic often points out just how weird, yet wonderful, humanity is.
In this comic titled Modern Medicine (Figure 4) by Hillary Price, readers are taken into a care unit. This comic has livelier colors than the previous with pastels of green, orange, and blue. The author pays little attention to extraneous detail with a focus on the image at whole. In the first frame of the comic, the title of this strip is introduced. At the bottom of the panel, the reader can see the doctor asking the patient “Can you give me a hand?” In the second panel, the reader of this comic gets a zoomed-out image of the scene. A doctor is in an exam room looking for their stethoscope which is apparently tangled up with headphones. The patient is sitting in their bed watching as the doctor says, “Shoot, my earbuds.”
Rhymes with Orange by Hilary Price, published on January 16, 2018 [45].
The main represented participants in these two panels include the doctor, the white coat, the patient, the earbud-stethoscope knot, and the patient’s room. The doctor in these two panels is portrayed wearing a white coat with business attire underneath. The patient is portrayed as presumably elderly, with grey hair, and glasses. The room is portrayed rather bare, lending attention to the other RPs. Themes contained within these panels include the aloofness of the doctor, the salience of the laboratory coat, and humor.
Surrounded by a sea of green, the doctor’s laboratory coat seems to stick out as a prominent represented participant within this image. Combining the length of the two panels together, the doctor and their coat are in the true center of the comic. The center position lends power to this RP.
Another theme that can be seen across the data pool of comics, including this panel specifically, is the perceived or illustrated aloofness of doctors. As the reader follows the composition of the art, their eye moves from the foot of the bed up to the patient’s face who is looking at the knot. From vectors drawn, emphasis is placed on the knot that the stethoscope and earbuds are in. This knot could be interpreted as a symbol for the doctor’s mind while making rounds. Perhaps the author has been a patient and felt, consciously or subconsciously, that doctors can be distracted by out-of-hospital issues. Along with distracted doctors comes distrust in healthcare and healthcare professionals. For example, if a patient was in pre-op and a doctor was seemingly distracted or not fully present, the patient could suffer higher levels of distress.
The fact that the author has chosen to portray the doctor and the patient at a further social distance may suggest something toward the relationship between these two RPs. In the same way, the author has not utilized any form of directly addressing the reader of this comic to enhance viewing. However, with the analysis of facial expressions, the reader may get a strong sense of the situation. While not necessarily iconic displays of emotion through facial features, the reader could envision themselves as the patient or the doctor and imagine themselves in this context. This image has both believable and unbelievable aspects to it: that a doctor would keep a stethoscope in their pocket with earbuds rather than taking a different approach to avoid such tangled circumstances could be viewed as fiction; however, readers may look into this setting and empathize with how easy it can be to get earbuds tangled in a knot.
These two comics have a sense of humor interjected into their illustration. The way the author portrays the expression on the doctor’s face versus the expression on the patient’s face could be interpreted as using humor in stressful situations to cope, or perhaps to relate to those who have felt in similar ways.
This comic by price portraying a doctor entering a patient’s room continues the trend of media portraying—or reflecting—societal distrust of practitioners, the use of white coats to position practitioners over patients, and humor as used in stressful situations.
Through this close reading of Carpe Diem, Rhymes with Orange, The Lockhorns, and Bizarro, explicit and implicit cultural beliefs held about medicine, including practitioners and patients, have been revealed through the study of signs and symbols and the meaning-making work they perform [10, 11]. It could be argued that these beliefs as conveyed through comics are more salient than those in the articles of the same newspapers as comics provide readers more tools for understanding than words do on their own [1, 34].
For example, the authors of the comics usually portrayed doctors in positions of higher power. As we know from Kress and Van Leeuwen [12] and de Rothewelle [1], and through the findings of Kaplan-Weinger’s study of graphic medicine [34], the placement of a represented participant and the distance between represented participants within an image are meaningful. Through these four comics, the doctors were portrayed in positions of higher power. For example, just as Kaplan-Weinger analyzed the planes of characters represented in comics, it could be viewed that the doctors are portrayed on higher planes than patients and looking down upon them when addressing the patients. These vectors painted with the eyes of doctors and patients serve as valuable insight. Also lending emphasis to the doctors in these comics are the artifacts that give them agency and power. Kress and Van Leeuwen [12] demonstrate that the salience of an object within an image is a meaning-making function used by authors. Kowalewski found that signs representing cultural ideologies created to lend a form of cognitive salience in the readership have impact [37]. In the same way, representations of medical school diplomas and white laboratory coats could be portrayed as signs or icons representing implicit cultural values and usually positioned in more salient forms than that of other RPs. These visual artifacts could be interpreted as visually separating doctors from nurses and patients within these comics. These two items serve as tangible artifacts that appear to lend power to the doctor’s position.
Whereas the diploma and the laboratory coat lend power to the doctor’s position, within this data set and the four comics on which the close reading was performed, the position of doctor or physician is always portrayed as a male-presenting role. According to Schiffrin [9] and Davies and Harré [4], identity is performed and co-constructed through positioning. By positioning doctors as above those who they treat, the authors may be reinforcing the idea of a doctor’s autonomy. Kress and Van Leeuwen [12] also posit that proximity in relation to other humans can be used to interpret meaning. As is known from similar studies, such as that of Kaplan-Weinger [34], the closer two human RPs are portrayed to each other, the more likely they may be to become intimate, which is typically represented by a friendly conversation or a handshake. On the other hand, characters portrayed further from each other could be interpreted as seeking no interaction. In the comics, the doctors were usually portrayed in a distant proximity to the patient, which could be interpreted as a lack of interest by the doctor in becoming too close to the patient.
The analysis of these four comics in particular shows that they all portray patients as inferior to doctors. This could be viewed as an extension of a patient’s distrust of doctors and a visual representation of how patients may be made to feel during interactions with doctors. Along with this distrust of doctors is what could be viewed as the portrayal of doctors acting aloof or pre-occupied at times when they could be more attentive to patients. These portrayals could be viewed as made through vectors and continued through the compositional metafunctions [2], including the use of written language. These portrayals of the doctors’ and patients’ opinions of each other could also be interpreted through facial features. The idea of patient’s distrust of doctors is more of a metaphorical device painted by the visual text such as the ones Juricevic and Horvath found in their work. Whereas metaphors may not have a specific and previously defined sign and signified correlation, icons do [36]. Anger, sadness, and happiness are all posited to be iconic emotional displays, that is, whenever these faces are made, one immediately knows what the other is feeling [1]. This window to the feelings of the represented participants lends ease to the reader when empathizing with the portrayed characters.
A lesser theme in the four comics examined in this analysis is the lack of portrayal of female presenting doctors. The author pays no homage to a binary gender system, though realizes these comics were created in a society where such a system is upheld by the cultural majority. Just as Dalbeto and Oliveira [38] located cultural stereotypes of women of color through visual analysis, this study found stereotypes of women in medical practice; within the male and female stereotypes as represented in these comics, doctors are always portrayed by men, and nurses are always portrayed by women. In the four closely dissected comics, and throughout the entire data pool of 24 comics, the results remain the same. Humor is another less prominent theme as displayed throughout the comics and is trickier to grasp as the medium itself is traditionally considered to be humorous. However, these comics could be interpreted as containing humor to cope with stressful situations during medical exams and hospital stays. For example, in Carpe Diem, it is humorous that the doctor has misidentified the X-ray, but it is also a scary situation as one wrong move in a procedure could be life-threatening. Perhaps it is the author’s way of attempting to distress a portrayal of a situation, where a doctor is aloof on the job.
These comics are products of the society, and they were created in and may be found to reflect the ideologies of that society [7]. Cohn et al. [46] have found that the interpretation of visuals and rhetorical devices in comics is culturally dependent. Whereas all of the identified themes and ideologies presented in this analysis may yield great insight into the medical industry, they may not be the representative of the various cultures of the world. For example, the push toward a relationship-based approach to the doctor-patient relationship may be a product of United States culture and may not transfer over—the person reading these comics as distributed in India may not elicit the same responses. Just as we know that comics can help bridge the understanding of difficult topics and create a response in the readership [8], it is also known that if comics do a poor job at depicting their story, the reader can become all the more confused as Farinella points out [47].
As Grice [48] states, all communication must uphold four maxims to be effective: the maxims of quantity, quality, relevance, and manner. Viewing these comics outside of their original cultural context could be viewed as violating communicative maxims and would almost certainly be cause for different results. For example, in terms of the iconography of the white laboratory coat and the framed medical school diploma, the maxim of relevance might be violated in a culture that does not practice Western medicine. In other cultures, a doctor or a healer might be designated with a different type of attire and retained different types of artifacts on display to assert their knowledge.
Another consideration for these comics is the reflexive nexus that continues to construct culture by creators and receivers of discourse [4]. These comics have the potential to provide insight in what may be viewed in a positive light by creating change and improvement in medical care—or these comics may create a spiral effect that continues to sway popular opinion of medicine. For example, news media coverage of certain events is known to create an illusory truth effect [49]. This portrayal of what could be interpreted as negative ideologies surrounding medical care could continue to foster negative ideologies when medical associations and practitioners are moving in a different direction.
Whereas these comics may be a representation of the author’s beliefs and a reflection of cultural beliefs in general, just as Dalbeto and Oliviera have found [38], these comics are in distributed newspapers worldwide and may have a sizable impact. After all, comics are a product of the culture they are created in, and the artistic choices of the authors offer valuable cultural insight and potential to influence readers [38]. It is no longer assumed that the media has such an intrusive influence on the life of the individual; it is suggested that this discourse may aid in the framing of represented participants [1, 3]. With the reflexive nature of media in mind, the co-construction of cultural discourses by authors and audiences [4], these media may be viewed as a reflection of cultural opinion and having the ability to influence cultural opinion [3].
Taking into consideration media theory and the analysis of the comics, medical associations and practices may find valuable insight into the opinions and beliefs of not just the authors of these comics but of society as a whole. According to Dalbeto and Oliveira [38], “a critical analysis of comics, and of any cultural asset, is necessary because […] they are not free of ideologies.” With this in mind, the themes of doctors as more powerful and more important than patients, doctors presenting as one of the two culturally accepted genders rather than the other, aloofness of doctors on the job, and distrust in doctors and the medical system were interpreted. These themes could be interpreted largely as the reflections of societal opinions of medical practice and could be taken as pointers to improve patient satisfaction by reducing stress through building doctor-patient trust [5, 6]. Comics pull readers in and help them to imagine themselves in the situations pictured; therefore, practitioners may find comics as a powerful tool for improving patient care and understanding the patient’s experience [34].
This research purposely works with a small sample size from one news syndication to make data manageable. To establish a farther-reaching analysis of how medicine is represented in editorial cartoons and the influence these cartoons have on culture, a larger sample size from multiple sources could broaden the results. To facilitate a scope this large, a data-analytic technology to aid research would be necessary. Along with a larger scope, it is known that images may mean different things in different cultures and thus would be worthy of dissection from a cross-cultural standpoint [46].
This work was made possible with the advice of my colleagues at Harry S. Truman College and Northeastern Illinois University. Permissions granted by King Features Syndicate. Thanks to those who helped copy edit.
.
",metaTitle:"Order Print Copies - Terms",metaDescription:".",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/order-print-copies-terms/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Orders have to be prepaid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD. Payments can be made by bank transfer or cheque, by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Discover Card) and PayPal worldwide online payments system. In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\\n\\nThe combined printing and delivery times for orders vary from 12-20 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\\n\\nMy order has not arrived, what do I do?
\\n\\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us. Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nTaxes: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nCustoms: Shipping costs do not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Orders have to be prepaid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD. Payments can be made by bank transfer or cheque, by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Discover Card) and PayPal worldwide online payments system. In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\nThe combined printing and delivery times for orders vary from 12-20 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\nMy order has not arrived, what do I do?
\n\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us. Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nTaxes: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: Shipping costs do not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"403",title:"Microbial Genetics",slug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",parent:{title:"Karyology",slug:"karyology"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:169,numberOfWosCitations:69,numberOfCrossrefCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5085",title:"Telomere",subtitle:"A Complex End of a Chromosome",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a8f40859d7bc312dea327fd9b058a20",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4720",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Select Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a842a00d86bc7f956a5fd1fe6d62b8a",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3536",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31abe97fe35989e4547bab854b38e03a",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",bookSignature:"Danuta Radzioch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165250",title:"Dr.",name:"Danuta",middleName:null,surname:"Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1578",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Recent Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fccad401cbcf998ea4de62d524abf82d",slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1578.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2291",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Emerging Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5414617aafe62d7c6ec8205028f6967",slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2291.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"44225",doi:"10.5772/55370",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3389,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]},{id:"52461",doi:"10.5772/65353",title:"Molecular Diagnosis and Precision Therapeutic Approaches for Telomere Biology Disorders",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-and-precision-therapeutic-approaches-for-telomere-biology-disorders",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"37421",doi:"10.5772/38616",title:"What Flow Cytometry can Tell Us About Marine Micro-Organisms – Current Status and Future Applications",slug:"what-flow-cytometry-can-tell-about-marine-microrganisms-current-status-and-future-applications",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"A. Manti, S. Papa and P. Boi",authors:[{id:"118302",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Manti",slug:"anita-manti",fullName:"Anita Manti"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49878",title:"Immunophenotyping of Acute Leukemias – From Biology to Clinical Application",slug:"immunophenotyping-of-acute-leukemias-from-biology-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:2485,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Francesco Mannelli",authors:[{id:"178848",title:"M.D.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Mannelli",slug:"francesco-mannelli",fullName:"Francesco Mannelli"}]},{id:"50878",title:"Detection of Anti-HLA Antibodies by Flow Cytometer",slug:"detection-of-anti-hla-antibodies-by-flow-cytometer",totalDownloads:2351,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Tülay Kılıçaslan Ayna and Aslı Özkızılcık Koçyiğit",authors:[{id:"178265",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Kilicaslan Ayna",slug:"tulay-kilicaslan-ayna",fullName:"Tulay Kilicaslan Ayna"}]},{id:"37054",title:"Effect of Monocyte Locomotion Inhibitory Factor (MLIF) on the Activation and Production of Intracellular Cytokine and Chemokine Receptors in Human T CD4+ Lymphocytes Measured by Flow Cytometry",slug:"effect-of-monocyte-inhibitory-locomotion-factor-mlif-on-the-activation-and-production-of-intracellul",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Clinical Flow Cytometry - Emerging Applications"},signatures:"Sara Rojas-Dotor",authors:[{id:"109461",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas-Dotor",slug:"sara-rojas-dotor",fullName:"Sara Rojas-Dotor"}]},{id:"50807",title:"The Role of Cytometry for Male Fertility Assessment in Toxicology",slug:"the-role-of-cytometry-for-male-fertility-assessment-in-toxicology",totalDownloads:1268,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Helena Oliveira, Henrique M.A.C.\nFonseca, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Conceição Santos",authors:[{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"174419",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"},{id:"185982",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"helena-oliveira",fullName:"Helena Oliveira"},{id:"185983",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique M.A.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",slug:"henrique-m.a.c.-fonseca",fullName:"Henrique M.A.C. Fonseca"},{id:"185984",title:"Prof.",name:"Conceição",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"conceicao-santos",fullName:"Conceição Santos"}]},{id:"37421",title:"What Flow Cytometry can Tell Us About Marine Micro-Organisms – Current Status and Future Applications",slug:"what-flow-cytometry-can-tell-about-marine-microrganisms-current-status-and-future-applications",totalDownloads:2393,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"A. Manti, S. Papa and P. Boi",authors:[{id:"118302",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Manti",slug:"anita-manti",fullName:"Anita Manti"}]},{id:"37445",title:"Retracted: Applications of Quantum Dots in Flow Cytometry",slug:"applications-of-quantum-dots-in-flow-cytometry",totalDownloads:1852,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"Dimitrios Kirmizis, Fani Chatzopoulou, Eleni Gavriilaki and Dimitrios Chatzidimitriou",authors:[{id:"45414",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kirmizis",slug:"dimitrios-kirmizis",fullName:"Dimitrios Kirmizis"},{id:"122229",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzidimitriou",slug:"dimitrios-chatzidimitriou",fullName:"Dimitrios Chatzidimitriou"},{id:"134576",title:"BSc.",name:"Fani",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzopoulou",slug:"fani-chatzopoulou",fullName:"Fani Chatzopoulou"},{id:"134577",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Gavriilaki",slug:"helen-gavriilaki",fullName:"Helen Gavriilaki"}]},{id:"51979",title:"Telomeres and Cellular Senescence in Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases",slug:"telomeres-and-cellular-senescence-in-metabolic-and-endocrine-diseases",totalDownloads:1188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Ryusaku Matsumoto and Yutaka Takahashi",authors:[{id:"187040",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",slug:"yutaka-takahashi",fullName:"Yutaka Takahashi"}]},{id:"52461",title:"Molecular Diagnosis and Precision Therapeutic Approaches for Telomere Biology Disorders",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-and-precision-therapeutic-approaches-for-telomere-biology-disorders",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"44220",title:"Condensins, Chromatin Remodeling and Gene Transcription",slug:"condensins-chromatin-remodeling-and-gene-transcription",totalDownloads:2090,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Laurence O. W. Wilson and Aude M. Fahrer",authors:[{id:"164464",title:"Mr.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"laurence-wilson",fullName:"Laurence Wilson"},{id:"164788",title:"Dr.",name:"Aude",middleName:null,surname:"Fahrer",slug:"aude-fahrer",fullName:"Aude Fahrer"}]},{id:"44225",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3388,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/170687/antonio-carlo-barbera",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"170687",slug:"antonio-carlo-barbera"},fullPath:"/profiles/170687/antonio-carlo-barbera",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()