Landsat TM/ETM+ images used in this study (Papadavid, 2012)
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2552",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Lipid Metabolism",title:"Lipid Metabolism",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Lipids (fats and oils) are a wide range of organic molecules that serve several functions in organisms. 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Dr. Valenzuela was postdoctoral fellow in the Nutritional Science Department in the University of Toronto (2019-2021). Currently, he is an Associate Professor (full time) in Nutrition Department at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile. He does research in nutrition and food sciences. Dr. Valenzuela\\'s teaching areas are food science and nutrition, and fats and oils in human nutrition. His current research areas are lipids and antioxidants in health and disease, metabolism and cytoprotection by long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from marine origin, bioconversion of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids from vegetable and marine oils, and physiological effects of n-3 fatty acid as a functional food. 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Technology for Fabrication of Titanium Aluminide-Based Composites in Aerospace Component Applications",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69565.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69565",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69565",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69565",chapter:{id:"66879",slug:"laser-based-additive-manufacturing-technology-for-fabrication-of-titanium-aluminide-based-composites",signatures:"Sadiq Abiola Raji, Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Sisa Leslie Pityana, Olawale Muhmmed Popoola, Fatai Olufemi Aramide, Monnamme Tlotleng and Nana Kwamina Kum Arthur",dateSubmitted:"November 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 28th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 27th 2019",datePublished:"February 10th 2021",book:{id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Aerodynamics",slug:"aerodynamics",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad 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\r\n\tPeacebuilding entails rebuilding people's social, economic, political, and cultural lives during or after a violent conflict. To achieve these objectives, states and local communities must build infrastructures that contribute to the creation of an enabling environment for peace and security activities to thrive. Peace infrastructures can be both formal and informal. To ensure peace and security, both national and local governments must mobilize their resources to mitigate the effects of conflict-related factors such as climate change, social crime, poverty, unemployment, and hunger. The role of political leadership in promoting peace initiatives is examined through case studies from around the world. It also investigates the critical role of traditional leadership in maintaining community peace. These initiatives and actors are examined within the broader framework of global peace and security. Micro-macro peace infrastructures for peace are explored.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-251-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-250-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-252-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"131303f07b492463a5c4a7607fe46ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Norman Chivasa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11775.jpg",keywords:"Conflict, Peace, Security, Violence, Disputes, Election, Peace Agreements, Globalisation, Community, Peace Committees, Intra/Interstate Disputes, Indigenous Knowledge",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 14th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Norman Chivasa is a post-doctoral fellow in the Peacebuilding program, at Durban University Technology, South Africa. His research interests involve urban peacebuilding, social crime prevention & community development initiatives.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"331566",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman",middleName:null,surname:"Chivasa",slug:"norman-chivasa",fullName:"Norman Chivasa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/331566/images/system/331566.jpg",biography:"Norman Chivasa holds a Ph.D. and Masters's in Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. He is a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow at the Durban University of Technology in the Faculty of Public Management, Peacebuilding program, International Centre of Nonviolence, Durban, South Africa. He is a senior lecturer at the University of Zimbabwe, Department of History, War & Strategic Studies Unit, Harare, Zimbabwe. Dr.Chivasa is interested in community-based peacebuilding initiatives, and informal infrastructures for peace and development. He has facilitated the creation of a ward-level peace committee and village peace committees in ward 8 of Seke district, Mashonaland East province, Zimbabwe.",institutionString:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Durban University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The ETc is a basic and crucial parameter for climate studies, weather forecasts and weather modeling, hydrological surveys, ecological monitoring and water resource management (Hoedjes et al., 2008). In the past decades, the estimation of ETc combining conventional meteorological ground measurements with remotely-sensed data, has been widely studied and several methods have been developed for this purpose (Tsouni, 2003). For hydrological resources management and irrigation scheduling, an accurate estimation of the ETc is necessary to be considered (Hoedjes et al., 2008 ; Papadavid et al., 2011). Crop evapotranspiration rate is highly important in various areas of the agricultural sector such as for identification of crop stress, water deficiency, for estimating the exact potential needs of crops for best yields. It is well accepted that water depletion methods, such as lysimeters, are the most accurate methods for estimating ETc. Methods that use meteorological parameters in order to estimate the ETc of different crops are well established and used by various studies (Telis et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2007). A number of semi-empirical methods have been also developed in order to estimate the evapotranspiration from different climatic variables (Courault et al., 2005). Remotely sensed reflectance values can be used in combination with other detailed information for estimating ETc of different crops. Indeed, the potentiality of remote sensing techniques in ETc estimation and water resource management has been widely acknowledged (Papadavid et al., 2010). The possibility for monitoring irrigation demand from space is an important factor and tool for policy makers. It has been found that saving irrigation water through remote sensing techniques could diminish farm irrigation cost which reaches 25% of the total costs and increases the margin of net profit (Papadavid et al., 2011). Several researchers such as D’Urso et al., (1992), Bastiaanssen (2000), Ambast et al., (2006) and Papadavid et al., (2011) have highlighted the potentiality of multispectral satellite images for the appraisal of irrigation management. The integration of remotely sensed data with auxiliary ground truth data for obtaining better results is common in the literature. (Bastiaanssen et al., 2003; Ambast et al., 2006; Minaccapili et al., 2008). Ambast et al., (2006) have shown that the application of remote sensing data in irrigation is of high importance because it supports management of irrigation and is a powerful tool in the hands of policy makers. It has been found that research in ETc is directed towards energy balance algorithms that use remote sensing directly to calculate input parameters and, by combining empirical relationships to physical models, to estimate the energy budget components (Minaccapili et al., 2008; Papadavid et al., 2010; Papadavid et al., 2011). All the remote sensing models of this category are characterized by several approximations and need detailed experimental validations. Multispectral images are used to infer ETc, which is the main input for water balance methods-models. For estimations of ET, ground truth data (Leaf Area Index-LAI, crop height) and meteorological data (air temperature, wind speed, humidity) is needed to support this approach. In nearly every application of water balance model, knowledge of spatial variations in meteorological conditions is needed (Moran et al., 1997).
The use of remote sensed data is very useful for the deployment of water strategies since it can offer a huge amount of information in short time, compared to conventional methods. Besides convenience and time reducing, remotely sensed data lessens the costs for data acquisition, especially when the area is extended (Thiruvengadachari et al., 1997). Although remote sensing based ETc models have been shown to have the potential to accurately estimate regional ETc, there are opportunities to further improve these models testing the equations used to estimate LAI and crop height for their accuracy under current agro-meteorological and soil conditions.
This Chapter discusses the implementation of the most widely used models for estimating ETc, the ‘SEBAL’ and ‘Penman-Monteith’ which are used with satellite data. Such models are employed and modified, with semi-emprical models regarding crop canopy factors, to estimate accurately ETc for specific crops in the Cyprus area under local conditions. Crop Water Requirements have been determined based on the evapotranspiration values.
The study area is located in the area of Mandria village, in the vicinity of Paphos International Airport in Paphos District in Cyprus (Figure 1). The study area lying in the southwest of Cyprus is a coastal strip between Kouklia and Yeroskipou villages. The area is a coastal plain with seaward slope of about 2% and it consists of deep fertile soils made of old fine deposits. The area is dissected by three major rivers, the Ezousa, Xeropotamos and Diarizos. The area is almost at sea level (altitude 15 m) and is characterized by mild climate which provides the opportunity for early production of leafy and annual crops. The uniform and moderate temperatures, attributed to the permanent sea breeze of the area, and the relative humidity, are conductive to the early production of fruits and vegetables, for which the reputation of the area is known all over Cyprus. Cereals are also cultivated in the area. A typical Mediterranean climate prevails in the area of interest, with hot dry summers from June to September and cool winters from December to March, during which much of the annual rainfall occurs with an average record of 425mm. Nevertheless, irrigation is indispensable for any appreciable agricultural development in the area
The selected area is a traditionally agricultural area with a diversity of annual and perennial cultivations and is irrigated by Asprokremnos Dam, one of the biggest dams of Cyprus.
Partial Landsat TM image of Mandria Village in the vicinity of Paphos International Airport in Cyprus
The GER (Geophysical Environmental Research) 1500 field spectroradiometer (Figure 2,3) is a light-weight, high performance, single-beam field spectroradiometer. It is a field portable spectroradiometer covering the ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelengths from 350 nm to 1050 nm. It uses a diffraction grating with a silicon diode array which has 512 discrete detectors and provides the capability to read 512 spectral bands.
The instrument is very rapidly scanning, acquiring spectra in milliseconds. The spectroradiometer provides the option for stand-alone operation (single beam hand-held operation) and the capability for computer assisted operation through its serial port, which offers near real-time spectrum display and hard disk data transfer. The maximum number of scans (512 readings), can be stored for subsequent analysis, using a personal computer and GER licensed operating software. The Lens barrel used for the specific spectroradiometer is the Standard 4 field of view. The data are stored in ASCII format for transfer to other software.
Spectroradiometric measurement over spectralon panel (
Reflectance factors using a control stable surface with known characteristics as described by McCloy (1995) have been measured. Many researchers (McCloy, 1995; Beisl, 2001; Anderson and Milton, 2006; Schaepman, 2007; Papadavid 2012) highlight the advantages of using control surfaces in the measurement of reflectance factors (Bruegge et al., 2001). In this study, the control surface was a commercially available "Labsphere" compressed "Spectralon" white panel (Figure 2). There is evidence that these types of panels are more consistent and retain their calibration better than painted panels (Jackson et al., 1992; Beisl, 2001). Spectralon diffuse reflectance targets are ideal for laboratory and field applications such as field validation experiments, performed to collect remote sensing data due to the fact are: durable and washable; have typical reflectance values of 95% to 99% and are spectrally flat over the UV-VIS-NIR spectrum; are impervious to harsh environmental conditions and chemically inactive (Papadavid et al., 2011). Reflectance was calculated as a ratio of the target radiance to the reference radiance. The target radiance value is the measured value taken on the crops (Figure 3) and the reference radiance value is the measured value taken on the standard Spectralon panel (Figure 2), representing the sun radiance, which reaches the earth surface—without atmospheric influence.
Spectroradiometric measurements over potatoes (target) in Mandria Village in Paphos, Cyprus (
Leaf Area Index is commonly used for monitoring crop growth. Instead of the traditional, direct and labor-consuming method of physically measuring the plant with a ruler (direct method), an optical instrument, SunScan canopy analyser system (Delta-T Devices Ltd., UK) is used (indirect method). The instrument (Figure 4) is indirectly measuring LAI by measuring the ratio of transmitted radiation through canopy to incident radiation (Figure 5). Indirect methods for LAI measurements based on the transmittance of radiation through the vegetation have been developed (Lang et al., 1991; Welles and Norman, 1991).
SunScan (Delta-T) canopy analyser for LAI and crop height measurements
Use of SunScan canopy analyzer for LAI measurements (
Spatial, spectral and temporal resolution of satellite images is very important for studies dealing with crop water requirements. Landsat- 5 TM and -7 ETM+ have been widely used for hydrological studies due to their relatively good temporal resolution (16 days) which is important for providing regular snapshots during the crop growth season (Dadhwal et al., 1996; Song et al., 2001; Alexandridis, 2003). These sensors are suitable for agricultural areas with medium to big average fields due to their high spatial resolution (60m for thermal band, 15m for panchromatic and 30m for the rest).
However, the availability of images is highly dependent on weather conditions. The availability of cloud free images for operational projects is very important and depends on the geographical position and the prevailing weather conditions for the area of interest (Kontoes and Stakenborg, 1990; Hadjimitsis et al., 2000; Hadjimitsis et al., 2010). Countries such as Greece and Cyprus are characterised by good weather conditions and the availability of cloud-free images (Hadjimitsis et al., 2000). An advantage of Landsat image for applications in Cyprus is that of the whole island coverage from a single image which can be inferred on a regular basis since Landsat satellites overpass Cyprus on a systematic basis (Papadavid, 2011). Remote sensing users or policy makers or governmental officers have the oppotunity to have remotely sensed data very often which is very important in terms of phenological cycle monitoring.
D’ Urso (1995) and Minacapilly et al., (2008) explored the importance of using image time series due to the high importance of water requirements in the different stages of the crops. The same crop in different stage has different water needs, therefore the time series of satellite images is very important in studies regarding ETc and remote sensing. A time series of Landsat 5 TM and 7 ETM+ imagery acquired in years 2008, 2009 and 2010 are used in this study, as listed in Table 1. The crucial aim is to have satellite images in all stages of the specific crops. The availability of images is important since these images will be converted into ETc maps using an image processing software such as ERDAS Imagine software. Hence, the more images we have the better analysis we get. All images were pre-processed in order to remove atmospheric and radiometric effects, using the ERDAS Imagine software. ERDAS ‘modeller module’ was used to transform the images into maps by applying the ETc algorithms. The same satellite images were also used for evaluating the statistical models found, regarding Leaf Area Index (LAI) or Crop Height (CH) to one of the selected Vegetation Indices (VI).
An attempt has been made to statistically describe the crop canopy factors, namely crop height (CH) and LAI, through the vegetation indices (VI). Crop canopy factors are vital elements in the procedure of estimating ETc. These indices were produced from spectroradiometric measurements using a hand-held field spectroradiometer (GER 1500) and after this data were filtered through the Relative Spectral Response (RSR) filters of the corresponding Landsat TM/ETM+ bands. At the same time LAI and CH direct measurements were taken in situ. Hence, time series of LAI, CH and VI have been created and were used to model LAI and CH to VI. After applying the needed regression analysis and evaluating them, the best model for each crop, based on the determination factor (r2), was used in specific ETc algorithms in a procedure to adapt and modify the algorithms in the geo-morphological and meteorological conditions of the island of Cyprus as a representative Mediterranean region.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Landsat TM/ETM+ images used in this study (Papadavid, 2012)
Crop water requirements were inferred by applying the algorithms and it was tested to check if the specific modifications have assisted the algorithms to improve their precision when estimating ETc.
The overall methodology is described below. The intended purpose is to estimate ETc of specific crops in the area of interest using remote sensing techniques.
Spectroradiometric measurements were undertaken for two years (2009-10) in order to collect spectral signatures of each crop included in the study. For each crop (Potatoes, Groundnuts, Beans and Chickpeas) the average spectral signature in each phenological stage was created based on the two cultivating periods (2009-2010). The purpose is to have the reflectance of each crop during their phenological stages after the data was filtered through the Relative Spectral Response filters.
Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Crop Height (CH) measurements were also taken simultaneously to spectroradiometric measurements and following the same phenological cycle of each crop for the corresponding cultivating periods. The purpose was to create time series of these two parameters to correlate them to Vegetation Indices (VI).
Development of vegetation indices (VI). Time series of VI were created based on the reflectance of each crop, in each phenological stage.
Modeling VI to LAI and CH. Different models were tested in order to identify the best possible model which better describes LAI and CH through VI.
Preprocessing of satellite images was applied. Geometric rectification, radiometric correction including atmospheric correction of satellite data were applied before main processing of the data.
Mapping LAI, CH and albedo was performed. The three crop canopy parameters were mapped using the ERDAS Imagine v.10 software. The satellite images were transformed into maps in order firstly to test in practice the models and secondly to be inserted as inputs in ETc algorithms.
Models verification. After inferring the best model describing LAI or CH using VI, an evaluation of this procedure was taking place. A priori knowledge of satellite over passing over the area of interest has assisted the procedure of taking LAI and CH measurements in different plots and different cultivating period. These average measurements were compared to the predicted measurements arising from the models application found in the previous step.
Application of ETc algorithms. Original and modified by previous equations, ETc algorithms have been applied to check, based on the reference method, if and how the models have boosted accuracy on estimating ETc for each crop.
It is well established that the reflectance and transmission spectrum of leaves is a function of both the concentration of light absorbing compounds (chlorophylls, carotenoids, water, cellulose, lignin, starch, proteins, etc.) and the internal scattering of light that is not absorbed or absorbed less efficiently (Newnham and Burt, 2001; Dangel et al., 2003). Each crop has a different spectral signature depending on the stage of its phenological cycle (Gouranga and Harsh, 2005; McCloy, 2010; Papadavid et al., 2011). A general view of the vegetation spectral signature is shown in Figure 6; there is strong absorption in blue and red part of the light spectrum while at green and infrared part there is light and strong reflectance, respectively.
Vegetation spectral signature: Vegetation has low reflectance in the visible region and high reflectance in the near infrared (data analysis)
The domain of optical observations extends from 400 nm in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum to 2500 nm in the shortwave infrared region. The strong absorption of light by photosynthetic pigments dominates green leaf properties in the visible spectrum (400-700nm). Leaf chlorosis causes an increase in visible reflectance and transmission. The near-infrared region (NIR, 700-1100 nm) is a region where biochemical absorptions are limited to the compounds typically found in dry leaves, primarily cellulose, lignin and other structural carbohydrates (Wang et al., 2005). However, foliar reflection in this region is also affected by multiple scattering of photons within the leaf, related to the internal structure, fraction of air spaces, and air-water interfaces that refract light within leaves. The reflectance and transmittance in the middle-infrared also termed the shortwave-infrared (SWIR, 1100 nm - 2500 nm) is also a region of strong absorption, primarily by water in green leaves (Maier, 2000). More specifically, visible blue and red are absorbed by the two main leaf pigments, chlorophyll a and b in green-leaf chloroplasts. These strong absorption bands induce a reflectance peak in the visible green. Thus most vegetation has a green-leafy color. Chlorophyll pigments are also known as the green pigments.
Apart from chlorophyll, other leaf pigments have a significant effect on the visible spectrum. Carotene, a yellow to orange-red pigment strongly absorbs radiation in the 350-500 nm range and is responsible for the color of some flowers and leaves without chlorophyll. Xanthophyll, the red and blue pigment also strongly absorbs radiation in the 350-500 nm range, giving the distinctive color to the leaves in Autumn. In the near infrared range (700-1000 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum, there is strong reflectance in the spongy mesophyll cells that occur at the back of leaves.
Phenology can be defined as the study of the timing of biological events, the causes of their timing with regard to biotic and abiotic forces, and the interrelation among phases of the same or different species (Shaykewich 1994). As McCloy (2010) mentions the phenological cycle can be defined as the trace or record of the changes in a variable or attribute over the phenological period (usually one agricultural year) and a phenophase is defined as an observable stage or phase in the seasonal cycle of a plant that can be defined by start and end points. Crop phenological stages are important indicators in agricultural production, management, planning, decision-making and irrigation scheduling (O’ Leary et al., 1985; Gouranga and Harsh, 2005; Papadavid et al., 2011). Indeed, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guidelines of estimating crop evapotranspiration for irrigation demands, take into account crop characteristics and the phenological stages of a crop; Crop coefficient (Kc )refers to crop growth stage and the length in time of this stage (Allen et al., 1998). Moreover crop phenology is difficult to be studied for large areas using traditional techniques and methods.
Recently, many studies have been performed in order to derive the crop phenological stages based on satellite images (Papadavid, 2011). These studies aim to validate vegetation indices for monitoring the development of the phenological cycle from times series data (Papadavid, 2011). For example, Sakamoto et al., (2005), Minaccapili et al., (2008) and Papadavid et al., (2011) used times series of remotely sensed data in order to develop a new systematic method for detecting the phenological stages of different crops from satellite data while Bradley et al., (2007) in their study have introduced a curve fitting procedure in order to derive inter-annual phenologies from time series of noisy satellite NDVI data. Moreover, Funk and Budde (2009) have used an analogous metric of crop performance based on time series of NDVI satellite imagery. Papadavid et al., (2009; 2010; 2011) and Papadavid (2011) have shown that field spectroscopy and empirical modelling, when successfully integrated, can develop new models of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Crop Height, during the phenological cycle of crops.
Tables indicating the phenology of each crop can be found in the FAO internet site (www.fao.org). Table 2 indicates the phenological stages of each crop and the number of
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Phenological stages of each crop (Papadavid, 2012)
In each sub-table, the phenological stages of each crop can be seen in the first column. In the ‘GER 1500’ column the number of spectroradiometric measurements taken at each stage are presented. For example, for Potatoes the measurements begun at the stage of ‘closed lines’ and there were 3 measurements during that stage (each measurement in the table is the average measurement from 25 measurements well spread in the plot. In the third column labelled ‘Sunscan measurements’ the LAI measurements are presented for each phenological stage as for the second column which were taken simultaneously. The number of each spectroradiometric measurement is not random. There should be a change in the reflectance in the specific phenological stage to have another measurement meaning that the crop reflectance during two consecutive days could be the same so the measurement would not enter the table as different one.
Changes in the phenological cycles of crops may occur from different parameters, such as weather conditions, soil and crop characteristics, and changes in the climate of an area (Minaccapili et al., 2008; Kross et al.,2011). Between years, phenological markers (such as length of growing season) may respond differently, a phenomenon which can be associated with short-term climate fluctuations or anthropogenic forcing, such as groundwater extraction, urbanization (Bradley et al., 2007). However, the interpretation of phenological changes based on a large dataset volume for a period of many years can turn to be very complicated.
The commonly accepted equation for estimating evapotranspiration, according to the schematization of Monteith (Monteith and Unsworth, 1990), is a function of climate data such as temperature (T), humidity (RH%), solar radiation (Rs) and wind speed (U) and crop parameters, such as the surface albedo (
Remote sensing techniques can be used for monitoring these vegetation characteristics. An analytical elaboration performed on Landsat reflectance values evidenced the possibility of retrieving the surface albedo (Brest and Goward, 1987), the leaf area index (Price, 1992) and the crop height (Moran and Jackson, 1991). Since these parameters directly affect the reflectance of cropped areas, it has been demonstrated that it is possible to establish a correlation between multispectral measurements of canopy reflectance and the corresponding canopy parameter’s values (Bausch and Neale, 1987). In this study, the required crop parameters,
Many studies have illustrated the need and the know-how for modeling or correlating LAI and Crop Height to remote sensing data and mainly to the vegetation indices inferred from handheld sensors. Leaf Area Index is an important structural property of crop canopy. High correlations were found between reflectance factor and LAI by Ahlrichs et al., (1983). Strong correlations between spectral data from crops and various characteristics of crops have been elucidated in numerous studies (Serrano et al, 2000; Goel et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2004). Darvishzadeh et al., (2008) examined the utility of hyper spectral remote sensing in predicting canopy characteristics by using a spectral radiometer. Among the various models investigated, they found that canopy chlorophyll content was estimated with the highest accuracy. Some studies used multispectral image sensor system to measure crop canopy characteristics (Inoue et al., 2000)
Quantification of the canopy leaf area index (LAI) and its spatial distribution provides (Figure 7) an avenue to improve the interpretation of remotely sensed data over vegetated areas. The purpose is to test the existing relation between vegetation indices with LAI and crop height and their prediction from remotely sensed data. It allow us to compare, on a consistent basis, the performance of a set of indices found in international literature, in the prediction of LAI and CH which are basic parameters in the algorithms of estimating ETc. The method for mapping LAI and Crop Height for specific crops is shown in Figure 8.
Production of LAI (B) and CH (C) maps (in pseudo color) using a Landsat image (A) (
Method for mapping LAI and Crop Height using in situ and satellite remotely data
SEBAL is a thermodynamically based model, using the partitioning of sensible heat flux and latent heat of vaporization flux as described by Bastiaanssen et al., (1998) who developed the algorithm. In the SEBAL model, ETc is computed from satellite images and weather data using the surface energy balance as illustrated in Figure 9. Remotely sensed data in the visible, near-infrared and thermal infrared bands are used to derive the energy balance components along with ground measured solar radiation, if available. The other ground measurements that are required as model input are air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed at a point within the image.
SEBAL has an internal calibration for removing atmospheric effects using a series of iteration on Sensible Heat Flux (H) (Baastianssen et al., 2000; 2008). Since the satellite image provides information for the overpass time only, SEBAL computes an instantaneous ET flux for the image time. The ET flux is calculated for each pixel of the image as a “residual” of the surface energy budget equation:
where:
Rn is the instantaneous net radiation (W.m-2)
G is the instantaneous soil heat flux (W.m-2),
H is the instantaneous sensible heat flux (W.m-2)
λΕΤ is the instantaneous latent heat flux (W.m-2)
In this equation, the soil heat flux
When all parameters in Equation (2) are known, an instantaneous estimation of ETc can be conducted. Latent heat flux
where:
ETcinst is the instantaneous evapotranspiration (mm/hr)
3600 is the time conversion from seconds to hours
λ is the latent heat of vaporization or the heat absorbed when a kilogram of water evaporates (J/kg)
The Reference ET Fraction (ETrF) (Equation 4) is defined as the ratio of the computed instantaneous ET (ETinst) for each pixel to the reference ET (ETr) computed only from weather data:
where:
ETr is the reference ET at the time of the image from the REF-ET software (mm/hr). ETrF is also known as crop coefficient, Kc. ETrF is used to extrapolate ET from the image time to 24-hour or longer periods. ETrF values usually range from 0 to 1.
Energy Balance equilibrium (Source: Waters et al., 2002)
Finally, to get the daily values of ETc which are more useful than the instantaneous ones, SEBAL computes the ETdaily by assuming that the instantaneous ETrF is the same as the 24-hour average. The daily ETc (mm/day) is computed from Equation 5:
where:
ETr (24h) is the total reference evapotranspiration of the day in mm/day.
Daily ETc is the final ‘product’ of SEBAL algorithm, meaning that satellite images are transformed into ETc maps where one could retrieve ETc for each pixel, as it is shown in Figure 10.
ETc map of the area of interest (Landsat 5 TM image 2/1/2009) using SEBAL (
or
where
ETc is the crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
G Soil Heat flux (W/m2)
ρ
λ is the latent heat of vaporisation of water (J / kg)
γ is the thermodynamic psychrometric constant (kPa / K)
This equation is valid under conditions of intense solar irradiance (typical summer condition in Mediterranean climate) and for 0,
ETc map of the area of interest (Landsat 7 TM image 2/1/2009) using P-M (
The results regarding crop water requirements of the different crops can be found on Table 3. The water needs for each crop is average value, for each month, based on the crop evapotranspiration found employing the two algorithms described above, after applying the methodology for modeling crop parameters to satellite data.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Potatoes | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 450 | \n\t\t\t850 | \n\t\t\t1200 | \n\t\t\t1550 | \n\t\t\t1300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 5330 | \n\t\t
Ground nuts | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 620 | \n\t\t\t1450 | \n\t\t\t1650 | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 4020 | \n\t\t
Beans | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 450 | \n\t\t\t850 | \n\t\t\t1200 | \n\t\t\t990 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 3490 | \n\t\t
Chick peas | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 200 | \n\t\t\t800 | \n\t\t\t480 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1480 | \n\t\t
Crop Water Requirements for the different crops (m3/ha/month)
Wireless sensors have been used in this study as an extra tool for supporting evapotranspiration measurements in the same area of interest (Hadjimitsis et al., 2008a & 2008b). Such sensors were used as smart meteorological stations (relative humidity, temperature, wind speed) as well as tools for retrieving soil moisture, soil temperature leaves wetness and temperature. These information can be used to assess our evapotranspiration results.
Wireless nodes in the Mandria area in Paphos (
The Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) consisted of a number of wireless nodes (near to 20 nodes) placed at various locations in the surrounding agriculture fields irrigated from the Asprokremmos Dam in Paphos District area in Cyprus (see Figure 12). The WSN acts as a wide area distributed data collection system deployed to collect and reliably transmit soil and air environmental data to a remote base-station hosted at Cyprus University of Technology (at the Remote Sensing Laboratory), as shown in Figure 13.
The micro-sensors were deployed using ad-hoc multi-hop communication protocol and transmit their data to a gateway which is responsible to collect, save and forward them to a remote database through a GPRS connection. The solar powered gateway, shown in Figure 14, was equipped with various meteorology sensors required to assist the indeed research project such as rain, wind, barometric pressure, temperature etc, which give additional information to the system. The gateway also hosts a GPS sensor for identifying the exact position of the WSN an event-driven smart camera for acquiring real-time pictures of the area and also a GPRS modem for communicating with the remote server which is deployed tens of thousands of kilometers away. The absence of power and communication infrastructure was tackled by creating a fully solar operated gateway (autonomy of three days without sunshine) and by incorporating a low power GPRS modem for communication. A multi-parameter decision system running on the remote server would be able to process the sensor data and produce valuable information about watering different vegetables and create early notifications and suggestions which are then distributed to farmers and water management authorities. The system was able to process multi parameter data collected from different sensors such as soil moisture, soil temperature (Figures 15 and 16), leaves wetness and temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed and direction and ambient light.
Wirelesses Sensor Network Schema (
The WSN Gateway and Meteorology Station (
Soil moisture measurements using micro-sensor technology in agricultural field
Temperature measurements coming from MSN.
As ETc is calculated each night based on that day’s both weather readings and satellite images using the previously described method, the ETc results from these calculations are sent to farmers each morning giving them the water balance (Crop water requirements) for their area for the irrigation season until the previous day. Using the existing method by combining satellite-derived crop coefficients and the 3G telephony with SMS delivery service, now offers the potential to provide low cost, site specific and personalised (for crop type and management conditions) irrigation water management information to individual famers across an irrigation region (Papadavid et al., 2012). Automatically triggered text messages can be generated by server-based software that combine data and formatting and then send the message out to mobile phones via an Internet cellular network gateway services. 3G phones can not only send SMS but can also send extended multimedia.
High spatial resolution of water management information (approx. 30 m x 30 m using Landsat 5) allows farmers to better manage spatial variability to maximise production, minimise costs and environmental impacts.
As a key component in water resources management, it is essential to estimate evapotranspiration accurately for water resources evaluation, drought monitoring and crop production simulation. Accurate estimates of ETc are needed for numerous agricultural and natural resource management procedures. However, this is difficult to achieve in practice because actual evapotranspiration cannot be measured directly and varies considerably in time and space.
Satellite images are collected across Mediterranean areas with frequencies ranging from daily to monthly. The clear skies enable the gathering of good quality information and it is now possible to use satellite remote sensing to estimate the rates of ETc as shown in this chapter. Research has shown that there is a direct relationship between vegetation cover such as indices and ETc. This means that the standard approach of using static crop water requirement look-up tables can be improved by using the more dynamic and customised information provided by satellite imagery. Satellite Remote sensing can assist in improving the estimation of ETc, and consequently water demand in cultivated areas for irrigation purposes and sustainable water resources management.
In this Chapter remotely sensed data along with meteorological data, modeling techniques and surface energy balance algorithms were combined. All these procedures combined can provide the spatial distribution of ETc in maps where users can derive the value of ETc for each crop in mm/day. The methodology followed can be applied for any place since it can be considered as ‘algorithm adaptation’ to local conditions. The parameters that are required in the empirical equations can be easily evaluated using remote sensing techniques and field spectroscopy. Modeling techniques (for example, regression analysis) are used to correlate and evaluate measured crop canopy factors, such as Leaf Are Index (LAI) and Crop Height (CH), to remotely sensed data uring the entire phenological cycle of each crop. The intention is to create semi-empirical models describing LAI and CH, which are indispensible parameters in almost all ETc algorithms, using remotely sensed data. Using these models, users can avoid direct measurements of these parameters every time there is an application of an ETc algorithm.
The methodology as described in this chapter can support decision makers of Water Authorities. The methodology was applied for Landsats’ images but it can easily be adapted for other satellite sensors. The use of field-spectroradiometer can facilitate the procedure since it provides a spectrum which can be adapted to satellites’ bands by simple transformation, using relative spectral response (RSR) filters of each satellite.
The results presented in this Chapter form part of several research projects as listed below funded from the Cyprus University of Technology and Cyprus Research Promotion Foundation (CRPF). Diofantos G. Hadjimitsis (DGH) and Giorgos Papadavid (GP) expressed their thanks to Cyprus Research Promotion Foundation of Cyprus for the funding of the PENEK/ENISX/0308/13 as well to the Cyprus University of Technology for funding the ‘Evapotranspiration’ internal research project. GP expressed his thanks to the Cyprus Research Promotion Foundation of Cyprus for funding the EPIXIRISIS/PROION/0311/51 project.
The World Health Organization (WHO) considers schistosomiasis the most important water-based disease in the world. The disease is caused by infection with trematodes of the genus
The life cycle of the most important human
The damage caused by schistosomiasis results from the movement of eggs through host tissue, which triggers an inflammatory response and acute, chronic disease. Schistosomes (as members of the genus
Due to increased human population growth, anthropogenic environmental changes, and global movements of humans and animals, there are increasing reports of hybridization events among
The two major
The number of deaths attributable to schistosomiasis is difficult to estimate because of hidden pathologies such as liver and kidney failure, bladder cancer and ectopic pregnancies; in addition, the death rate may have decreased over the past decade due to the implementation of large-scale preventive chemotherapy campaigns [3].
The most prevalent species in Africa,
Chronic disability is far more common than death. Intestinal schistosomiasis can result in abdominal pain, diarrhea, and blood in the stool. Liver enlargement is common in advanced cases, and is frequently associated with an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity and hypertension of the abdominal blood vessels. In such cases, there may also be enlargement of the spleen. Hematuria is the classic sign of urogenital schistosomiasis. Fibrosis of the bladder and ureter, bladder cancer, and kidney damage are sometimes diagnosed in advanced cases. In women, urogenital schistosomiasis may present with genital lesions, vaginal bleeding, pain during sexual intercourse, and nodules in the vulva. In men, urogenital schistosomiasis can induce pathology of the seminal vesicles, prostate, and other organs. This disease can also have other long-term irreversible consequences, including infertility. In children, schistosomiasis can cause anemia, stunting and a reduced ability to learn (although the effects are usually reversible with treatment). Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of schistosomiasis. The drug is recommended for the treatment of all forms of schistosomiasis. Despite that reinfection may occur after treatment, the risk of developing the severe disease is reduced after initiation of treatment [3].
The prevalence of human schistosomiasis in Africa is estimated to be 192 million, which is 93% of the total global prevalence of the disease. About 29 million people are infected by this disease in Nigeria, 19 million in Tanzania, and 15 million each in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ghana, while Mozambique, with 13 million cases, completes the list of five countries with the greatest prevalence in Africa [5]. The heavy burden of schistosomiasis in Africa is attributed to limited access to clean water, poor sanitation and inadequate health services [2].
In Africa, animal schistosomiasis is a common parasitic infection among cattle, although it rarely infects other domestic animals such as goats and sheep; nor does it appear to trouble wild rodents and primates [6]. It is estimated that 165 million domestic cattle are affected by schistosomiasis worldwide. The disease is of veterinary and economic significance [7]. In China, 1.5 million cattle suffer from schistosomiasis, and more than 5 million are at risk of infection [8]. Schistosomiasis among livestock does not show clinical effects in most cases. However, if the infection persists for a long time, it can cause enteritis and anemia, as well as emaciation leading to significantly reduced productivity and growth, and even death [9]. Schistosomiasis in animals is caused by several
The three species with significant animal health impact in Africa are
The distribution of
Like a human, animals are treated for schistosomiasis through the administration of praziquantel. Effective treatment requires two rounds 3 to 5 weeks apart. However, unlike human schistosomiasis, which is frequently controlled by preventive praziquantel chemotherapy in areas where the infection is endemic [15], schistosomiasis in domestic animals is rarely treated in Africa, probably because little attention has been given by scientists to its zoonotic potential.
Environmental and ecological changes due to natural phenomena and anthropogenic activities break species isolation barriers and increase the possibility of acquiring new infections of both human and animal origin. This can lead to the occurrence of multiple infectious species and strains within a single host [4]. Multiple infections of two or more genetically distinct agent species may permit heterospecific (between-species or between-lineage) mate pairings, resulting in the production of a new offspring (species) that can be either infertile or fertile. This process is called , and control [4]. They are characterized by heterotic alterations, speciations, neo-functionalization, and adaptations, called hybrid vigor [16]. Hybrid vigor may increase parasite virulence, transmission potential, resistance, pathology, host use and can lead to the emergence of new diseases [17, 18]. Moreover, hybridization can influence parasite acquisition of novel genotypes, potentially expanding their geographical and host range and leading to novel ecological adaptations detrimental to human and animal populations [17, 20].
Trematode worms of the genus
Evidence of the potential occurrence of natural hybridization within and between human and animal
Typical morphologies of
It was not until 1980, after the invention of biochemical marker technology, that the detection of previously suspected
The number of reported
Several
There is geographic overlapping between different
Natural introgressive hybridization between
The natural hybridization events documented between animal (livestock)
The most important and interesting schistosome hybridization is that between human and animal schistosome species (e.g.,
Distribution of
Zoonotic diseases (also known as zoonoses) are those diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites that are naturally transmitted between humans and other vertebrate animals [18, 34]. Currently, six main species of
Recent studies have reported evidence of some unique schistosomiasis transmission events in Africa. It had been believed that
The magnitude of
Schematic presentation of the causes and consequences of schistosome hybridization.
The ongoing emergence (or discovery) of potential zoonotic
Recent years have witnessed an increased interest in the control and, finally, elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs), and today the control of schistosomiasis has again become a priority on the agenda of many governments, donors, pharmaceutical companies and international agencies [40]. WHO has developed several road maps for NTDs, and many African countries have made significant progress by rolling out national action plans and programs targeting schistosomiasis control and elimination [41, 42]. Preventive chemotherapy is the main strategy for schistosomiasis control in Africa, supplemented with water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions in some regions [43].
Current control of human schistosomiasis in Africa is based on preventive chemotherapy, whereby populations are mass-treated with anthelminthic praziquantel administered in the standard single oral dose of 40 mg/kg body weight. Treatment with praziquantel is currently the strategy of choice and is endorsed by WHO [41, 43]. The ambitious goals of control and eventual elimination are underpinned by targets that require countries to reach at least 75% treatment coverage of school-age children and at-risk adults, with mass drug administration schedules and the designation of target groups depending on schistosomiasis endemicity [43]. This coverage goal is endorsed for schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths in the 2012–2020 WHO road map for NTDs, in which preventive chemotherapy was identified as a key strategy for tackling NTDs [42, 44].
Over the past decade, significant progress has been made on large-scale treatments through integrated control of schistosomiasis and other NTDs. It is estimated that at least 236.6 million people required preventive treatment for schistosomiasis in 2019, of which more than 105.4 million (about 45%) were reported to have been treated [45]. In Africa, 17 countries out of the 40 that require preventive chemotherapy had not achieved the 75% treatment coverage target for school-age children during 2018, when a total of 69.1 million school-age children were treated, representing overall coverage of 62.9% [46]. In general, annual mass drug administration of preventive chemotherapy has had a significant effect on infection prevalence, intensity and associated morbidity among school-age children [47, 48, 49]. However, disease reoccurrence and persistent transmission suggest a need for more intense control measures to achieve the goal of schistosomiasis elimination.
Since the adoption of the World Health Assembly Resolution WHA 65.21 and NTDs road map 2021–2030, schistosomiasis control programs have shifted from morbidity control to disease elimination [41]. However, gaps continue to be observed in the implementation of control programs in Africa. Mass drug administration programs commonly overlook large numbers of preschool-age children, adolescents and adults, thus increasing health inequality and the risk of reinfections of previously treated groups [50]. Schistosomiasis cannot be eliminated in communities where mass drug administration is not ongoing. In the past, a key bottleneck to the implementation of preventive chemotherapy for control of schistosomiasis in Africa was the limited access to praziquantel [51]. Though there is now growing access to this medication for schistosomiasis control in Africa, it is not at the level that is projected to be necessary to reach all people who are at risk or who require treatment [52]. Analysis of data reported on treatment coverage for schistosomiasis shows that utilization of available praziquantel by NTD programs is not yet optimal in many countries [46, 52].
Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of schistosomiasis, as it is considered cost-effective, relatively safe, inexpensive and efficacious; also, donor organizations are willing to provide the drug [53]. Despite increased efforts to control schistosomiasis using preventive chemotherapy, several challenges still exist in reaching the target populations. Until recently, preschool-age children, as well as at-risk adults such as fishery workers, have not been included in many mass drug administration programs despite the evidence of schistosomiasis infection among these populations [54, 55]. This increases health inequality and the accumulation of potentially irreversible morbidities due to prolonged infection [56].
A major challenge now lies in the unavailability of a child-size formulation of praziquantel [56, 57]. The currently available formulation presents several limitations: (a) It is a large tablet, which is difficult for young children and infants to swallow and thus must be broken and crushed to allow for safe uptake. (b) It has a very bitter taste, and so is often mixed with a sweetener to make it palatable to young children. (c) The current formulation of 600 mg does not allow for flexible-dose adjustments for this age group.
Clean water provision, sanitation and hygiene are critical components of the global NTD roadmap [41]. For schistosomiasis, improved sanitation across the entire community to prevent contaminated feces and urine from reaching surface water can reduce or eliminate transmission, by stopping worm eggs in feces and urine from entering water sources, which are the snail habitat [58]. The aim of United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) is to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. WASH interventions are among the most important measures used to control water-related diseases in Africa. However, sanitation, hygienic practices, and access to clean water are inadequate in large parts of Africa where schistosomiasis is endemic [59]. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund, in 2020 more than two-thirds of the African population did not have basic sanitation services and about 18% practiced open defecation. Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania had the largest numbers of people in the continent without access to basic sanitation services, while Eritrea, South Sudan and Ethiopia had the largest proportions and numbers of people practicing open defecation [60]. Furthermore, in Eastern and Southern Africa, about 50 million (over 27%) of school-age children had no access to sanitation services, while 117 million (62%) had no access to hand-washing facilities at school [60]. It has also been reported that nearly half of Africans do not have access to clean water and two-thirds lack access to sewage infrastructure [61]. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between safe water, adequate sanitation, good hygiene and schistosomiasis found that people with access to safe water were significantly less likely to acquire a
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define One Health as a collaborative, multispectral transdisciplinary approach applied at the local, regional, national and global levels, with the goal of achieving optimal health outcomes that recognize the interconnection among people, animals, plants and their shared environment [63]. The One Health approach is a collaborative effort between the human health, animal health and environmental sectors to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment. Over 60% of emerging, re-emerging and endemic human diseases have their origins in animals [64]. Humans are at increased risk of contracting diseases of animal origin because of a wide range of interconnected variables, including mass urbanization, large-scale livestock production and increased travel [64]. Therefore, efforts to unite the sectors working to protect humans and animals and the ecosystem are of paramount significance.
The recurrent hybridization between
Schematic presentation of the proposed one health framework for controlling zoonotic schistosomiasis in Africa.
Snail control can be attempted through snail habitat modifications such as altering flow rate and water levels so as to disturb snail habitat and disrupt snails’ food sources. Such modifications include constructing V-shaped banks in irrigation channels, removing vegetation and draining water sources that serve no special purpose for humans, wildlife or livestock [67]. Biological control of snails using nonsusceptible competitor snails has been reported to be successful in the Caribbean region [69], although it is important not to run the risk of importing potentially invasive snails. Snail control may also be accomplished through molluscicide application; however, since molluscicides have not been notably effective in past efforts, and may cause damage to other organisms [70], the application should be targeted, and carefully monitored rather than widespread [67].
As part of ongoing mass drug administration campaigns, other human interventions should be considered. Therefore, WASH providers must prioritize the reduction of inequality to align with the Sustainable Development Goals agenda, as developed in the recent WASH strategy to accelerate and sustain progress on NTDs [71]. Water scarcity can result in the sharing of water sources between people and animals, which can increase the risk of zoonotic diseases. Improving access to clean water by supplying tap water or wells at homes [65], accompanied by behavioral changes such as avoiding swimming, wading, washing or bathing in contaminated ponds, rivers and lakes, would help to prevent human contact with
The most effective way of controlling zoonotic schistosomiasis in livestock is also through keeping susceptible domestic animals from coming into contact with infested water. This can be achieved by preventing livestock grazing in infested wetlands, fencing infested water sources and supplying drinking water to the animals in troughs [73]. Apart from reducing the risk of infections to the animals, these measures will also prevent contaminated excreta from livestock from entering freshwater sources. Susceptible animals used in wetland areas for agriculture purposes should be replaced with nonsusceptible species or with farm machinery if the purpose of animals’ use is mechanical management. Periodic examination and treatment of susceptible livestock should be conducted. However, reinfection may occur quickly if the source of contamination is left uncontrolled. Regarding wild animals, high-density populations of susceptible wildlife increase the potential for disease transmission. Interaction between livestock and wildlife should be prevented wherever possible, and supplementary feeding of wild animals close to water sources should be avoided. Lastly, scientists and funders should invest in finding
Strong social, economic and political commitments are key elements in successful schistosomiasis control, which requires persistent efforts and a systematic step-by-step approach with increasingly ambitious targets to reach elimination [35]. The disease context is complex, with the interplay of social, economic, political and cultural factors [20, 27] that may affect the attainment of the goals of the NTD 2021–2030 road map [28]. Concurrent treatment of zoonotic
Given the potential impact of schistosomiasis on animal health and productivity, a One Health economic evaluation of extending treatment to animal hosts in Africa appears warranted, and requires data to be gathered on the costs and benefits to both the animal and human health sectors. To assess the economics of One Health interventions, the impacts on both sectors need to be integrated so that decision-makers in both sectors can assess and interpret outcomes in a way that is meaningful both to their sector and to society [74]. In light of these challenges, there is a need to revisit the current approach to schistosomiasis control among African countries irrespective of the level of endemicity.
Since the novel zoonotic
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8436",title:"Sandy Materials in Civil Engineering",subtitle:"Usage and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b448d888478a3a8836bb6dca78facaf8",slug:"sandy-materials-in-civil-engineering-usage-and-management",bookSignature:"Saeed Nemati and Farzaneh Tahmoorian",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8436.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"296316",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Nemati",slug:"saeed-nemati",fullName:"Saeed Nemati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7690",title:"Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:"Selected Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c0c03565105a25fb6cfe85f83885afe3",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",bookSignature:"Michael Sakellariou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7690.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16550",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Sakellariou",slug:"michael-sakellariou",fullName:"Michael Sakellariou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8757",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2170e51b425059296e5464e0fe13f237",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",bookSignature:"Pavlo Kryvenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8757.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180922",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Krivenko",slug:"pavel-krivenko",fullName:"Pavel Krivenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9989",title:"ISBS 2019",subtitle:"4th International Sustainable Buildings Symposium",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a34ca3367e8af39c3718aca2f3557efe",slug:"isbs-2019-4th-international-sustainable-buildings-symposium",bookSignature:"Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143644",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzuhan",middleName:"Burcu",surname:"Gültekin",slug:"arzuhan-gultekin",fullName:"Arzuhan Gültekin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"2",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8412",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dec13857a884f2b52b887e8751e4c37f",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",bookSignature:"Sayed Hemeda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8412.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258282",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Hemeda",slug:"sayed-hemeda",fullName:"Sayed Hemeda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7225",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a845c7ddd9193f56a6bc91bc22bc503d",slug:"dam-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7225.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5214",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f7096ba0b4812663b72c918c4a4eff7",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",bookSignature:"Salih Yilmaz and Hayri Baytan Ozmen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5214.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"salih-yilmaz",fullName:"Salih Yilmaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66446",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85675",title:"Compressive Behavior of Concrete under Environmental Effects",slug:"compressive-behavior-of-concrete-under-environmental-effects",totalDownloads:1150,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Concrete strength is fairly sensitive to environmental effects. Extreme weather conditions and changes in humidity rates significantly affect the concrete compressive strength development. Concrete as one of the substantial material used in residential buildings and infrastructures is subjected to a massive strength change under extreme weather conditions. For understanding, the different concrete’s behavioral aspects, various commercial cement types under different temperatures, and humidity rates are investigated in this chapter. The experiments are aimed to investigate the concrete strength development over time when the material is cast at lower to mild temperatures and different humidity index rates. Results show that reducing the curing temperature more than 15° could result in 20% reduction in total compressive strength, while decreasing humidity rates by 50% leads to less than 10% drop in ultimate strength. To understand the strength developing process, maturity tests are conducted. It is shown that concrete is not able to reach to the expected ultimate strength if the temperature is significantly low regardless of curing time. The effect of temperature change during the curing process is more tangible on strength development compared to cement type and humidity rate values.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Alireza Farzampour",authors:null},{id:"51720",doi:"10.5772/64574",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4908,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"51861",doi:"10.5772/64779",title:"Concretes with Photocatalytic Activity",slug:"concretes-with-photocatalytic-activity",totalDownloads:2860,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is a short review about the modified concretes with photocatalytic activity. In the beginning, the photocatalysis process is explained; the authors are focused on the mechanism of organic contamination and nitrogen oxide decomposition. Next the three main methods for concretes modification are presented: the first group is when the concrete is covered by thin layer of TiO2 materials, e.g., paints or TiO2 suspensions. The second group is the concretes with thick layer of photoactive concrete on the top. The third group constitutes concretes modified in mass with TiO2. The two main methods for photocatalytic activity of the modified concrete determination were shown: an air purification by a nitrogen oxide decomposition and the self-cleaning properties by dyes decomposition. Also in this chapter the mechanical properties of the modified concrete are presented. In the end, the examples of the buildings made of photocatalytic concretes are shown.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Janus and Kamila Zając",authors:[{id:"180824",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Janus",slug:"magdalena-janus",fullName:"Magdalena Janus"}]},{id:"64801",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82489",title:"Bitumen and Its Modifier for Use in Pavement Engineering",slug:"bitumen-and-its-modifier-for-use-in-pavement-engineering",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter focuses on bitumen specifically. This chapter consists of several parts that can be mentioned, including the history of the appearance of bitumen and the types of constituent elements, as well as its mechanical properties and chemical structure and its thermal sensitivity. In all parts, the effects of bitumen on asphalt are discussed. In the following sections, the bitumen modification mechanism, polymer modifiers, and their behavior on the bitumen resistance to asphalt failures are also discussed. This chapter is very suitable for students and researchers interested in improving polymerization asphalt and bitumen and will help them to carry out research and concepts.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Mehrdad Honarmand, Javad Tanzadeh and Mohamad Beiranvand",authors:[{id:"268734",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mehrdad",middleName:null,surname:"Honarmand",slug:"mehrdad-honarmand",fullName:"Mehrdad Honarmand"},{id:"271251",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",middleName:null,surname:"Tanzadeh",slug:"javad-tanzadeh",fullName:"Javad Tanzadeh"}]},{id:"64787",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82525",title:"A Decade of Research on Self-Healing Concrete",slug:"a-decade-of-research-on-self-healing-concrete",totalDownloads:1484,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The main findings of a decade of research on the design and development of the first self-healing concrete are summarized in this chapter. The autonomous healing concept is introduced, and plethora of design campaigns is enlisted. Healing agent encapsulation and agent tubes vascular networks are reported as the most efficient healing configurations for laboratory-scale and real-size applications, respectively. Crack formation, closure after healing and further damage are phenomena tracked by using advanced experimental monitoring methods and their performance is critically revised. The effect of self-healing technology on concrete mechanical response, durability and long-term response to damage are critically discussed. The study contributes to the open discussion in the scientific research community regarding self-healing concrete upscaling feasibility and finally it aims to contribute as a base for the future studies dealing with concrete design optimization.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Eleni Tsangouri",authors:[{id:"263163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Tsangouri",slug:"eleni-tsangouri",fullName:"Eleni Tsangouri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70605",title:"Designing a Tunnel",slug:"designing-a-tunnel",totalDownloads:2801,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Designing a tunnel is always a challenge. For shallow tunnels under cities due to the presence of buildings, bridges, important avenues, antiquities, etc. at the surface and other infrastructures in the vicinity of underground tunnels, parameters like vibrations and ground settlements must be tightly controlled. Urban tunnels are often made in soils with very low values of overburden. Risks of collapse and large deformations at the surface are high; thus negative impact on old buildings are likely to occur if appropriate measures are not taken in advance, when designing and constructing the tunnel. For deep tunnels with high overburden and low rock mass properties, squeezing conditions and excessive loads around the excavation can jeopardize the stability of the tunnel, leading to extensive collapse. The aim of the chapter is to give details on advance computational modelling and analytical methodologies, which can be used in order to design shallow and deep tunnels and to present real case studies from around the world, from very shallow tunnels in India with only 4.5 m overburden to a deep tunnel in Venezuela with extreme squeezing conditions under 1300 m overburden.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Spiros Massinas",authors:[{id:"295762",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Massinas",slug:"spiros-massinas",fullName:"Spiros Massinas"}]},{id:"70990",title:"Engineering Geology and Tunnels",slug:"engineering-geology-and-tunnels",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Currently, knowledge and understanding of the role of geological material and its implication in tunnel design is reinforced with advances in site investigation methods, the development of geotechnical classification systems and the consequent quantification of rock masses. However, the contribution of engineering geological information in tunnelling cannot be simply presented solely by a rock mass classification value. What is presented in this chapter is that the first step is not to start performing numerous calculations but to define the potential failure mechanisms. After defining the failure mechanism that is most critical, selection of the suitable design parameters is undertaken. This is then followed by the analysis and performance of the temporary support system based on a more realistic model. The specific failure mechanism is controlled and contained by the support system. A tunnel engineer must early assess all the critical engineering geological characteristics of the rock mass and the relevant mode of failure, for the specific factors of influence, and then decide either he or she will rely on a rock mass classification value to characterise all the site-specific conditions. Experiences from the tunnel behaviour of rock masses in different geological environments in Alpine mountain ridges are presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Vassilis Marinos",authors:[{id:"298713",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassilis",middleName:null,surname:"Marinos",slug:"vassilis-marinos",fullName:"Vassilis Marinos"}]},{id:"51720",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4910,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"77899",title:"Review of Existing Methods for Evaluating Adhesive Bonds in Timber Products",slug:"review-of-existing-methods-for-evaluating-adhesive-bonds-in-timber-products",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gluing is an integral part of the majority of production processes in the timber industry. The effectiveness of adhesive application, glue bond development and glue penetration into the wood structure is becoming more and more important as more structural glued timber products are used in construction and other applications. The continued increase in utilisation of mass timber products (MTPs) such as CLT, glulam and LVL in tall timber buildings requires an accurate and in-depth understanding of adhesive roles and their performance effectiveness during the life span of any of those products in relation to the type of loading applied, environmental effects (e.g. RH and temperature) and in-service condition of elements (e.g. exposure to major wet events and degradation from decay). This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of existing imaging and other visualisation methods used to assess the glue line properties and examine the performance of glue lines in relation to factors such as species, product type and environmental conditions during manufacture and in-service life.",book:{id:"10584",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",fullTitle:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction"},signatures:"Maryam Shirmohammadi and William Leggate",authors:[{id:"346973",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Shirmohammadi",slug:"maryam-shirmohammadi",fullName:"Maryam Shirmohammadi"},{id:"426650",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Leggate",slug:"william-leggate",fullName:"William Leggate"}]},{id:"78315",title:"Engineered Wood Products as a Sustainable Construction Material: A Review",slug:"engineered-wood-products-as-a-sustainable-construction-material-a-review",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Engineered wood products are considered as best building materials due to environmentally friendly. Huge change to the way in which wood has been utilized in primary application of construction in the course of the most recent 25 years are in light of decreased admittance to high strength timber from growth forests, and the turn of events and creation of various new design of manufactured wood products. Engineered wood products are available in different variety of sizes and measurements like laminated veneer lumber, glued laminated timber, finger jointed lumber, oriental strand board etc. It is utilized for rooftop and floor sheathing, solid structure, beams and the hull of boats. This review objectively explores not only the environmental aspects of the use of different engineered wood composites as a building material, but also their economic aspects, to understand their effect on sustainability.",book:{id:"10584",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",fullTitle:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction"},signatures:"Ranjana Yadav and Jitendra Kumar",authors:[{id:"335083",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"jitendra-kumar",fullName:"Jitendra Kumar"},{id:"354856",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr Ranjana",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"dr-ranjana-yadav",fullName:"Dr Ranjana Yadav"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"284",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81503",title:"The Data Representations of a Building Project: BIM Model, and IFC or IFCXML Data Standard",slug:"the-data-representations-of-a-building-project-bim-model-and-ifc-or-ifcxml-data-standard",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104580",abstract:"Building regulations in the construction industry are legal documents written in human language. These are interpreted and implemented by people and generally controlled by local governments. Traditional building regulation control and supervision methods emerge as a time-consuming and error-prone process for architects, engineers, and public authorities. Therefore, BIM\\'s effective building regulation control is considered a promising field of study in the construction industry. Automated Code Compliance Checking (ACCC) method is a rule-based method that provides simultaneous control of the computer’s building regulations. ACCC takes into account the characteristics of the building elements and related building regulations. BIM is recognized as the most effective platform for information exchange of building projects in the construction industry. It supports the development of various software. It facilitates automated or semi-automated ACCC of the building projects for compliance with building regulations and standards for the participants involved in the building production process. The data of the building project are represented in two ways in the ACCC. These are BIM Model, and IFC or IFCXML Data Standard. In this study, the BIM, IFC, and IFCXML representations of the building project data were explained over the sample housing project in the ACCC process.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Murat Aydın"},{id:"81506",title:"Bentonite Clay Modified Concrete",slug:"bentonite-clay-modified-concrete",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103803",abstract:"Replacing cement with pozzolanic materials to some extent in construction is found to be one of the sustainable approaches in the construction industry. Pozzolanic materials of industrial origin like fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag will have to be replaced with natural pozzolanic materials once the world moves towards renewable energy sources. Bentonite is one such pozzolanic clay material that is rich in SiO2 content. A little research was made to assess the performance of bentonite modified concrete. Based on those, an improvement in the fresh, hardened, durability properties was reported. This chapter presents the current scenario on the development of bentonite modified concrete. It also reviews the literature about the physical & chemical properties of bentonite, bentonite blended cement mortar, bentonite modified cement concrete, and reinforced concrete. The history and development of Bentonite modified concrete were also briefly presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Metta Achyutha Kumar Reddy and Veerendrakumar C. Khed"},{id:"81381",title:"Oil Contaminated Sand: Sources, Properties, Remediation, and Engineering Applications",slug:"oil-contaminated-sand-sources-properties-remediation-and-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103802",abstract:"Oil leakage during the exploration, production, and transportation of crude oil is a significant issue worldwide because crude oil spills severely impact the physical and chemical properties of the surrounding soil. A range of remediation methods for oil-contaminated soil is recommended, consisting of sand washing, bioremediation, electro-kinetic sand remediation, and thermal desorption; however, none are cost-effective. To find a suitable alternative remediation method, oil-contaminated sand utilisation in construction was considered. Several researchers found that oil contamination generally has an adverse effect on the mechanical properties of sand, but certain levels of contamination have beneficial effects on some of the important properties of the sand and its produced concrete. This chapter reviews the main sources of oil contamination and the existing remediation methods for this waste material. It analyses the different factors that affect the properties of oil-contaminated sand and concrete, including the type of crude oil and permeability of sand, like its properties, absorption, chemical composition, and spillage quantity. Furthermore, the intensive evaluation results of light crude oil effects on the geotechnical properties of fine sand, cement mortar and concrete were presented. Potential applications for oil-contaminated sand were also identified for the re-use of this material in engineering and construction.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Rajab Abousnina and Rochstad Lim Allister"},{id:"81175",title:"Thermal Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Organo-Clay-Wood Fiber in Cement-Based Mortar",slug:"thermal-conductivity-and-mechanical-properties-of-organo-clay-wood-fiber-in-cement-based-mortar",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102321",abstract:"This paper orientated to study the compressive resistance and thermal conductivity of compressed and stabilized clay blocks in the cement matrix. The effect of the content of wood fiber (WF) became studied as a reinforcement material in cement mortars. The porosity, compressive energy, thermal conductivity and composite of cement hydration had been investigated. The addition of NFC suggests a very good pore reduction, and the fine result becomes acquired with the emulsion of a combination incorporating 2%wt of WF inside the presence of an anionic surfactant (SDBS). The results revealed that used in this study were a mix of water with ordinary portland cement and organo-clay (OC) modified with Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide at water-to-solid ratios 1%. The effect depending on w/s ratio of OC used samples with cement substitution for organoclay showed from 2% higher compressive strength results than that of the plain cement paste and a decrease of the thermal conductivity by addition of 2%wt of WF from 2.26 to 0.8 W/m °C. It was also observed that with increasing w/s ratio higher amount of cement can be replaced by OC. These analyses have revealed that the presence of WF promoted the hydration, by producing more portlandite and calcium silicate gel.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Fadhel Aloulou and Habib Sammouda"},{id:"80651",title:"The Effects of Mill Conditions on Breakage Parameters of Quartz Sand in the District of Şile on the Black Sea Coast of İstanbul",slug:"the-effects-of-mill-conditions-on-breakage-parameters-of-quartz-sand-in-the-district-of-ile-on-the-b",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102554",abstract:"Casting, glass, ceramic, construction, plastic, dyeing, and abrasive industries are the main consumption areas of quartz sand, which are formed as a result of the weathering of igneous metamorphic rocks. In such industries, it is very important to select the correct ball size in order to grind the raw material to the desired particle size in optimum time. In this study, the changes in the specific rate of breakage of the quartz sand sample were investigated by using alloy steel balls of five different sizes. For this purpose, three different mono-size samples were prepared according to 4√2 series in the range of 0.090–0.053 mm. The quartz sand prepared in these three intervals was ground with 6.35, 7.94, 9.52, 12.70, and 19.05 mm alloy steel balls for different durations. The specific rate of breakage values was obtained from the particle size distributions acquired after various grinding periods. As a result of grinding tests, an increase in the rate of breakage is observed due to the increase in ball diameter.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Serhan Haner"},{id:"80288",title:"The Role of Sand in Mortar’s Properties",slug:"the-role-of-sand-in-mortar-s-properties",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102489",abstract:"Mortars are diachronic composite materials used in masonry construction to serve multiple roles. Their durability and esthetic harmonization in constructions of the different eras were the reasons why numerous research works have been realized over recent decades. Each time, the role of the mortars’ components revealed significant pieces of information on the technology used. Despite the indisputable role of the binders on the mortar’s quality, aggregates of different characteristics had a significant role in the behavior of mortars. The addition of aggregates to a binding system in mortars technology has proved to confer technical advantages as they contribute to volume stability, durability, and structural performance. Apart from the different types of aggregates, as their mineralogy and origin are concerned, the volume content in the mixture, the maximum size, and their gradation influences the structure of a binder—aggregate mixture and the performance of mortars overall. In the present article, the diachronic presence of mortars is presented. The role of aggregates is emphasized to understand their impact on the longevity and durability of the mortars.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Stefanidou and Parthena Koltsou"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. This research has received competitive public grants from the European Commission, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the Valencia Region Government, and the University of Alicante.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"83122",title:"New Perspectives on the Application of Chito-Oligosaccharides Derived from Chitin and Chitosan: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106501",signatures:"Paul Edgardo Regalado-Infante, Norma Gabriela Rojas-Avelizapa, Rosalía Núñez-Pastrana, Daniel Tapia-Maruri, Andrea Margarita Rivas-Castillo, Régulo Carlos Llarena-Hernández and Luz Irene Rojas-Avelizapa",slug:"new-perspectives-on-the-application-of-chito-oligosaccharides-derived-from-chitin-and-chitosan-a-rev",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"83015",title:"Acute Changes in Lipoprotein-Associated Oxidative Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106489",signatures:"Ngoc-Anh Le",slug:"acute-changes-in-lipoprotein-associated-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Anh",surname:"Le"}],book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106590",signatures:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Bhaswati Sarmah, Manny Saluja and Elizabeth H. Mahood",slug:"responses-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-to-plant-stress",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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