The ‘central eight’ criminal risk variables.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3067",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advancing Desalination",title:"Advancing Desalination",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a companion volume to two published in 2011 by INTECH titled “Desalination, Trends and Technologies” and “Expanding Issues in Desalination”. 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He graduated from the Baikov Institute for Metallurgy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, where he successively worked as the Head of the Materials Science Department for about 40 years. As a multi-visiting Professor at the Technical University, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, from 1992 to 2002, together with Prof. H.H. Brongersma and his students, Prof. Vadim Glebovsky studied the bulk and surface processes on single crystals of W and Mo by Low-Energy Ion Scattering. In the period 1994-1995 he visited the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories (Livermore, California, USA), where, together with Dr. M. Campbell, studied bicrystals of high-purity Mo. At the Max-Planck-Institutes fuer Metalforschung (Stuttgart, Germany), together with Prof. H. Fischmeister and Dr. P. Gumbsch, Prof. Vadim Glebovsky studied the cleavage fracture and BDT in W single crystals (1995), and later on, also in this institute, together with Dr. D. Brunner, studied the plastic properties of high-purity W single crystals (1998). His researches span various areas of the physical metallurgy of high-purity refractory metals and alloys. In particular, he is interested in both theory and practice of growing single crystals and bicrystals of transition metals, studying the crystallographically related surface properties of high-purity refractory metals of 4, 5 and 6 groups of the Periodic Table. He is an expert in the electron-beam floating zone melting technique as well as in various techniques for high-temperature processing single-crystalline and polycrystalline high-purity refractory metals and alloys. Nowadays, scientific interests of Prof. Vadim Glebovsky extends from some aspects of application his high purity refractory metals and compounds as the effective diffusion barrier layers in Very-Large-Scale Intergration (VLSI) to a new generation of high-sensitivity detectors made of low-radioactivity Ti for registration of the “Dark Matter” particles. Prof. Vadim Glebovsky has published more than 320 scientific articles and patents, 1 book in Russian on levitation melting, 5 chapters and has edited 3 books on various aspects of functional materials.",institutionString:"Institute of Solid State Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Institute of Solid State Physics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"950",title:"Solid-State Chemistry",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-solid-state-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"64240",title:"Introductory Chapter: Growing W Single Crystals by EBFZM for Studying Mechanical Behavior",slug:"introductory-chapter-growing-w-single-crystals-by-ebfzm-for-studying-mechanical-behavior",totalDownloads:331,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"101945",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadim",surname:"Glebovsky",slug:"vadim-glebovsky",fullName:"Vadim Glebovsky"}]},{id:"64886",title:"Doping of SiC Crystals during Sublimation Growth and Diffusion",slug:"doping-of-sic-crystals-during-sublimation-growth-and-diffusion",totalDownloads:773,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"56559",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgenii",surname:"Mokhov",slug:"evgenii-mokhov",fullName:"Evgenii Mokhov"}]},{id:"67610",title:"Numerical Analysis of Liquid Menisci in the EFG Technique",slug:"numerical-analysis-of-liquid-menisci-in-the-efg-technique",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"267600",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Kurlov",slug:"vladimir-kurlov",fullName:"Vladimir Kurlov"},{id:"267604",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Rossolenko",slug:"sergei-rossolenko",fullName:"Sergei Rossolenko"},{id:"303450",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Shikunova",slug:"irina-shikunova",fullName:"Irina Shikunova"},{id:"303451",title:"MSc.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Stryukov",slug:"dmitry-stryukov",fullName:"Dmitry Stryukov"},{id:"305856",title:"Dr.",name:"Gleb",surname:"Katyba",slug:"gleb-katyba",fullName:"Gleb Katyba"},{id:"305857",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Dolganova",slug:"irina-dolganova",fullName:"Irina Dolganova"},{id:"305858",title:"Dr.",name:"Kirill",surname:"Zaitsev",slug:"kirill-zaitsev",fullName:"Kirill Zaitsev"}]},{id:"68309",title:"Growth of Single-Crystal LiNbO3 Particles by Aerosol-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition Method",slug:"growth-of-single-crystal-linbo-sub-3-sub-particles-by-aerosol-assisted-chemical-vapor-deposition-met",totalDownloads:293,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"266498",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Murillo",slug:"jose-murillo",fullName:"Jose Murillo"},{id:"309134",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Ocón",slug:"jose-ocon",fullName:"Jose Ocón"},{id:"309135",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Herrera",slug:"guillermo-herrera",fullName:"Guillermo Herrera"},{id:"309136",title:"Mr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Murillo-Ochoa",slug:"jose-murillo-ochoa",fullName:"Jose Murillo-Ochoa"},{id:"309137",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Ocón",slug:"gabriela-ocon",fullName:"Gabriela Ocón"}]},{id:"64923",title:"Epitaxial Growth of Thin Films",slug:"epitaxial-growth-of-thin-films",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"265827",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Rasic",slug:"daniel-rasic",fullName:"Daniel Rasic"},{id:"265828",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagdish",surname:"Narayan",slug:"jagdish-narayan",fullName:"Jagdish Narayan"}]},{id:"64633",title:"Conventional and Unconventional Crystallization Mechanisms",slug:"conventional-and-unconventional-crystallization-mechanisms",totalDownloads:721,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"270681",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Kamila",surname:"Chaves",slug:"kamila-chaves",fullName:"Kamila Chaves"},{id:"270682",title:"MSc.",name:"Thaís Jordânia",surname:"Silva",slug:"thais-jordania-silva",fullName:"Thaís Jordânia Silva"},{id:"270683",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Paula Badan",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"ana-paula-badan-ribeiro",fullName:"Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro"},{id:"271200",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Aliciane",surname:"Fontenele Domingues",slug:"maria-aliciane-fontenele-domingues",fullName:"Maria Aliciane Fontenele Domingues"},{id:"282324",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Barrera-Arellano",slug:"daniel-barrera-arellano",fullName:"Daniel Barrera-Arellano"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177730",firstName:"Edi",lastName:"Lipovic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177730/images/4741_n.jpg",email:"edi@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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These losses are mainly due to dehydration, decay, and physiological disorders during postharvest handling. Fresh products also undergo rapid changes in nutritional and sensory quality after harvest, some of which contribute to loss of market value [1]. Losses can be mitigated through better management of pre- and postharvest factors. Differences in postharvest loss of fresh produce between developed (5–35%) and developing countries (30–50%) as reported by Kader [2], Salami [3], Kitinoja [4], and Ray and Ravi [5] are due to the higher capacity and better infrastructure in developed economies for managing these factors [1].
\nIn strawberry, preharvest management is a prerequisite for producing good quality fruit. Quality deterioration starts as soon as the produce is harvested, and postharvest factors can only maintain but not improve the quality. The growers’ decisions and management directly affect the final market value of strawberry and its acceptance by the consumers [1]. Many preharvest factors affect fruit quality at harvest. In this review, we will discuss genetic variability, climatic conditions, and cultural practices that affect quality of strawberries.
\nSome review papers exist on the effect of preharvest factors on strawberry fruit quality [6, 7, 8, 9], but the most recent one [9] addresses major temperate berry crops and does not focus solely on strawberry. Also, since then many new research papers have been published. Therefore, this chapter will review recent publications and elaborate on the effect of preharvest factors on strawberry fruit and nutritional quality.
\nStrawberry fruit quality is a composite of sensory characteristics (color, appearance, texture, mechanical properties, diseases, and defects) that give value and enjoyment to consumers [10]. Currently, strawberry producers and handlers are lengthening shelf life through early harvesting of firm fruit with less developed color. This process pays little attention to flavor, taste, and nutritional quality of harvested fruit and yet repeat purchases by consumers have been shown to depend on taste and eating quality of fruits. Therefore, the challenge is to encourage consumers to be willing to pay more for local fruit and varieties with higher quality (because they often require more careful handling and have lower yield), and producers and handlers to pay more attention to maturity, sugar content, taste and flavor of harvested strawberries [2].
\nLike other fresh produce, strawberry fruit quality is a product of the interaction between variety and preharvest factors. Preharvest factors such as climatic conditions and cultural practices determine the inherent quality of strawberries and the interaction of genetic characteristics, and preharvest factors determine the ultimate quality of the fruit [11]. Because strawberry fruit quality cannot be improved after harvest, the role of preharvest factors must be understood in order to improve consumer acceptance and shelf life [12]. This is because the ripening process in strawberries stops at harvest, and fruit should be picked when fully ripe to ensure good flavor and quality [13].
\nMaturity indices are important for deciding when to harvest strawberries. Color, soluble solids content (SSC), and titratable acidity (TA) are used as harvest indices in strawberries with >2/3 of fruit surface showing pink or red color, minimum SSC of 7% and maximum TA of 0.8% accepted as a minimum standard for timing of harvest [14]. Once strawberries ripen, they require quick marketing and careful handling to minimize injury and spoilage [13], and the indices provide some marketing flexibility to ensure that eating quality is attained by the time the fruit reaches the consumer while at the same time limiting postharvest losses. The necessity to ship strawberries to distant markets often results in harvesting at less than ideal maturity meaning less optimum quality for the consumer [13].
\nBerry fruits are extremely perishable and have a short market life. Several studies have shown that strawberry fruits harvested slightly under-ripe are firmer, have less decay and a longer shelf-life, and would ship better than fully ripe strawberries [15]. Because they are nonclimacteric fruit, strawberries produce very small amounts of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene treatment [13]. Therefore, ripened fruit should be kept at 0°C until time for display at retailers [14].
\nSugars and organic acids have an important impact on the sensory quality of strawberry fruit. For example, a strawberry with very low sugar and acid content tastes flat [16]. Strawberry fruit contains reducing sugars such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose, comprising >65% of total fruit SSC [16]. Glucose and fructose are found in almost equal concentrations [17], while sucrose levels are generally much lower [18, 19]. The proportions of fructose, glucose, and sucrose are important in the perception of fruit quality since fructose is 1.8 times sweeter than sucrose, [20] and sucrose is about 1.7 times sweeter than glucose [16, 21].
\nCitric acid forms the major organic acid found in strawberry fruit [22], representing 88% of the total organic acids in ripe fruit [23]. Malic acid is the second most prominent organic acid in the fruit [23], and the organic acid level (malic + citric) was found to be positively correlated with TA [16].
\nThe major phenolic compounds in strawberries include anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins, ellagitannins and ellagic acid conjugates, cinnamic acid conjugates and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, catechin, flavan-3-ols, flavonols, and flavons [24]. These compounds have numerous health benefits [25] such as antioxidation and anti-inflammatory activities [26, 27]. Also present in the strawberry fruit are polyphenols or tannins, which are responsible for astringency [19, 28].
\nNutritive composition of sugar, organic acid, and phenolic compounds in strawberries is very diversely distributed. To obtain the best nutritive values, the interaction between genotype and environment not only needs to be optimized, ideal harvest and post-harvest storage conditions must also be maintained.
\nResults indicate that the effect of genotype on strawberry fruit and nutritional quality is stronger than that of growing conditions [29]. Strawberry cultivars vary greatly in their rate of softening and overall texture [30]. It has been found that genetic factors have a direct influence on strawberry texture with environmental factors acting only to modify the expression of textural traits [30].
\nStudies have shown that that genotype affects total organic acid content [31], while vitamin C content in strawberry varies among cultivars and between tissues. For example, Nelson et al. [32] found a range from 19.3 to 71.5 mg/100 g ascorbic acid in six strawberry cultivars from four locations [33], while Ezell et al. [34] found a higher rate of 38.9–88.9 mg/100 g in 28 named varieties and 16 numbered selections. Nelson et al. [32] and Ezell et al. [34] reported an average of 45 and 60 mg/100 g, respectively with Ezell et al. [34] concluding that the ascorbic acid average of 60 can be increased to 80 or more through breeding. However, malic acid concentration appears to be independent of genotype [31].
\nThe main anthocyanin found in strawberries is pelargonidin 3-glucoside, with cyanidin 3-glucoside and pelargonidin 3-rutinoside present as minor components [35]. Differences have also been reported for other quality attributes. For instance, Anagnostou [36] reported that fruit from the cultivar “Fern” had better color and more anthocyanins than from “Selva.” When evaluated for firmness, “Carlsbad” was the firmest and “Rosalinda” the softest [37], confirming that firmness is mainly cultivar dependent [36]. In the same study, Anagnostou [36] also found that TA was not significantly affected by cultivar. Differences in the incidence of albino fruit production as reported by Sharma [38] can be attributed to genetic variability among cultivars.
\nIt has also been shown that relative distribution of phenolic compounds varies with genotype. Up to a 4-fold difference in flavonol content was observed between cultivars but with only slight variations associated with growing environment [39].
\nThese results suggest that different cultivars can be used for different purposes. Some such as “Toyonoka” are firmer and more suitable for distant markets but may have lower vitamin C, anthocyanins, phenolics and flavonols, others like “Oso Grande” with good nutritional values are suitable for fresh consumption, while some like “Mazi” with high anthocyanin and flavonol content but lower levels of vitamin C, citric acid, and total soluble solids (TSS) may be valued for their functional properties [35].
\nNutritional quality can be considered an inheritable trait that can be improved through breeding [29], and breeding and biotechnology programs are working to produce new varieties with improved fruit and nutritional qualities combined with high plant production efficiency [29]. Wild species like F. virginiana spp. glauca and F. vesca are good sources of bioactive compounds. F. virginiana spp. glauca is also an important genetic source of nutritional quality and other unique traits such as day neutrality, and plant and disease resistance [29]. Breeding for improved nutritional and fruit quality parameters offers the possibility of new commercial varieties that can yield high-quality fruit at reasonable cost [29].
\nEnvironmental conditions seem to have a major influence on flavor compound formation in strawberry. Watson [19] reported that SSC in strawberry was more dependent on environmental conditions during production than on the genetic makeup of the plant. Furthermore, relating growth conditions to flavor data may allow modeling of plant and fruit responses to the environment and provide a powerful tool to growers and retailers to manipulate fruit quality [19].
\nBelow are environmental factors that affect fruit quality in strawberry.
\nPreharvest conditions such as light intensity can affect strawberry fruit quality and phytonutrient content. Light is required for proper leaf and fruit development and can improve the fruit quality, but light above photosynthetic saturation levels, especially intense exposure, can increase the fruit temperature and may result in fruit damage and a loss of quality [30, 40]. On the other hand, insufficient light typically results in smaller strawberry fruits [41]. In strawberry, low light decreases the surface glossiness of the fruit [41] and reduces color development [11, 38].
\nEzell et al. [34] concluded that bright sunny weather favored high ascorbic acid content, while cool, wet weather resulted in low values. This confirms an observation by Wang [12] that strawberries grown at higher light intensity had increased levels of ascorbic acid. Even fruits shaded by foliage or ripened on cloudy days had 10% less ascorbic acid than berries exposed to sun [42], while berries shaded by leaves showed little change between cloudy and sunny days. Ezell et al. [34] also reported that everbearing varieties grown during the long, warm days, and intense light of early June averaged 34% more ascorbic acid than did the same varieties in late September. By shading either or both berries and plants, Hansen and Waldo [43] found that unshaded berries contained 13% more ascorbic acid than did the shaded ones and 68% more than when plants and berries were shaded. Unshaded plants produced higher dry matter in fruits at the expense of leaf growth but not fresh weight implying fruits with lower moisture content [44].
\nLight intensity, affected firmness, TSS, acidity, and anthocyanins [36]. The effect of shading was not significant for phenolics, but the opposite was observed for anthocyanins. Shading of strawberry plants has also been shown to cause significant reduction in the concentration of flavor compounds (hexenal, hexanal, ethyl methyl butyrate, and methyl butyrate) in fruit [19].
\nLight also influences anthocyanin synthesis and therefore color formation in fruit [45]. It appears that lower light intensity favors the development of albinism in strawberry with Sharma et al. [38] reporting that strawberry plants grown under low light intensities (shade) tend to produce a higher proportion of albino fruit.
\nProduction methods will affect the amount of light to which a crop is exposed. Solar radiation experienced by crops grown in a polythene tunnel with new plastic may be 10% less than an outdoor crop, and a glasshouse could reduce light levels by 30% or more compared to that of an outdoor crop [46].
\nThe color of plastic mulches frequently used in raised-bed culture affects fruit quality. The most commonly used plastic mulch color is black [47]. Berries that ripened over red plastic mulch were about 20% larger, had higher sugar to organic acid ratios, and emitted higher concentrations of favorable aroma compounds. It has been said that the ratio of far red (FR) to red (R) light reflected from the red mulch modified gene expression through plant phytochrome and increased fruit size, phytonutrient concentrations, flavor, and aroma compounds [47].
\nStrawberry (cv. Toyonoka) fruit color was greatly affected by light quality under different colored filters (green, neutral, yellow, blue, to red light). Fruit color (chroma), ascorbic acid, yield per plant, and fruit size improved with increasing exposure to reddish orange color. All fruit quality parameters measured (e.g., color, sugar, acid) were negatively affected by green color [48].
\nIn another study using five different mulch colors (red, blue, yellow, green, black, and silver), red mulch gave results similar or better than black mulch. Silver mulch reduced fresh fruit weight, fruit length and leaf area, while red mulch increased it. Silver mulch also reduced pH, ratio of TSS/TA and fruit dry weight, while black much increased the ratio. It is thought that increased light from the red and far-red spectrum reflected from red mulch is absorbed by phytochromes resulting in improved plant growth and fruit quality [49].
\nPlant growth and development is largely affected by temperature. Temperature also affects cellular compounds and their structure, which ultimately affects firmness. Lower temperatures during the growing season increased fruit firmness [36], and growing strawberry under different temperatures (day/night) could also affect antioxidant activity and total flavonoid content. High temperature growing conditions (25/30°C) significantly enhanced antioxidant activity, as well as anthocyanin and total phenolic content [12]. Wang et al. [51] also reported that “Kent” strawberries exposed to warmer nights (18–22°C) and warmer days (25°C) had higher antioxidant activity than berries grown under cool day and night temperatures (18/12°C). In a separate study, Moretti et al. [50] found that high temperature conditions significantly increased flavonoid levels and consequently antioxidant capacity. Ascorbic acid content in strawberries is also highly affected by climate conditions and growing area [12]. Moretti et al. [50] showed that higher day and night temperatures have a direct influence on strawberry fruit color with berries ripened under these conditions being redder and darker.
\nHowever, Wang et al. [51] showed that in strawberry, fruit temperatures can exceed air temperatures by as much as 8°C on sunny days. High fruit temperatures could inhibit enzymes, such as sucrose synthetase, which acts on sucrose production. Increased fruit temperatures may also induce a higher transpirational flux within the fruit [51].
\nFreezing temperatures on the other hand can be detrimental to strawberries. A radiative freeze typically occurs under clear skies with calm or light wind, and a relatively high subfreezing temperature or dew point (similar to the conditions that often cause frost). Radiative freeze damage of strawberry often results in smaller fruit, and depending upon the developmental stage when damage occurs, misshapen fruit are produced [11].
\nAlthough the climate change subject is controversial, its potential impact on agriculture continues to be discussed. However, few studies have considered the potential impact of climate change on fruit and vegetable quality after harvest [52]. Temperature increase and the effects of greenhouse gases are among the most important issues associated with climate change. Beside rising temperatures, climate changes are also a consequence of changes in the composition of gaseous constituents in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere has direct effects on postharvest quality [50].
\nThe highest temperature that strawberry fruit mature normally is 35°C. At high temperatures and elevated CO2 levels, carbohydrates, such as starch and soluble sugars are degraded in the respiration process and the proteins and most minerals decrease. The nutritional quality also decreased due to more phenols and ascorbic acid. However, the effect of temperature is more pronounced than the elevated CO2 levels [52].
\nElevated CO2 levels in storage slightly increased dehydroascorbic acid and firmness, prevented ascorbic acid reduction, and reduced anthocyanin, flavonoids, antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds [53]. In contrast, increased CO2 concentrations in the growing atmosphere (300 and 600 μmolmol−1 above ambient) resulted in increased anthocyanin and phenolic and ascorbic acid content [54]. Siriphanich [55] also reported increased firmness in strawberry treated with CO2. Cell wall analysis showed lower water-soluble pectin and higher chelating soluble pectin in CO2-treated strawberries. The mechanism of firmness enhancement by CO2 was possibly due to changes in intercellular pH and its solute composition.
\nThe influence of ozone on strawberry depends significantly on cultivar and susceptibility to oxidative stress. The effect of ozone on vitamin C content is variable in the reviewed articles and mostly cultivar dependent. In “Korona” and “Elsanta” tested by Keutgen and Pawelzik [56], ozone caused a decrease in ascorbic acid content, and lowered fruit sweetness. The ozone stress did not influence yield, size, antioxidative capacity, anthocyanins, or phenolic compounds of fruit. In the more sensitive cv. “Elsanta,” ozone induced sepal injuries and fruit impairment, and a decrease in glutathione content. In contrast, fruit quality of the less sensitive cv. “Korona” remained almost constant [56].
\nIn cv. “Camarosa,” ozone enriched storage (0.35 μL/L) for 3 days, increased vitamin C by three times, and reduced volatile esters 40% compared to control [57]. On the other hand, Moretti et al. [50] reported that strawberries stored in atmospheres with ozone ranging from 0.3 to 0.7 μL/L showed no effect on ascorbic acid levels after 7 days of storage under refrigerated conditions.
\nSoil types, fertilization, composts, and mulching influence the water and nutrient supply to the plant and can affect the nutritional composition, ascorbic acid content, and antioxidant activity of harvested fruit [16]. Plants grown in low-organic-matter and low-cation-exchange-capacity sandy soil amended with Ca, magnesium (Mg), and N produced more ascorbic acid in fruit than plants without supplemental fertilizer [12]. Also, Wang and Lin [16] reported that strawberry organic acids, malic acid and citric acid, were increased by the addition of fertilizer [16].
\nComposts have been utilized in agriculture as a significant source of organic matter. As a soil supplement, compost significantly enhances plant growth, fruit quality, and ascorbic acid and flavonoid content in strawberries. Compost causes changes in soil chemical and physical characteristics that increase beneficial microorganisms, and nutrient availability and uptake thus favoring plant growth. Strawberry plants grown with compost yielded fruits with high levels of phenolics, flavonol, and anthocyanin content. The free radical absorbance capacities for peroxyl, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl, and singlet oxygen in strawberries increased significantly with increasing compost use [12, 16]. Also, compost significantly increased levels of organic acids (malic and citric acid), sugars (fructose, glucose, and total sugars), soluble solids content, and TA content in “Allstar” and “Honeoye” strawberry cultivars [16].
\nStrawberries grown organically showed higher levels of total phenolics compared to those produced by conventional agricultural practices, mostly because they received all required nutrients from organic matter. Also, flavonol content was higher in organically grown than in conventionally grown strawberry fruits. These data provide evidence that an improvement in the antioxidant defense system of the plant occurred as a consequence of the organic cultivation practice [12]. It has been shown that N can become a growth-limiting nutrient in organic production [39].
\nStrawberries need nearly neutral (6–6.5) soil pH and variation from this range affect mineral uptake and plant growth, development, yield, and fruit quality [58]. Increasing soil pH significantly reduces uptake of minerals such as iron and manganese [58, 59]. Iron deficiency has been observed in many crops when grown in high pH calcareous soils. In these soils, iron deficiency is the most important abiotic stress limiting strawberry production [60]. In fact, iron deficiency results in extensive fruit abortion with a consequent reduction of yield and fruit weight [61].
\nHowever, although most studies show a positive correlation between organic production and crop performance in strawberry, Hargreaves [59] found that organic amendments did not increase fruit quality compared to inorganic amendments, and no differences in total phenolic content were observed between conventionally and organically grown strawberries.
\nStrawberry is commonly produced in open fields, glasshouses or plastic tunnels. Pests and diseases gradually build up in soils and limit strawberry culture. Therefore, the use of alternative substrates (soilless culture) is a common cultural method in strawberries, especially in protected environments, and has been shown to improve fruit yield and quality [62].
\nPhysical and chemical properties of substrates exhibit direct and indirect effects on plant yield and fruit quality. Different substrates such as peat moss, coconut coir, perlite, rockwool, and pine bark have been used. However, peat has been the best substrate for hydroponic culture [63].
\nCheaper alternatives to peat are being explored. For example, Zeolites (alumina silicate crystals) that have a negative charge, high cation exchange capacity, and high water holding capacity have been tested. Djedidi et al. [64] reported improved yield and quality in tomato grown in a mixture of zeolite and perlite, while Fotouhi Ghazvini [65] reported improved yield but decreased fruit quality in strawberries in similar substrate.
\nAn important determinant of fruit quality is the availability of essential nutrients during growth and development. Among them, calcium (Ca) slows down the ripening and senescence processes in many fruits including strawberry [66]. Nestby et al. [67] and Prange and De Ell [9] report that research conducted over the past 25 years on the effect of Ca on postharvest quality of strawberry has provided contradictory conclusions. In some studies, foliar applications and soil amendments of Ca did not affect fruit quality, regardless of cultivar, yet other studies have shown increased shelf life due to Ca application [66].
\nFurthermore, Singh et al. [66] reported that preharvest Ca sprays greatly influenced fruit color during storage. In storage, fruit harvested from control plants turned darker whereas from the Ca spray treatment were comparatively brighter. Similarly, higher values of hue (a) and chroma (b) in such fruit indicate that fruit receiving Ca were redder and more vivid. Strawberries soften considerably during storage as a result of degradation of middle lamella, cell wall, and cortical parenchyma cells. By extension, cell wall strength, cell to cell contact and cellular turgor, which are greatly influenced by Ca may affect fruit firmness. Thus, fruits which received Ca were firmer even after 5 days of storage [66].
\nCalcium deficiency represents one of the most common issues for strawberry growers. Calcium plays a role in cell division and the maintenance of cell permeability and cell integrity, all of which directly influence factors such as firmness and shelf life [66]. Strawberry fruits from Ca-deficient plants are small, hard textured, acidic, seedy, or with patches covered densely with achenes, with increased deformity [17]. Calcium sprays increases fruit firmness, vitamin C and shelf life during storage [68].
\nHowever, there are reports that increasing Ca application did not affect sensory quality and decreased TA and TSS of strawberries. Calcium increased firmness and storage life up to 900 ppm. Higher concentration seems to create toxicity and imbalances of other minerals in leaf tissue.
\nThe form of Ca applied also changes the result. Application of gypsum at planting time did not influence fruit Ca content. Therefore, cultivar, form of Ca applied, and environmental factors must be considered during Ca fertilization of strawberries [68].
\nNitrogen is another important nutrient for fruit quality with both positive and negative effects of N on yield and fruit quality reported. The effect of N on fruit chemical components is inconsistent and varies from year to year, depending on time and rate of application and other environmental factors [67]. Recommended optimum concentrations of leaf N for high-yielding strawberry fields in California, North Carolina, northeastern United States, and Ontario, Canada ranges from 2.0 to 4.0%, with samples collected mostly from the leaf blade [69, 70, 71, 72, 73]. Form of N also affects fruit quality. Ammonium up to a ratio of 1 to 6 nitrate increased fruit firmness, but reduced red color compared to nitrate alone. Fruit vitamin C, pH, and TSS decreased with addition of ammonium up to a ratio of 1:6 (ammonium: nitrate) and then returned to the original level at the ratio of 1.5:6. Ammonium reduced TA at all concentrations [74].
\nTabatabaei [40] demonstrated that both high concentrations of NO3 (100%) and NH4 (75%) has an inhibitory effect on growth of strawberry, and it becomes more pronounced in the shaded conditions.
\nWhile low concentration of ammonium improved plant growth, higher concentrations, reduced growth due to the high demand for carbohydrates for ammonium detoxification and low nitrate concentrations.
\nAnother possible explanation is that a high concentration of NH4 reduces the uptake of cations such as Ca+ and K+ and increases the concentration of NH4+, which is toxic for the plant [40].
\nHigher concentration of NH4 significantly reduced postharvest life probably due to Ca deficiency in fruit. Calcium deficiency associated with NH4 nutrition can induce loss of membrane integrity which in turn may lower the concentration of potassium (K) and Mg and influence the function of chloroplasts and mitochondria. In addition, higher rates of organic acid synthesis because of NH4 nutrition may immobilize Ca and Mg within the roots. Ammonium also reduces the uptake of Ca and K by the roots, and is used only sparingly or not at all during the early growth of crops under poor light conditions [40].
\nThe general conclusion is that proper N fertilizer application could be effective in improving fruit quality. Plants with low or moderate vegetative growth tend to have firmer fruits. Higher N doses decreased fruit size and increased pest and disease occurrence and fruit rot and malformation. Petiole sap nitrate testing is a standard method that determines the N requirement at different developmental stages of growth and would help to reduce uncertainty of time and amount of N application [67].
\nImbalances in certain macronutrients can also have a pronounced effect on shape, and size [11]. Magnesium and phosphorous deficiency tend to decrease flower and fruit size and increase the incidence of albinism. Potassium-deficient plants may produce shriveled fruits with brown calyxes, fruits fail to develop full color, and have pulpy texture, and insipid taste [67].
\nAmong microelements, boron (B) has a direct effect on fruit quality. For example, B deficiency causes distorted flowers and fruits, reduces fruit size and number, and increases malformation [11, 67]. The influence of B on phenol metabolism has also been well studied [39]. Fewer malformed fruit in plants receiving B can be correlated with a higher concentration of B both in leaves and fruit [66], which may be due to the significant role of B on pollen germination and pollen tube growth.
\nStudies conducted by Sing [66] indicate that B application does not influence fruit quality in strawberry; however, B deficiency usually results in poor accumulation of TSS, and ascorbic acid. Other microelements also have roles in plant growth and development and are needed at lower concentrations compared to macronutrients. Iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo) are needed at 40, 25, 20, 3, 0.4 ppm per dry matter of leaves, respectively [67]. No major effects of Fe, Cu, and Mn have been reported on fruit quality [67]. In general, balanced fertilization has an important effect on both fruit yield and quality.
\nFruit quality has been observed to increase with saline solute concentration. A solution strength of 1.3 mS cm−1 EC is preferred during the spring season whereas 2.2 mS cm−1 EC proved to be best in the winter in terms of fruit quality. Fruit ripening was accelerated in salt-stressed plants [75], and salinity had no effect on fruit number, but decreased fresh and dry weight [44]. In three different studies on the effect of salinity on two strawberry cultivars differing in their sensitivity to NaCl stress: cv. Elsanta (sensitive) and cv. Korona (less sensitive) [76, 77, 78], salinity decreased total soluble solids and sugar (especially sucrose) content. Fruit quality, characterized as taste, aroma, and texture by a panel decreased significantly in “Elsanta,” but not in “Korona” [76, 78]. The more tolerant cv. Korona was characterized by an increase in reduced glutathione and better fruit taste [78].
\nSalt stress increased the antioxidant capacity, antioxidants pools (ascorbic acid, anthocyanins, superoxide dismutase) and selected minerals such as Na+, Cl−, K+, N, P, and Zn2+, as well as lipid peroxidation in both cultivars [78], and also free and essential amino acid content, especially in cv. Elsanta. The ability of “Korona” to retain Cl− in the root system more effectively than “Elsanta” resulted in 41% less leaf Cl− at the highest salinity level and better growth under NaCl stress leading to relatively higher fruit yield and quality [76].
\nStrawberry plants need frequent irrigation due to a shallow root system, large leaf area, and fruits with high water content [79]. In a field study, it was found that irrigating at 200 hPa resulted in higher yield and better fruit quality when compared with irrigating at 300 hPa. Decreased fruit firmness and increased fruit size was also observed in irrigated plots [80, 81]. Particularly in light soils, irrigation significantly increases fruit yield and quality, and creates an opportunity for intensive strawberry production. Both sprinkler and drip irrigation systems produced the same result, but water use was considerably lower with drip irrigation [82].
\nWhen strawberries are exposed to long-term water stress, leaf, crown, and runner growth are decreased. Fruit number and weight (yield) also decreases even as fruit maturity is accelerated [83]. Therefore, strawberries are generally considered unfit for deficit irrigation. However, mild deficit irrigation has been tested as a method to limit water use, and depending on the cultivar, to increase the concentration of some taste- and health-related compounds. For example, [84] report that deficit irrigation reduced berry size but increased dry matter content, sugars and acids in cvs. Elsanta, Sonata, and Symphony but not in cvs. Florence and Christine.
\nStrawberries are commonly grown on raised-beds using different polyethylene mulches. This system keeps the fruits clean, eases harvesting, saves water, and lowers herbicide use. Moreover, in Europe, strawberries grown on plastic mulches ripen a week earlier than those without mulch because of higher soil and canopy temperature, and reflection caused by the mulch may improve light conditions [39].
\nSignificantly higher phenolic content has been reported in fruit from strawberry plants grown on plasticulture than in those grown in matted row culture. Additionally, higher anthocyanin content has been observed in strawberry fruits grown on plastic mulch compared to those grown on straw mulch. The elevated temperature inside the plastic may explain the higher phenolic content. White mulch increased the contents of the total phenolics and ellagic acid and the antioxidant activity in strawberry fruits more than brown mulch, whereas the total anthocyanin content was highest in fruits grown on brown mulch. Strawberries grown on red plastic mulch have been found to contain significantly higher amounts of aroma compounds than those grown on black mulch, which may be due to different light conditions caused by the mulch color [39].
\nCultural systems affect plant metabolites such as total phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, and antioxidants. Hill plasticulture systems significantly increase total phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, antioxidants, and flavonoids compared to matted row systems. Cultural systems affect the quantity and quality of light reaching the plant and therefore, plant and soil temperatures, and soil moisture content. These conditions will affect plant growth and development and subsequently plant metabolites such as those mentioned previously [12, 51].
\nPlanting date in glasshouse production affected phenolic content, and a statistically significant interaction was found between planting date and fruit order [39]. The crop from the latest planting date seems to have the highest total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, whereas anthocyanin content was lowest. In a related study, it was found that harvest date affected the ellagic acid content, with prevailing temperature and rainfall during harvest assumed to cause the differences [39].
\nFruit quality did not change with the cultural cycle (summer-spring versus fall-spring), but the berries harvested in the spring had higher vitamin C and sucrose content and lower nitrate content compared with berries harvested in the winter [79]. Several works have demonstrated flavor differences between crops grown during different seasons [19]. Planting date affects plant mineral content due to changes in nutrient solution strength and light intensity. At lower light intensity during winter, growers increase nutrient solution strength, which can lead to higher fruit nitrate content compared to the spring. This can be considered undesirable, since nitrates may pose a potential threat to human health [19].
\nChemical composition in strawberry fruit varies by genotype and maturity. Following the pink stage, many phytonutrients are synthesized in parallel with the overall development and maturation of the fruit.
\nHarvesting at optimal maturity is essential for ensuring good fruit quality since important changes in individual sugar and acid content occurs in the final stages of ripening.
\nAntioxidant capacity also varies considerably with maturity. Many phytonutrients are synthesized in parallel with the overall development and maturation and strawberry fruit harvested at ripe stage consistently yielded higher antioxidant values than those harvested at the pink stage [12, 16]. Strawberries have the highest oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values during the green stages [15, 16], while fruit harvested at pink stage (50% maturity) had the lowest ORAC and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity.
\nThe concentration of total phenolic compounds is highest at the green stage and reduces during prolonged storage and processing. Ellagic acid concentration is highest in the early stages of fruit maturation (green strawberries) and gradually declines with ripening [85].
\nAscorbic acid content increased from green to the pink stage by about 95% and then did not change until berries were overripe, when it then decreased. Ascorbic acid is lower in the inner than in the outer part of the fruit.
\nOverall quality and firmness of fruit harvested at the red ripe stage declined more rapidly than the white tip stage. Also, fruits were lighter and less red, reflecting less anthocyanin accumulation. Therefore, fruits harvested at three quarters red ripening stage can be stored for longer periods with better color and firmness than the fruit harvested when fully red. Strawberries harvested at early stages of color development (white stage) can become red during storage similar to commercially ripe fruit [15, 86]. This indicates that strawberries harvested at certain stages of maturity can synthesize pigment during storage under favorable conditions that are temperature dependent [45, 86] and can occur in darkness, but light can slightly increase the rate of pigment formation [45].
\nThere are large variations in flavor quality between fruits per harvest and also from harvest to harvest. In strawberry, primary fruits are larger and ripen first and have less competition for resources. Therefore, there is a variation between primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary fruit in flavor and nutrient content. At each harvest, fruits from different stage of maturity and ripeness will increase the variability.
\nDifferent harvests during the season may even have more variability than fruit ripening stage, because, environmental conditions such as light may alter flavor compounds as well. Previous data from tomatoes Anagnostou [36] suggested a strong correlation between juice sugar and solar radiation across one season. The results show the difficulty in interpreting data where there is a variable light integral as well as differences [36].
\nSoluble solids and sugars decreased as the harvest season progressed, while TA, ascorbic acid content and anthocyanins increased [36]. A steady decrease in SSC and sugars as the harvest season progressed was noticed, most probably because plants were exhausted. Low levels coincided with peak production, while the highest values were noticed during low and early production (January) periods characterized by very low light intensity and short days. Titratable acidity increased from January to June, in parallel with increases in day length and light intensity [36].
\nSeasonal factor and environmental conditions affect fruit content and quality very strongly.
\nOrganic acids that affect flavor (citrate and malate) and ascorbic acid were significantly higher in the spring than winter. This could be due to the higher carbohydrates as the precursors for ascorbic synthesis. Carotenoids are also available in strawberries, although less abundant than ascorbic acid. Unlike ascorbic acid, the amount of carotenoids is higher during winter than spring. This suggests that carotenoid synthesis is dependent on the interaction between temperature and light intensity [79].
\nThe method of harvest and handling operations can determine the extent of physical injury and maturity variation, which both affect the nutritional quality of strawberries. Physical injury during harvest such as abrasions, cuts, and bruising can reduce the amount of ascorbic acid and increase fruit decay. Best harvest and handling practices should be implemented to reduce physical injury and maintain fruit quality [33].
\nInadequate pollination creates distorted strawberry fruit at maturity due to inadequate fertilized ovules, which secrete hormones necessary for fruit cell division and enlargement [11]. Insect pollination results in uniform strawberry fruit and bee (Apis melilfera) colonies are introduced into protected cultivations to pollinate flowers. Honey bees are not efficient in colder temperatures and other insects such as bumble bees are commonly used [87]. In Utah, field-grown strawberries pollinated by caged honey bees produced fewer malformed fruits than controls. Honey bees and large Diptera (Eristalis spp.) were the most common visitors to the strawberry flowers while sweet bees (Halictus ligatus) were the most efficient pollinators [88]. In Brazil, stingless bees (Scaptotrigona aff. depilis and Nannotrigona testaceicornis) work efficiently as strawberry pollinators in greenhouses [89].
\nTemperatures above 25°C can significantly affect pollen viability and germination and consequently yield and quality. However, certain strawberry cultivars produce heat-tolerant pollen, which in turn could result in higher fruit set [90, 91].
\nFruit order significantly affected the phenolic content in fruits. In two separate experiments, the levels of the total phenolics, ellagic acid, and antioxidant activity were found to increase from primary to tertiary fruits. Fruit order caused at highest a 1.5–2.0-fold difference in phenolic acid content [39]. However, the highest anthocyanin content was found in secondary fruits.
\nPrimary fruits are the largest and have more resources available for growth and protein synthesis and less available for the phenylalanine ammonium lyase enzyme to convert it to phenolic compounds. Another explanation is the dilution effect of larger cells with higher biomass in primary fruits [39].
\nIn strawberry, the effect of crop load on fruit quality depends on the genotype. Low crop load is associated with higher total soluble solids in “Ventana” and “Candonga,” but not in “Camarosa” [92]. Crop load also increases over time meaning that even at similar light levels, the amount of assimilates available to individual fruits will change throughout the harvest period. The greatest demand for assimilates will occur during the development of secondary and tertiary fruits [19]. Crop load also affects firmness, TSS, acidity, and anthocyanin [36].
\nEvaporation of surface water from overhead irrigation or chemical, fertilizer, and pesticide sprays create an unpleasant strawberry fruit appearance [11]. However, strawberries cannot be exposed to free water after harvest meaning residual chemicals on fruit surfaces cannot be washed away. Furthermore, pest control products may indirectly change fruit flavor and composition. For example, mite control improved sweetness and flavor intensity of “Sweet Charlie” strawberries but had no effect on fruit color or firmness [93]. There are many commercial products that affect plant growth and development, which may or may not be plant growth regulators. These products seem to enhance fruit set and growth, resulting in bigger fruit size and higher yields, or protect the plants and fruits from biotic and abiotic stresses [94].
\nPlant growth stimulators (seaweed extract, mixture of an auxin plus gibberellic acid, and nitrophenolates) increased fruit yield, size, and total anthocyanin concentration of strawberry cv. Camarosa, but did not change other characteristics (i.e., fruit juice pH, TA and TSS concentration, organic acid and carbohydrate concentration and fruit color). In a taste panel, the mixture of auxin and gibberellic acid received the best score [94].
\nIn another experiment, strawberry plants were sprayed during fruit ripening and after 10 days with 2, 4 and 6 g l−1 chitosan with no phytotoxic effect [95]. Chitosan increased firmness and reduced fruit decay, ripening rate, TA, and anthocyanin content during 4 weeks of storage. Formation of a chitosan film on fruit acts as a barrier for oxygen uptake thereby slowing the ripening process and modifying the atmosphere and ethylene levels without causing anaerobic respiration. In addition, chitosan coating can reduce desiccation by providing a moisture barrier as was reported earlier [95]. The reduced decay by chitosan is mostly related to delayed fruit senescence.
\nPlants receiving salicylic acid (SA) during vegetative stage through their nutrient solution produced firmer fruits with less weight loss, decay, and better quality [96]. Weight loss is due to metabolic activity, respiration and transpiration, and it is possible that SA decreased respiration rate and fruit weight loss by closing stomata. Salicylic acid as an electron donor produces free radicals, which prevents normal respiration. Pre- and postharvest application of salicylic acid significantly increased strawberry ascorbic acid content, TSS, TA and total antioxidant potential, and prevented fungal growth [97]. Increased ascorbic acid is mostly due to the increased activity of ascorbate peroxidase, [12]. Also, increased antioxidant ability and antistress power of plants and fruits induced by SA prevents vitamin C destruction. Salicylic acid decreased fungal development, although not fungicidal. However, activity of defensive enzymes (peroxidase, chitinase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) increased in pear after SA spray. Conversely, rapid decrease in endogenous SA of fruits during ripening is simultaneous with rapid softening of fruits. It has been shown that SA affects cell swelling, which leads to higher firmness of fruits and prevents fruit softening (Wang [12]).
\nRecent studies show that silicon (Si) is a beneficial element for plant growth that plays an important role in plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Silicon improved strawberry plant fresh and dry weight, leaf area and relative water content, and yield under salinity stress. Both Si and salinity treatments increased acidity of fruit, but did not affect other fruit quality characteristics [98]. Silicon fertilization also reduced powdery mildew severity under high tunnel on all strawberry cultivars tested, and significantly increased yield of marketable fruits reaching as much as 300% with cv. Monterey [99]. A silicon-based wetter (Omex SW7) significantly increased the number and length of leaf hairs on both the upper and lower surfaces of strawberry leaves and reduced the number of germinating powdery mildew (Podosphaera aphanis) ascospores and colonies. Moreover, potassium carbonate alone or mixed with Omex SW7 significantly reduced the number of germinating ascospores and colonies [100].
\nSeveral reports confirm significant (35–50%) loss of horticultural produce after harvest. In strawberry, preharvest management is a prerequisite for producing good quality fruit. Fruit quality and nutrient content of strawberries varies widely depending on the variety and environmental factors. Berry fruits are extremely perishable and have a short market life. Because strawberry quality cannot be improved after harvest, the role of preharvest factors must be understood in order to improve the shelf life.
\nResults indicate that the effect of genotype on strawberry fruit and nutritional quality is stronger than that of growing conditions and cultivars could be selected for maximum adaptability to the environmental conditions and market demand.
\nEnvironmental conditions seem to have a major influence on nutritional and flavor compounds in strawberries. Preharvest conditions such as light intensity can affect strawberry fruit quality and phytonutrient content. The color of plastic mulches frequently used on raised beds also affects fruit quality. Plant growth and development is largely affected by temperature, which affects cellular compounds and their structure and fruit firmness. Changes in the composition of atmospheric CO2 and ozone constituents due to climate change may also affect fruit quality. Soil types, fertilization, composts, and mulching influence the water and nutrient supply to the plant and can affect the nutritional composition, ascorbic acid content, and antioxidant activity of harvested fruit. The use of alternative substrates (soilless culture) is a common cultural method in strawberries, especially in protected environments that has been shown to improve fruit yield and quality. Nitrogen and Ca are among the most critical elements for improving strawberry yield and quality. Strawberry plants need frequent irrigation due to a shallow root system, large leaf area, and fruits with high water content.
\nCultural practices affect strawberry metabolites significantly. Higher phenolic content has been reported in fruit from strawberry plants grown on plasticulture than in those grown in matted row culture. Also, there is a large variation in flavor quality between fruits per harvest and from harvest to harvest.
\nSome of these environmental factors can be optimized in open fields according to the light and temperature conditions, such as planting date, mulch color and fertilization, although, their interactions may be hard to control. Other environmental factors can only be manipulated under protected cultivation. In general, to obtain reliable data on fruit and nutritional quality, when there is such a larger variation in growing conditions, other factors should be closely monitored.
\nHuman is a social being, which occupies in different ways to survive. Occupations are all of the daily activities in one’s life that make him who he is. Occupations are formed by cultural backgrounds and include all the tasks performed to fulfill the time and give life meaning. Occupational therapy is a treatment option for individuals with physical, mental or developmental conditions that focus on health and well-being by using meaningful and purposeful occupations for individuals for the development, improvement or maintenance of the essential skills needed to be successful in their environment [1].
\nForensic occupational therapy refers the occupational therapy service that assesses and makes interventions to the individuals with occupational problems in the criminal justice system [2]. The forensic settings can be variable and be challenging, but the main point here to pay attention is the holistic and humanistic view of occupational therapy which says that occupation is vital for human and is essential for health and well-being. From this view, forensic occupational therapy is the same as the mental health occupational therapy practice in some ways [3]. The main difference is the legal context and the restrictive correctional environment. The legal context is usually built upon deprivation of some occupations, and this alienates the individual to the occupation. Also, labeling and stigma affect reintegration to the community [4].
\nIn terms of the individual, occupational therapy is an important necessity for occupational participation and occupational balance. With these, occupational therapy prepares the person for community life and protects the individual from recidivism [5]. This is not the sole benefit of occupational therapy. Also, there are benefits for the community; reducing crime provides social well-being and also increases social welfare by contributing to the individual’s productivity activities, so that, forensic occupational therapy has dual aim both for the individual and the community.
\nThe forensic population is growing all over the world and brings challenges with this growing population [5, 6, 7, 8]. These challenges can depend on the person, environment and/or activity. The thing that should never be ignored is the legal context, and the therapists must consider the needs of individuals in the legal context [9].
\nOffenders’ rehabilitation is a multidisciplinary teamwork, and occupational therapy is a key part of the treatment and rehabilitation. The methods are similar to other mental health settings. The key focuses for the occupational therapists working in forensic settings are assessment, prevention of occupational deprivation, development of occupations to prevent recidivism, preparation for discharge and activities of daily living (ADLs), preparation to community and the vocational rehabilitation.
\nThis chapter describes the occupational therapy in forensic settings such as prisons, secure hospitals and community reintegration services. The chapter also discusses the assessments, models that can be used in forensic settings, interventions and challenges in forensic settings.
\nCorrectional administration is the reinstatement and retraining of a person’s antisocial behavior and feelings through confinement for treatment purposes. Correctional settings regulate the individual’s psychosocial status and provide health care service for the prisoners [10].
\nCorrectional settings are a way to facilitate the mental health recovery of the inmates. Since, many of the inmates have serious mental disorders, the forensic unit, of the correctional facility, plays an important part in their recovery. The unit reduces the risk associated with the inmates and facilitates their transition into the community or less restricted settings. However, the same results could be achieved with occupational therapists. The two main methods that are adopted by occupational therapists (OTs) are the reduction of occupation deprivation and increasing skills by occupational participation. Hence, the inmates are provided with an opportunity to play a purposeful and meaningful occupation in society [3].
\nPatients, who are admitted to the forensic units and get in contact with the criminal justice system as a consequence of their committed crimes, are detained in accordance with the country-specific mental health legislation. However, some patients are admitted due to severe behavioral issues.
\nThere are several types of correctional settings where charged offenders are held. The main institutions are forensic mental health settings, jails and prisons. Forensic mental health settings include the following: high secure units, medium secure units, low secure units, psychiatric/acute mental health units, community, forensic hostel, special hospital, acute unit of a forensic hospital, high-security section of a forensic hospital, sub-acute unit of a forensic hospital, consultation/liaison position in the community sector, tertiary mental health facility, extended forensic/psychiatric safe care and medium to high secure unit [11].
\nJails and prisons are the main correctional facilities since they are able to hold the greatest number of people. There are approximately 12 million jail admissions, which is approximately 19 times that of state and federal prisons [12].
\nJails and prisons served for different purposes; have restricted opportunities for rehabilitation; offer a similar grade of occupational deprivation, inadequate access to health services and poorly planned methods; are temporary in nature and lack systematic regulation and resources [13].
\nJails and prisons provide care for mentally disturbed offenders in ill-equipped correctional institutions. In particular, jails are used for temporary confinement and are usually lacking in mental health screenings and treatment received by inmates in jails is more limited. Prisons, however, might offer inmates the opportunity to access consulting service for substance abuse treatment even though the service delivery is generally insufficient [14].
\nJails serve as an introduction to the incarceration system. They are local correctional facilities operated by a city or country instead of the federal or state government. The main purpose of jails and prisoner distribution centers is to confine a person before and after court judgments and to filter prisoners to and from courts and other correctional facilities. Some people in jails have been sentenced, while others might be waiting to be convicted. Many individuals receive an imprisonment of less than 2 years [3].
\nJudgment is mostly a complex process of sentencing. In this respect, inmates in forensic settings might either be arraigned or experiencing the trial process.
\nPrisons are classified as high, medium and low security institutions that are typically used for convicted criminals who have been sentenced to at least a year of imprisonment in U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons. In addition, depending on the severity of the crime, some individuals are sentenced to either state or federal prisons. However, compared to jails, prisons offer a far more stable environment for the inmates and restrict their interaction with society for longer periods of time [3].
\nThe primary purpose of prisons is to ensure public safety and the security of inmates. In addition to incarcerating criminals, prisons offer them programs to address their criminogenic needs related to education, substance abuse, employment and transition to the community.
\nBasic services in prisons involve intake and screening of psychotropic medicines and to provide occupational therapy services. Those services are substantially provided for prisoners to decrease their social isolation and increase their problem solving and adaptation skills, self-efficacy and self-esteem. The occupational therapy services also promote emotional regulation abilities and social and emotional skills in order for the inmate to deal with prison life and take this opportunity to improve on self-efficacy and occupational engagement [15].
High-security units: Individuals classified as high risk to public safety have been sentenced to life imprisonment and are receiving long term treatment, are housed in high-security prisons. The physical environment in these facilities consists of a number of physical and structural barriers between the facilities and the external environment of the institution.
In high-security prisons with highest number of staff, and both multiple and single cells, criminals remain in their cells or in an outer cage in the facilities’ yard. Each cell is equipped with a toilet, screwed to its floor, and prisoners are permitted up to three 10-min showers per week. Movement is firmly restricted and activity within the cellblock does not occur without other constraints, such as handcuffs, leg irons and corrective officer escorts [3]. Orientation can be considered as essential because it gives the staff the chance to be acquainted with the prisoners. The ward program focus areas, such as improving awareness of self, others and the environment; orientation to time, place and situation; probing cognitive abilities and teaching of new skills to improve leisure time use and psychomotor activation, should be maintained after discharge [16].
Medium-security prisons: Those institutions house individuals with a criminal background and requiring 2–5 years of treatment [17]. Medium-security prisons, where prisoners’ accessibility to prison gardens and exercise areas, libraries, showers and health services are high, offer far more opportunities in terms of interaction, movement and activity in-between prisoners [3]. Medium-security prisons usually have a wide diversity of work-oriented and treatment programs. Parole is more frequently granted in medium-security prisons and may be classified as supervised (always less than 1 h), limited (sent to wards for only 1 or 2 h), occupational therapy parole (join structured activities or subcontract work) and unlimited parole (mostly on weekends and during the week when they do not join specific rehabilitation activities).
Patients included in the rehabilitation process are integrated into community life by developing intellectual and emotional insight, self-care and self-expression skills and general work abilities. Furthermore, providing stress and anger management, psychoeducation and prevention programs for substance abuse in psychoeducation groups facilitates the patients/inmates return to society [16].
Low-security prisons: These facilities have windows and open spaces that allow the prisoners to move and interact freely within the environment. Even though low-security prisons are surrounded by double-rings, they have no prison fences or other secured perimeter and are often unpatrolled by armed guards. Since the inmates might work on agriculture, transport or conservation projects, they can provide training to the prison’s staff; in addition to meeting the labor force needs of other institutions [3].
In open wards (low or minimum-security prisons), during the therapeutic leave and discharge periods, greater priority is given to preparation of patient participation. Patients are expected to adhere to hospital rules and regulations, but are allowed to freely leave their wards and take the opportunity to practice skills acquired in the medium secure wards and joining educational training programs outside the health services [3].
The intensive life skills training program is comprised of communication, conflict management and criticism handling, problem-solving, money handling (budgeting, current price trends) and work-related skills (job seeking, application for a job, writing of curriculum vitae, work interviews through the use of role play). In addition, recreational activity program, and specific work skills-related programs are implemented to enhance psychosocial interactions [15, 16].
\nForensic psychiatric settings are generally located in secure units that rehabilitate individuals deemed unfit to stand trial or not criminally responsible. Those inmates pose a serious threat to either themselves or others because of severe mental illness. A forensic psychiatric setting provides treatment-based approaches with a view to rehabilitating patients while keeping the public safe. Patients, temporarily transferred from correctional facilities or incarcerated environment, are assessed and treated for mental illness in the facility that consists of secure, closed and open common units [17].
\nForensic psychiatric hospitals reintegrate patients systematically into the community with well-equipped and specialized clinical services, as well as an exhaustive range of vocational and rehabilitative programs. Treatment is typically long-term, in order to improve and safely stabilize patients’ mental well-being.
\nReentry centers are facilities that help inmates by offering structured and supervised residential settings just before or after their release. In addition to providing a permanent residence to the individuals, assistance in financial management and facilitating, their return to the society is also arranged. These centers might be especially useful, because the psychological adaptation required for offenders, with expansive criminal histories, returning to the community after a long period of imprisonment, can be particularly demanding.
\nA crucial component of community reentry centers is substance abuse management and mental health treatment and counseling. Growing prison populations are largely due to drug-related crime and drug abuse, but relatively few prisoners receive the appropriate treatment. In this respect, community-based correctional settings have launched out prison-based drug treatment programs during the past few years [3].
\nThere are two main models of psychology about correctional treatment. The risk, need and responsivity model (RNR model) was built up by Andrews and Bonta, and they describe the criminal risk variables named ‘central eight’ (Tables 1) [18]. Good lives model (GLM) is the other model which claims, that rather than addressing criminogenic needs, the focus of treatment should be on the enhancement offenders’ abilities to obtain primary human goods [19]. Purvis describes 11 primary human goods (Tables 2) [20].
\n1. History of antisocial behavior: If there is an early involvement in antisocial acts and if they are still continuing, it is a big risk variable. | \n
2. Antisocial personality: Adventurous, pleasure-seeking, poor self-control personality pattern are other risk factors. | \n
3. Antisocial cognition: Attitudes, values and beliefs supporting crime cause a personal identity favorable to crime. | \n
4. Antisocial associates: Quality of relationship affects the behavior. So that, having close association with criminal peers and relative isolation from prosocial others because of either the individual or the community affects the criminal behavior. | \n
5. Family/marital: Problematic circumstances of home, lack of nurturing relationship and/or poor monitoring behavior. | \n
6. School/work: Circumstances such as low levels of performance and satisfaction in school or work | \n
7. Leisure/recreation: Low levels of involvement and satisfaction in prosocial activities such as leisure time activities | \n
8. Substance abuse: Abuse of alcohol or drugs affects the criminal behaviors. | \n
The ‘central eight’ criminal risk variables.
1. Life (including healthy living and optimal physical functioning, sexual satisfaction) | \n
2. Knowledge(how well informed one feels about things that are important to them) | \n
3. Excellence in work (including mastery experiences) | \n
4. Excellence in play (hobbies and recreational pursuits) | \n
5. Excellence in agency (autonomy and self-directedness) | \n
6. Inner peace (freedom from emotional turmoil and stress) | \n
7. Relatedness (including intimate, romantic and family relationships) | \n
8. Community (connection to wider social groups) | \n
9. Spirituality (in the broad sense of finding meaning and purpose in life) | \n
10. Pleasure (feeling good in the here and now) | \n
11. Creativity (expressing oneself through alternative forms) | \n
The ‘primary human goods’.
If it is examined the models, both are similar, but RNR Model is based on cognitive-behavioral and the GLM is based on humanistic philosophy. The GLM identifies 11 ‘primary human goods’ and RNR identifies ‘central eight’ which are inverse overlap. It can be said that GLM ‘primary human goods’ are inverse restatements of the ‘central eight’ risk factors, viewed from the lens of humanistic psychology [19]. Depending on these criminal risk factors, it is argued that the criminal procedure of the individual can be predicted and therefore the criminal procedure can be prevented by taking the necessary precautions. However, the RNR model is not compatible with occupational therapy outlook in the view of the possibility of irreversible risk factors and bias holding against the individual.
\nThe use of occupational therapy models in forensic rehabilitation focus on client-centered, holistic and occupation-focused practice with the approach of clinical reasoning based on individual preferences and needs. Normally, individuals engage in occupations which they prefer or want throughout their life; however, in secure environment situations, this ability of the individual can be limited or can be restricted by the individual’s mental health/disorder/learning disability, their perceived and their actual risks to themselves or others and institutional regulations, policies or legal restrictions. Individuals who need forensic rehabilitation face some participation limitations to all or a combination of activities and this can cause occupational deprivation additionally to the sense of hopelessness and poor mental health [6, 11, 15]. Moreover, community life skills and performing daily living activities and interaction with the environment of the individual can be limited. Therefore, group or individual occupational therapy programs often target basic living skills, self-care, vocational skills, adaptive coping strategies, creative arts and anger or stress management. The general aim of occupational therapy is to enable individual to experience occupational enrichment and achieve optimal occupational functioning. Occupational enrichment in forensic settings can be considered as both the goal and process of occupational therapy interventions, so evidence-based practice is very important [15].
\nOccupational therapy guideline recommendations show that Model of Human Occupation (MOHO) and its associated assessments are the most used occupational therapy model in forensic occupational therapy. The model was developed in the 1980s by Professor Gary Kielhofner and has had some revisions and collaborations until now. MOHO supports that human occupation is motivated, patterned and performed. Humans are conceptualized as three interrelated components: volition, habituation and performance capacity [16]. Also, environmental considerations are very important to increase the occupational participation of the individual having forensic occupational therapy and rehabilitation [15].
\nVolition presents the individual’s motivation for occupation and relates to individual’s motivation to participate to occupations combined with their self-belief and capacity to succeed which means personal causation. Motivation and personal causation can be affected by the individual’s mental health (such as depression, schizophrenia, personality disorder) or their perception of the reason and need for their admission. Therefore, the literature supports that it is important to establish the individual’s own goals to ensure treatment readiness. Some individuals can have complex occupational histories, which are situated within social tensions related to their antisocial or criminal occupations present lack of motivation to engage and participate activities they want and these individuals can view the environment as a barrier to participation in usual activities which can impact the individual’s mental health and well-being negatively. It is supported that volitional problems are likely to be highly relevant in the secure setting which can cause decrease in personal causation, difficulty in identifying or having unrealistic goals and an inability to and meaning or interest in activities [15, 16].
\nOccupational therapists have the skills and expertise to assess and engage people in those occupations which are meaningful and motivating. This requires a careful understanding and appreciation of what underlies the motivation and creating occupational opportunities like self-care, productivity and recreational activities. Occupational therapists also help people to identify and achieve their own hopes and aspirations such as vocational rehabilitation and work skills [15, 16].
\nHabituation refers the individual’s roles and behavior patterns consistent with his/her lifestyle. It presents automatically and effectively doing routine tasks related to their environment. Roles of the individual are responsibilities of the individual associated with personal identity, occupations and activities of daily life and extraordinary occupations. Individual with criminal lifestyles can have problems on participating prosocial roles with their daily routines and occupations [15, 16].
\nOccupational therapy interventions in secure environments help individual to participate in prosocial roles and occupations in an effort to live within society without resorting to previous criminal or new antisocial behaviors. The imposed legal and security restrictions in secure environments can mean that patients are unable to participate in their habitual or chosen occupations; this may be because such occupations are antisocial, or due to lack of resources, facilities or particular environments being available in secure settings. Often patients benefit from the structure, stability and consistency of admission [19].
\nFor occupational therapy interventions age, ethnicity and culture, finding the ‘right’ occupations that are culturally relevant, risk-managed and appropriate to the ‘typical’ forensic population can be challenging. The literature supports that not only redesigning lifestyle but also technological advances have an impact on the range of occupations that occupational therapist is able to offer to extend the inclusion level of the individual such as contemporary videogames and Nintendo® WiiTM additionally to participating actual sports and recreation activities [16].
\nAccording to the Model of Human Occupation, performance capacity is related to an individual’s adaptive interaction with the environment, and the ability to do activities provided by physical and mental components and the associated subjective experience. Occupationally restricted individuals have problems with occupational performance skills for independence in daily living. Moreover, performance skills may not be acquired or learned during transition from child to adult. Occupational therapists in secure environments have a major role to play in helping patients to develop, maintain or acquire new skills for successful community reintegration or transition to less secure settings, for example in the area of vocational rehabilitation. Occupational therapists can guide individuals to identify possible vocational areas such as study/education, voluntary or paid employment [16, 20, 21].
\nOccupational therapy interventions should help the individual to identify prevocational needs and sometimes individuals have not been or will not have a productive activity like working again and therefore the therapists need to help them to establish different prosocial, productive and meaningful occupations to increase health, wellbeing, occupational performance and general quality of life. For these reasons, it is important for occupational therapists to measure and follow the progress of the individual with outcome measures during daily living activities [17, 18, 21].
\nSocial and physical isolation of the individuals can cause problems to access their own complex occupational and environmental worlds. Being cut from own life can cause limitations over occupational choices and experience, so environmental changes and supports during activity performance can provide opportunities, constraints and demands to the individual. The literature supports that individuals in secure environments spend much of their time in passive leisure, personal care and rest occupations and occupational therapists are one of the core elements in increasing activity participation of the individual and develop occupations of their choice [15, 16]. Also, occupational therapists can facilitate the exploration of new or unknown occupations to increase positive life experiences of the individual.
\nAs it is given earlier, there is a great model need to understand the volition, habituation, performance skills, physical and social environments in which an individual’s occupation takes place. MOHO assists the understanding of occupation(s) and problems of occupation that occur in terms of volition, habituation, performance capacity and environmental context. This system-based model includes well-designed assessments, observational, self-report and interview schedules. One of the advantages of this model is that because of its extensive use in mental health settings; a forensic version of an assessment tool ‘Occupational Circumstances Assessment and Interview and Rating Scale’ was designed. But, the literature also supports that this tool is not the only one for the use of occupational therapists, and occupational therapists may find any particular model, or standardized assessment/outcome measures to support their interventions [4, 15, 16, 21, 22].The literature supports that the use of occupational therapy models in forensic mental health may increase evidence-based practice and help the professionals to show the effect of occupational therapy. As Model of Human Occupation is seen to be the most used occupational therapy model, models including environmental and individual issues such as psychological issues, desires, wants, activity performance and satisfaction from the activity performance can help the occupational therapist to plan more effective assessments and interventions. Although the literature is still limited; different occupational models such as KAWA model, creative ability model, PEOP (Person, environment, occupation, performance), the Canadian model of occupational performance and engagement and the individual placement and support model with can be effectively used with standardized assessments and outcome measures in various individuals, situations, cultures and environments in provision of occupational therapy services in a cost-effective way [6, 15, 16].
\nOccupational therapy process commences with contiguity between the offender and occupational therapy service. Collecting information about the person and making special evaluations is the first step in this process. Gathering information about the individual and special assessments helps to determine the problems and needs, as well as the reason for the intervention. It also allows for the setting of intervention targets and the determination of the intervention plan. In the process of occupational therapy, the intervention plan is followed by the implementation of the intervention. The intermediate evaluation may be needed to determine the effectiveness of the intervention or to reveal new intervention goals and plans. After intervention plans that have been modified or reorganized after the interim evaluation are applied, the intervention is assessed. As seen in the abovementioned occupational therapies process, information gathering and evaluation also play an important role in the intervention for forensic occupational therapy applications. In summary, an occupational therapist working with prisoners should use a three-stage assessment of initial assessment, interim evaluation and outcome measurement during the occupational therapy intervention process [15, 21].
\nOccupational therapy sees people as active and social entities and treats the person, his occupations and the environment holistically in order for the individual to achieve or regain well-being. It is also important to assess the individual as a whole in the information gathering and evaluation process for the creation of a suitable intervention plan [15] . According to the occupational therapy reference frame written by AOTA [15], personal factors include the individual’s values, interests, and spirituality as well as body structure and functions. Having knowledge about the boundaries and areas of internal energy in prisoners’ participation in occupations can be useful to guide activity preferences and motivation processes. The things that constitute the meaning of prisoners’ lives are values and beliefs they believe to be worth trying and taking the time. The occupational therapist in forensic setting desires recreates occupational identification of offenders who lose their roles by being isolated from the social environment. For this reason, it is very important to understand the value, relevance, strengths and limitations of the individual [4, 16, 22].
\nIt is also necessary to assess the sensory, motor and cognitive skills involved in the body structure and functions of the person in need to meet the occupation requirements they wish to perform. These skills can make or break an individual’s daily life. One point that should not be overlooked here is that during the process of occupational therapy collecting and evaluating information, the prisoner does not play a passive role, so the occupational therapist does not seem to be running a process alone. The occupational therapist and the prisoner are in the business association during the presentation of information, evaluation and outcome measures, and the prisoner is actively involved in this process.
\nOccupational therapists are aware that the occupational performance of an individual is influenced by factors related to the individual as well as by the performance patterns and the environment. Roles, routines, rituals, and habits constitute performance patterns [15]. Routines and habits allow the individual to perform his/her daily activities without thinking about how to move, without trying to remember. Occupational therapists working in forensic health services care about whether the prisoner has useful habits and routines for him. It is necessary to know how individuals spend their days and which routines they create from day to guide to get new routines and habits to use the time and energy more efficiently when the living conditions change [11]. Roles are the whole of the behaviors that an individual imposes on his/her responsibility, which is imposed by the environment and culture. Rituals are symbolic behaviors that are understood by social, cultural and spiritual values that shape the occupational identity of the individual. During the evaluations, the roles of the prisoner and the importance of these roles and the determination of meaningful rituals in the individual’s life provide significant benefits for the therapist’s intervention plan. Changes in location and time can also cause changes in the roles and rituals of individuals. The change in the role and ritual of the individual after conviction can cause occupational alienation in the individual. In the context of a forensic health service, acquisition of the prisoner’s new skills and habits, and the new roles and rituals that are well integrated with the environment make an important contribution to the occupational balance of the individual [3, 16, 23].
\nUnderstanding the environments in which occupational performance takes place, it is important for occupational therapists to understand the underlying effects of occupational participation. The environment includes dimensions related to physical, social (including individuals in the individual’s life) and policies, and at the same time creates a supportive or restrictive effect for the occupational adaptation of the individual. Situations such as an absence of freedom for the individual, individual secrecy, and the meaningful and socially acceptable occupations constitute a barrier to prisoners’ participation in their environment and occupation [15, 24]. Occupational therapists should also be thoroughly evaluating the environment of individuals who are establishing an intervention plan with prisoners applying to the occupational therapy service.
\nWe have already mentioned the preferred models for forensic occupational therapy applications. MOHO, one of these theories, includes structured and unstructured assessment and information gathering tools [3, 4, 11] for collecting and evaluating information about offenders. Some of those:
Occupational performance history interview (OPHI II)—A semi-structured measure of self-care and information about the individual’s life history;
Assessment of communication and interaction skills (ACIS)—evaluates three subdomain individuals, including the physical dimension of communication, information exchange, and relationships, in an occupational pattern or in a social group [25];
The Model of Human Occupation Screening Tool (MOHOST)—gives the client a holistic view of his or her motivation to achieve occupation, communication and interaction skills, occupation patterns and the individual’s process and motor skills as well as the environment. MOHOST also allows a highly effective assessment of the effectiveness of occupational therapy interventions [26];
Occupational Self-Assessment (OSA)—a method of assessment that reveals how the individual focuses on the occupational competence of the individual about his/her occupational adaptation, helping to shape the needs and values of the individual. OSA is a highly recommended assessment tool for evaluating forensic occupational therapy. Individuals are given a very wide list of daily occupations, individualists are asked to evaluate the occupations in their own eyes and the level of their own performance [26];
Occupational circumstances assessment interview and rating scale (OCAIRS-Forensic Mental Health Version)—the therapist has extensive content to get detailed information about the offender. It gives the individual an accurate and holistic view of occupational functionality. If the more fully involved the offender is in the evaluation process, the higher the participation in intervention practices [27, 28].
Evaluations such as Canadian occupational performance measurement, assessment of motor and process skill, independent living scale, and the role checklist are other measures preferred by occupational therapists [3, 24].
\nAnother assessment heading in the forensic occupational therapy process is risk assessment. When considering the evaluation processes mentioned earlier, a prisoner who has forensic settings should be considered as a means of risk assessment to determine the potential for another crime or previous crime. Occupational therapists take into account the risk assessment and management of risks posed by each client and to increase the occupational involvement of individuals by taking environmental precautions and managing them to manage risks in environments such as high-risk kitchens and workshops to improve individual skills as well as providing positive risk-taking opportunities to enhance the capabilities of both individuals.
\nCurrent risk factors such as age and gender, substance use status, criminal history and potential risk factors such as marital status, occupational participation level in the forensic setting, family support should be considered in the risk assessment. Occupational therapists pay attention to the influence of the person-environment-occupation interaction on the occupational adaptation of the individual. Occupational therapists can estimate the effects of individual’s personality and sociodemographic characteristics (physical, cognitive and psychological), their level of skill and the environmental risk factors, including interpersonal interaction, social support network, hospice environment, social security status on the possible risk factors. For this reason, they may play an active role in providing counseling to minimize the risks faced by prisoners and these risks’ adverse effects on occupational adaptation [3, 21].
\nAs already mentioned, offender rehabilitation in forensic settings is not different from other mental services. Intervention methods used by occupational therapists must include life skills development (such as ADLs, IADLs, and health management), occupational development, awareness (such as self-awareness and social awareness), self-management, skill-building (such as social, relationship, vocational skills), education etc.
\nThe GLM is a model that overlaps the humanistic point of view of occupational therapy. Although the GLM is a psychology-based model, it supports occupational therapies’ application models such as PEO, MOHO, CMOP and role acquisition model. Occupational therapists may develop interventions taking into account the GLM’s the primary human goods components. Some intervention recommendations based on the ‘primary human goods’ are given in Table 3.
Life: Life skills training is a commonly used occupational therapy intervention in mental health [30]. Offenders are at a higher risk for poverty, unemployment and difficulties in relationships. The life skills training interventions can focus on self-care, self-maintenance, intrinsic gratification, social contribution and interpersonal relatedness skills. The interventions must be client centered and the context must be well evaluated. While working with an offender, the balance of daily occupations should be kept in mind for a healthy lifestyle.
Knowledge: The development of interventions for improving self-awareness is very important in offenders’ rehabilitation. Self-awareness is the ability to recognize him/herself as an individual who is different from other individuals. Self-awareness is having a clear perception of personality, including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation and emotions. The aim of the interventions is to gain a sense of self-worth. Facilitatory interventions, such as education, feedback, behavior therapy and psychotherapy have been recommended to a greater extent than compensatory interventions.
Excellence in work: The main problem of ex-offenders is employment to maintain their lives [31]. Unemployment concerns begin to increase still they are in prison. They face substantial barriers to many types of legal employment [32]. These barriers are poor basic skills, low self-esteem, a lack of recent work experience, employer discrimination, behavioral and health problems. Interventions must include prevocational training, job search skills, work-related practice and also work hardening.
Excellence in play: Recreational activities and hobbies are the enjoyable, activities that are restorative in which the clients’ choice and control often associated with leisure time. Recreational pursuits and hobbies are the power of life. The main aim of the therapeutic recreation is to enhance the patient’s quality of life and ability to participate in leisure and/or play. Also, it can improve social participation and social skills which is very important for the offenders.
Excellence in agency: Self-directedness is the ability to organize and adapt a behavior to achieve individual selected goals and values. Self-directedness includes the concept of an autonomous individual and concepts of personal integrity, self-respect, dignity, efficacy and feelings about one’s life [33].
Inner peace: Anger management problems affect all parts of a persons’ life. The goals of treatment are to increase the client’s resources for coping with stress and try to decrease the demands made on the client. Treatment is first achieved by increasing awareness of the client about the relationship between anger and stress and then increasing the effective use of the stress management techniques that the client is able to cope with [11, 34]. Anger management interventions begin with recognizing the triggers of anger. The client must take responsibility for his/her own change so that the problem can be solved. The second stage of the intervention is the awareness of the behaviors when the client is angry, such as, shouting, swearing, treating verbal, postural or gestures, abusive behaviors such as phone calls, messaging or other communication ways, harassments, emotional abuses or violent. Also in this stage, the therapist must help the client to identify times when his/her thoughts do not lead to logical or rational conclusions. The third stage is teaching specific skills to help the client to manage triggers for anger effectively, such as relaxation techniques, mindfulness and assertiveness.
Relatedness: Group interventions in which the family members and friends are engaged are suitable for relatedness [35]. The aim of the interventions must be establishing and maintaining relationships with others, resisting inappropriate social pressure, working in cooperation, preventing and resolving interpersonal conflict, asking for help when necessary [29].
Community: Deficits in social skills are often seen in forensic groups. Social skills training is the main intervention method for being active in a group [36]. For being in a group, it is also important to make responsible decision to identify and evaluate the problems correctly, making decisions based on ethical and social norms, to evaluate decisions in context, contribute to the welfare of society, accurately identify and evaluate problems, make decisions based on ethical and social norms, consider context in decisions, contribute to well-being of community [29]. Social skills training consists of learning activities that use behavioral techniques that enable individuals to acquire independent life skills for better functioning in their communities. Direct teaching, modeling, role playing, behavior rehearsal, and social reinforcement can be used during the interventions.
Spirituality: The spirituality is the ‘meaning and purpose in life, the life force or integrating aspect of the person and transcendence or connectedness unrelated to belief in a higher being’ in occupational therapy perspective [37] . The meaning of spirituality is different for everyone, can be participating a religion, visiting religious places (such as churches, mosques, synagogues etc.) regularly and can be different for some praying alone, yoga, meditation, being in the nature, walking and so on. There can be challenges about talking about the beliefs and spirituality with the client and that much of spiritual experience can be culturally influenced [37]. Motivation techniques can be used to find meaning and purpose in life.
Pleasure: Pleasure is one of the subjective experiences of the human need-based experiences to engage in occupations [38]. It influences productivity, restoration and being active to engage occupations [39]. Motivational and increasing self-esteem and confidence interventions can be used to improve pleasure.
Creativity: It is stated that ‘creativity is part of everyday practice; the use of creativity as a conscious approach; creativity involves risk-taking; creativity needs a supportive environment; and creativity is the use of expressive arts in therapy’ [40]. Especially creative arts increase the capacities of offenders, help to explore their own resources, assist them to locate hope and motivation, recognize their interconnectedness with others without external pressure to comply [41].
The ‘primary human goods’ | \nIntervention recommendations | \n
---|---|
1. Life (including healthy living and optimal physical functioning, sexual satisfaction) | \nAim: Understand themselves, reach personal satisfaction, live life better and achieve their goals Occupational strategies: Functional life skills Role development Independent living skills Literacy and education ADLs IADLs Health management Gender-specific issues Money management | \n
2. Knowledge (how well informed one feels about things that are important to them) | \nAim: Identify one’s emotions, thoughts, interests, and values; understand how internal characteristics influence actions; maintain a sense of self-confidence and self-efficacy Occupational strategies: Self-awareness Drug and alcohol awareness | \n
3. Excellence in work (including mastery experiences) | \nAim: To keep the physical, psychological and social needs of the individual together, to increase the independence of the individual and to work with a holistic and customer-centric approach in the role of the worker. Occupational strategies: Prevocational training Job search skills Work-related practice Vocational rehabilitation: work preparation, voluntary and paid work Work hardening | \n
4. Excellence in play (hobbies and recreational pursuits) | \nAim: To build up hobbies, recreational pursuits Occupational strategies: Recreational skills Time management | \n
5. Excellence in agency (autonomy and self-directedness) | \nAim: To organize and adapt a behavior to achieve individually selected goals and values Occupational strategies: Anger management Stress management Problem solving skills Motivation | \n
6. Inner peace (freedom from emotional turmoil and stress) | \nAim: Regulate emotions, thoughts and behaviors across contexts; cope with stress and manage impulses; set goals Occupational strategies: Self-management Increase self-esteem and confidence by promoting personal responsibility | \n
7. Relatedness (including intimate, romantic and family relationships) | \nAim: Establishing and maintaining relationships with others; resisting inappropriate social pressure; working in cooperation; preventing and resolving interpersonal conflict; asking for help when necessary [29]. Occupational strategies: Relationship skills Complex relationship building Facilitating development of supportive relationships Social skills | \n
8. Community (connection to wider social groups) | \nAim: Being active in social groups Occupational strategies: Social skills Social awareness Responsible decision-making Graded community engagement and one-to-one goal planning Empathy | \n
9. Spirituality (in the broad sense of finding meaning and purpose in life) | \nAim: To find meaning and purpose of life Occupational strategies: Motivation | \n
10. Pleasure (feeling good in the here and now) | \nAim: Feeling good, loving life Occupational strategies: Motivation Increase self-esteem and confidence | \n
11. Creativity (expressing oneself through alternative forms). | \nAim: Knowing himself about what he can do Occupational strategies: Skills development Vocational activities include such as woodwork, crafts, graphics, horticulture | \n
Intervention recommendations in offender’s rehabilitation from the view of occupational therapy.
The main challenge is the context because of the complexity of the rules affecting the freedom of the offender and the occupational opportunities [7]. The heterogeneous client population is another challenging condition with in the context. Restricted daily living activities cause the loss of control and autonomy. Time use is another challenging factor, the lack of structured time use besides the loss of control and autonomy affects the client’s volitions, habits, and routines. Also, lack of opportunities for meaningful, individualized career choices for patients affects the client.
\nAlso, change, itself is a challenging condition. There are many factors that affect the daily living activities that are the volitions, habits of the individual and the environment. Therefore, it is not possible to catch the change in every environment. Even in a prison or in a secure hospital or a probation service, the offender has always an obligation and mostly a restricted occupational choice. Motivation or perceived lack of choice is an important challenge. Another challenge is the obligations dictate some occupations and this is not the individual’s choice. Occupational therapy is client-centered, but freedom deprivation is a challenge to make interventions. Occupational therapy is client-centered but freedom deprivation is a challenge to make interventions. Labeling and stigma are other challenging parts of the offenders’ participation in the occupations and the community.
\nKeeping the three justices—criminal justice, occupational justice and social justice—in a balance is the main aim of the offender’s rehabilitation and the most challenging part of the rehabilitation.
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\\n\\nAs a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\nOAPF Publishing Options
\n\n*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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