Classification natural fibre.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Puri",slug:"renu-puri",email:"puri.renu8@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"10777",title:"Plant Reproductive Ecology",subtitle:"Recent Advances",fullTitle:"Plant Reproductive Ecology - Recent Advances",slug:"plant-reproductive-ecology-recent-advances",publishedDate:"March 2nd 2022",bookSignature:"Anjana Rustagi and Bharti Chaudhry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"352604",title:null,name:"Anjana",middleName:null,surname:"Rustagi",slug:"anjana-rustagi",fullName:"Anjana Rustagi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11281",leadTitle:null,title:"Early Childhood Education - Innovative Pedagogical Approaches in the Post-modern Era",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe importance of education and care in the early stages of life has long been debated and documented. However, in a world that faces ongoing crises and challenges, early childhood education is in a constant quest for pedagogies that respond to acute problems such as:
\r\n\r\n\ta. Environmental crises which result in food & water shortages
\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-949-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-948-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-950-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"351c41dca5c8c997f15e758f2e035178",bookSignature:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki and Associate Prof. Michail Kalogiannakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg",keywords:"Early Childhood Education, Preschool, STEAM, Environmental Sustainability, Social Sciences, Social Sustainability, ICT, Digital Devices, Education for Equity, Gender Issues, Post-modern Epistemology, Social Constructivism",numberOfDownloads:65,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool\r\nEducation, University of Crete in Greece. He graduated from the Physics Department\r\nof the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University\r\nParis-7 and University Paris-5 and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5.\r\nHis research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching\r\nand learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, and games simulations.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"81575",title:"Caring about Early Childhood Education",slug:"caring-about-early-childhood-education",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80874",title:"Postmodernist Ideas and Their Translation into a Critical Pedagogy for Young Children",slug:"postmodernist-ideas-and-their-translation-into-a-critical-pedagogy-for-young-children",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"338161",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Wilkinson",slug:"john-wilkinson",fullName:"John Wilkinson"}]},{id:"82431",title:"Next-Generation Science and Engineering Teaching Practices in a Preschool Classroom",slug:"next-generation-science-and-engineering-teaching-practices-in-a-preschool-classroom",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Bacteria, fungi, parasites, and plants all produce toxins in the environment that can impact food safety. Furthermore, changes in the environment have caused emergence of new problems associated with toxins. One example is the production of toxins by
Strains in Group II are classified as “non-proteolytic” [5, 6]. These
Group III botulinum produces toxins of serotype C or D and is associated with avian and non-human mammalian botulism [5, 6]. Whole genome sequencing analysis indicates that strains of physiological group III are probably more related to
Bacteriophages contain the neurotoxin genes of
At the amino acid sequence level, BoNT serotypes can differ from one other by 34–64% [5, 6]. Significant genetic variation within each serotype has also been observed. In fact, 32 toxin subtypes with amino acid sequence differences of 2.6–32% have been identified thus far, and more will likely be identified in the future [5, 6]. This serotype and subtype diversity confound direct antibody and molecular-based assay designs. It is rare that one probe can bind to all serotypes. In
The development of a robust assay for the detection of any pathogen or biological product of a pathogen (such as a toxin) requires consideration of several factors: sensitivity, specificity, matrix effects, and biological activity [8–10]. Each of these factors is briefly discussed below in the context of assay methods for
In the laboratory, a rodent bioassay is considered the “gold standard” method for detecting BoNTs [8–10]. Despite much effort to replace the use of animals, it is still the most sensitive and reliable assay to model all aspects of BoNT intoxication: binding, translocation, enzymatic activity, and pathology. Alternatives to the mouse bioassay have been developed (discussed below) with shorter assay times and equal or greater sensitivity.
The mouse assay quantitatively determines the amount of BoNT required to kill all mice in a test group. This measurement is expressed as a minimal lethal dose (MLD). Although protocols may vary, mice are usually injected intraperitoneally with 0.5 mL of BoNT sample in a dilution series and then monitored over several days for signs of intoxication and death [11, 12]. If enough sample is available for an assay, the specific neurotoxin can be identified using neutralization with antibodies specific to each of the neurotoxin serotypes (A–G). The toxin serotype is therefore revealed based on which antibody confers protection from death. The mouse bioassay is highly sensitive and useful for detection of different neurotoxins in different matrices. However, despite its versatility, the mouse assay has limitations that include: long assay times and the use of animals requiring specialized animal facilities, substantial costs, trained staff, and consideration of ethical issues, especially when death is used as an endpoint. There is also substantial variation in results observed among different research laboratories [8–12].
Alternative “refined” animal assays that do not use death as an endpoint, such as the mouse phrenic nerve hemi-diaphragm assay, have been evaluated [13, 14]. Despite being more sensitive and rapid compared to the use of whole animals, these assays usually require the use of specific equipment and personnel with specialized training. Furthermore, these alternative animal assays are not feasible with larger samples and those containing a complex matrix. However, a recent study described an
Numerous nucleic acid methods have been developed for detecting clostridial DNA in biological and environmental matrices. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify the presence of
Multiplex PCR methods have also been developed to analyze unknowns for a battery of different targets such as different pathogens and/or associated gene products of these pathogens. Multiplexed assays employ different combinations or sets of PCR primers, each one specific for a gene of interest, to amplify multiple targets in one PCR tube. One such multiplex method could possibly discriminate among BoNT serotypes A, B, E, and F. As previously described, Peck et al. [16] developed a culture enrichment method that, when coupled with multiplex PCR, could identify strains of
Real-time PCR (RT-PCR) or quantitative PCR (qPCR) is also useful in studies of gene expression, specifically differential expression of genes under various environmental conditions or comparative studies of different organisms. For detection of clostridial DNA, RT-PCR methods examine expression of the NTNH (non-toxic, non-hemagglutinin) and numerous other genes in
The GeneDisc Cycler is an apparatus to perform RT-PCR applications using the GeneDisc system. The GeneDisc is a disposable plastic reaction tray that is the size of a compact disc. This method has been designed for simultaneously testing for the BoNT/A, BoNT/B, BoNT/E, and BoNT/F genes. In 2011, Fach et al. evaluated the GeneDisc Cycler equipment with neurotoxin-producing clostridia and non-BoNT-producing bacteria isolated from various clinical, food, and environmental samples [20]. Results obtained using this “macroarray” were also compared to the mouse bioassay. The toxin genes were detected in all clostridial serotypes A, B, E, and F as well as in toxigenic
Recently, Kolesnikov et al. [22] described a new method called “proteolytic PCR” in which PCR is used to assay the proteolytic activity of botulinum toxin. This technology starts with DNA–protein complexes attached to a solid phase. Proteolytic cleavage releases DNA into solution. The DNA can then serve as a template for PCR. This study described its use to detect botulinum toxin and tetanus toxin proteolytic activity [22].
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a common assay used to detect BoNTs. This method utilizes anti-BoNT capture and detector antibodies arranged in a “sandwich” format. The detection formats are most commonly luminescent- or colorimetric-based. Prior generations of BoNT immunoassays were approximately 10 times less sensitive than the mouse bioassay described in the previous section. Although not as sensitive, ELISA methods are relatively fast, inexpensive, and simple to perform. They are also less subject to inhibitory matrix effects. An amplified ELISA for detecting toxins in food matrices has also been described [23]. Toxins for serotypes A, B, E, and F could be detected in liquids, solid food, and semisolid food. Assay performance was evaluated in a range of food matrices, such as broccoli, orange juice, bottled water, cola soft drinks, vanilla extract, oregano, potato salad, apple juice, meats, and dairy foods. The assay sensitivity varied for each botulinum serotype. The tests readily detected 2 ng/mL of serotypes A, B, E, and F in various foods tested. Recently, traditionally formatted, very sensitive sandwich ELISAs used high affinity mAbs against BoNT/A and BoNT/B to detect BoNT/A as low as 5 and 25 pg/mL in buffer and in a milk matrix, respectively; and BoNT/B at 100 fg/mL and 39 pg/mL in buffer and milk matrix, respectively [24–26].
These mAbs were used in an electrochemiluminesence (ECL) immunosorbent assay using the Sector 2400 Imager (Meso Scale Discovery [MSD], Rockville, MD, USA) instrument [27, 28]. Detection sensitivities for BoNT/A in this system were similar to traditional ELISAs in buffer but were markedly improved in liquid food matrices because of the reduced background signal. The higher sensitivity and reduced time required for these new immunosorbent methods make them potential alternatives to the mouse bioassay. Sharma et al. recently developed another ECL assay for simultaneous detection of several biothreat agents (including clostridial neurotoxins) in milk products, with limit of detection (LOD) of 40 pg/mL for BoNT/A complex [28]. The ECL assay was also successfully applied to screen
Cheng and Stanker [27] evaluated the performance of antitoxin mAbs using the same electrochemiluminescence immunoassay platform (Sector 2400 Imager, MSD). The ELISA and ECL methods were observed to be more sensitive than the mouse bioassay. In fact, the ECL assay was able to outperform ELISA in terms of detection sensitivity—including food matrices spiked with BoNT/A and in some food matrices spiked with BoNT/B. The ELISA and ECL methods are fast and simple alternatives to the mouse bioassay and can be used for detecting BoNTs in food matrices and serum samples.
One example of mAb development using a recombinant immunogen was the work of Liu et al. [29], who expressed the recombinant H(C) subunit of BoNT type A (rAH(C)). Two out of 56 mAbs were selected to establish a highly sensitive sandwich chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay (CLEIA) with LOD for both rAH(C) and BoNT/A of 0.45 pg/mL. This CLEIA can be used to detect BoNT/A in matrices, such as milk and beef extract. This method is 20–40-fold more sensitive than the mouse bioassay and takes only 3 hours to complete, making it a useful method to detect and quantify BoNT/A.
The multiplex technology discussed above to detect nucleic acid has also been applied to the development of methods to analyze multiple epitopes on a single antigen and multiple targets in a single sample. This approach uses multiple mAbs as well as polyclonal antibodies to reduce false-positive and false-negative results. A commercialized system, Luminex xMAP technology, utilizes microsphere beads conjugated with antibodies. It employs paramagnetic beads instead of non-magnetic polystyrene beads and is very useful for the analysis of food matrices. The antibody-bead complexes detect multiple epitopes in a single sample. This technology was used to detect abrin, ricin, BoNTs, and staphylococcal enterotoxins in spiked food samples [30].
Zhang et al. [31] developed ELISA-based protein antibody microarrays to simultaneously detect six serotypes of BoNTs. Using numerous different food and other matrices, the microarray is capable of detecting BoNT serotypes A through F. Using engineered, high-affinity antibodies, these serotypes were detected to similar levels in various matrices and were comparable to detection in buffer.
Accurate and sensitive detection of contaminated food and other biological samples in the environment is critical. Brunt et al. [32] have developed an affinity column-based assay for detecting neurotoxin in food matrices—specifically serotypes A, B, E, and F. The detection limit for BoNT/A was reported as 0.5 ng, which is two-fold more sensitive than lateral flow methods (also see Section 6) [32]. For serotypes B, E, and F, the minimum detection limit ranged from 5 to 50 ng. Although not as sensitive as ELISA or mouse bioassay, rapid immunochromatographic methods generally require only 15–30 minutes to complete. They do not require enrichment steps and are amenable to use in the field.
Koh et al. have presented a new technology called SpinDx [33]. This method utilizes a centrifugal microfluidic platform to detect BoNTs based on a sedimentation immunoassay. A reagent mixture is prepared, consisting of capture beads conjugated with target-specific antibodies and fluorescent detection antibodies. The reagents are mixed with the sample and forced through a channel containing dense medium, a process that washes the sample and removes interfering substances. The beads that collect at the end of the channel are queried to determine the amount of antigen bound. SpinDx was used to quantify BoNTs with sensitivity that surpassed the mouse assay.
The development of lateral flow methods for detecting toxins has also led to the commercial availability of numerous kits for sensitive and rapid testing. Lateral flow methods employ capture antibodies that are “printed” on nitrocellulose membranes in a process akin to inkjet printing technology. Detection antibodies are labeled with visible materials, such as colloidal gold or colored latex beads. The sample is added to a reagent pad containing labeled toxin-binding detection antibodies and is wicked across the membrane. Toxin is retained by the capture antibody, which also concentrates the labeled detection antibody. A positive reaction is revealed as a colorimetric change and is presented as a line on the device. In general, lateral flow methods are qualitative and simply determine the presence or absence of neurotoxin. Sharma et al. [34] compared several commercial lateral flow devices for their capacities to detect toxin in food samples. They were able to detect BoNT/A and BoNT/B as low as 10 ng/mL and BoNT/E at 20 ng/mL in various liquids, such as milk, soft drinks, and fruit juices. Ching et al. [35] used the same mAbs described in the ELISA section above [24–26] in lateral flow devices to achieve sensitivities of 0.5 and 1 ng/mL for BoNT/A in buffer and milk, respectively. Although simple lateral flow tests have lower sensitivities compared to other methods, they produce rapid results and are most useful for the rapid screening of samples suspected of frequent contamination at relatively high level of BoNT. They have many applications and are ideal for field use by non-technical personnel. Self-contained and not necessarily requiring additional reagents or equipment, they can be easily interpreted in the field.
An innovative approach for toxin detection has recently been developed that combines antibodies with the amplification power of PCR, immuno-PCR (I-PCR) [36]. In I-PCR, template DNA is conjugated to the antibody, replacing a secondary antibody conjugated to the detection enzyme. Upon binding of toxin by the antibody, the presence of toxin is revealed using PCR. Chao et al. [36] described an I-PCR method for detection of BoNT/A with femtogram (10−15 g) sensitivity. These investigators compared competitive and sandwich ELISA to the I-PCR method. The I-PCR method was 103–105 times more sensitive with LODs for the ELISA methods of about 50 fg. The use of I-PCR for highly sensitive detection of BoNT in food matrices or other biological and environmental backgrounds has yet to be reported (as of late 2015).
Mass spectrometry (MS) has been used as a method to dissect components of botulinum toxin complexes [37–39]. The MS-based method, called ENDOPEP-MS, uses antibodies to concentrate and extract BoNT from test samples [38]. The concentrated toxins are then subjected to an endopeptidase activity–based assay to generate target cleavage products. Finally, MS is used to identify these products. This approach has been successful in identifying BoNT serotypes A, B, E, and F in various food and clinical matrices with greater sensitivity than the mouse bioassay.
Morineaux et al. [40] recently described a MS method that employs immunocapture enrichment by antibodies specific for BoNT/A-L chains. The enriched analyte is then analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (QqQ) in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Peptides from BoNT LC specific to the subtypes BoNT/A1–A3 and BoNT/A5–A8 could be identified. BoNT/A subtypes were correctly identified in culture supernatants, water, and orange juice samples with a LOD of 20–150 mouse lethal doses (LDs), but there was a lower sensitivity in serum samples.
Kalb et al. [41] have described the development of a quantitative enzymatic method for the detection of four BoNT serotypes using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization—time of flight (MALDI-TOF) MS. Factors that might affect the linearity and dynamic range for detection of BoNT cleavage products were carefully examined, including the concentration of the substrate and internal standard, the length of time for the cleavage reaction, and the components present in the reaction solution. Longer incubation time produced more sensitive results but was not capable of determining higher toxin concentrations, whereas a shorter incubation time was less sensitive. To address these limitations, a novel two-step analysis was developed [41]. By combining the results from a two-stage quantification, four or five orders of magnitude in dynamic range are observed for detection of BoNT serotypes A, B, D, and F. To minimize the number of cleavage reactions and analytical samples, the assay can be multiplexed using mixtures of different neurotoxin substrates. Numerous different research groups (including Kalb et al. [42], Björnstad et al. [43], and Hines et al. [37]) have used MS to dissect the components of the BoNT/G complex, revealing BoNT/G as well as other toxin protein components, namely NTNH, HA-17, HA-33, and HA-70. Overall, the use of MS can provide rapid and definitive results.
Rapidly distinguishing between the presence of active versus inactive toxin is critical for effective medical intervention in toxicoses. As BoNTs are zinc metalloproteases, knowledge of the human targets for these enzymes has enabled development of enzyme-substrate assays. Activity assays have been developed using a wide variety of detection systems. Toxin samples can be treated with recombinant versions of host–target substrates (such as SNAP-25), and the cleavage products can be detected using immunoblotting. Alternatively, fluorogenic peptide substrates emit a signal when cleaved. One such system uses a peptide (“SNAPtide”) with reverse-phase HPLC and a fluorescence detector to detect as low as 5 pg/mL of BoNT/A in skim milk [45]. Other peptide substrates (VAMPtide and SYNTAXtide) have been used for detection of their cognate BoNTs [46]. The levels of substrate cleavage correlate well with toxin activity.
Cell-based assays measure BoNT receptor binding, translocation, and enzymatic activity and can be
Diamant et al. [55] have used an interesting approach for generating antibodies that have higher specificity against serotypes A, B, and E, and possess neutralizing capabilities. Mice were immunized with a “trivalent mixture” of recombinant fragments of neurotoxins A, B, and E. The method generated numerous different monoclonal antibodies against each serotype. Most of the monoclonal antibodies had higher ELISA titers compared to polyclonal antibodies and had specificities with five orders of magnitude greater specificity. These antibodies also protected against neurotoxin dosages of 10–50 LD50. They also observed a neutralizing synergy when serotype-specific monoclonal antibodies were combined into an oligoclonal mixture.
Detection methods can also utilize highly sensitive antibodies to enrich or enhance sample preparation as well as amplify the signal. For example, an assay with a large immunosorbent surface area (ALISSA) [56, 57] utilizes an antibody to concentrate the neurotoxin onto the surface of a large bead. The “captured” toxin molecules are then used in an enzyme assay. Using food matrices, the LOD for ALISSA was observed as low as 50 fg/mL. This is far more sensitive than the mouse bioassay, immunoassay, or enzyme assay and suggests that it may be useful for detecting food contamination. Marconi et al. [58, 59] have also described the use of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to examine synaptic vesicle capture by antibodies against BoNT substrates, such as SNAP25 and VAMP2. SPR could be used with cultured neurons in 96-well plates incubated with either BoNT/A or BoNT/B and may be an alternative to animal studies. Further development of label-free and optical biosensors for detecting botulinum toxin [61, 62] will provide additional technologies with possible impact on food safety.
Kull et al. [62] described the isolation of a novel
Increased global temperature has been associated with increased algal blooms. The role of these algal blooms in disease is unclear. However, recently, a connection between algal blooms and botulism has been explored. Avian botulism is a disease that often occurs on a yearly cycle and results from the ingestion of neurotoxins by birds. This disease has become increasingly common in the U.S. Great Lakes [64], as have blooms of the green alga
In a follow-up study using PCR, Sadowsky et al. [66] reported that algae mats from different shores of the Great Lakes contained the serotype E gene. Also,
Vidal et al. [67] examined numerous environmental factors that influence the prevalence of the unusual mosaic BoNT serotype C/D. Between 1978 and 2008, 13 avian botulism outbreaks were observed, killing 20,000 birds. A significant association was found between the number of dead birds recorded in each botulism outbreak and the mean temperature in July (with average temperatures being higher than 26°C). The presence of
The presence of
Probably, one of the greatest challenges is determining which environmental matrices should be collected and analyzed, and which ones would provide the most definitive information about potential threats to humans and animals. For instance, Anza et al. [70] examined the role of eutrophication and avian botulism outbreaks in wetlands receiving effluents from urban wastewater treatment plants. Numerous different avian pathogens, including clostridial pathogens, were present in wastewater and could pose a threat to birds living in wastewater wetlands. Methods to detect BoNTs in environmental matrices could be adapted from previous studies of food and clinical samples or may require new technologies. Future studies in this area are clearly warranted.
The discussion herein has presented a general overview of methods currently being used to detect BoNTs. Many current methods to detect BoNTs in food and environmental matrices have been adapted from the clinical laboratory. New possibilities to consider, to name a few, could exploit the tools of nanotechnology, mHealth, and the use of mobile devices, the capability of miniaturization for even more sensitive and rapid detection of BoNTs. The application and practical use of these technologies might be valuable advancements to current methods to detect BoNTs.
To maintain a safe food supply and to detect toxins in an ever-changing environment, an ongoing, concerted effort in assay development and validation is essential for human health and safety. Some areas for investigators to consider include the development of new antibodies and binding molecules specific to BoNT serotype F as well as new hybrid serotypes. The impact of different types of neurotoxin accessory proteins on the detection of BoNTs should also be examined. Furthermore, the impact of food processing conditions on the stability and bioavailability BoNTs is an area in need of further study. The development of new bioassays based on non-mammalian systems and cell cultures should also be supported as well as the advancement of new portable and field-deployable testing methods, including those based on miniaturization of current bench top instruments. These are only a few recommendations, but their development and use should help to further ensure food safety and animal and human health.
This work was funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (National Program 108, Project No. 5325-42000-048-00D). Larry H. Stanker also received funding from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (Interagency Agreement No. 40768). Kirkwood M. Land was supported by the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of the Pacific.
Basically fiber is defined as a unit of substance characterized by flexibility, fineness, length, and thickness. In the order of textile, the fiber basically used have should be sufficiently high-temperature stability, strength, elasticity, and moisture performance. Generally, textile fibers are basically of two categories: natural sources and man-made fibers. They are fibers from natural sources like plants and animals etc. and do not require fiber formation, are categorized as natural fibers. The natural fibers are basically of two categories like cellulose fiber such as flex, hemp, cotton, mineral fiber, and another classes protein fibers are such as silk and wool [1, 2].
Man-made filaments are filaments in which either the introductory chemical units have been formed by chemical conflation followed by fiber conformation or the polymers from natural sources have been dissolved and regenerated after passage through a spinneret to form filaments. Those filaments made by chemical conflation are frequently called synthetic filaments, while filaments regenerated from natural polymer sources are called regenerated filaments or natural polymer filaments [3]. In other words, all synthetic filaments and regenerated filaments are man-made filaments, since man is involved in the factual fiber conformation process [4, 5]. In discrepancy, filaments from natural sources are handed by nature in ready-made form. Basically, man-made fibers contain polyesters, acrylics, polyamides (nylon), vinyls, elastomeric fibers, polyolefins, while the regenerated fibers include rayon, cellulose acetates, the regenerated proteins, glass, and rubber fibers. Basically, this article has the main purpose of all types of textile fibers, gives brief knowledge with specification facts.
In this session, we have described the properties of all kind of fibers, which are commonly viewed as important aspects.
The fineness is very important part of each fiber. The thickness of fiber can be known from its width, diameter, and sectional area. But there are very few fibers that have a completely round sectional area. So it is difficult to get the perfect answer. Therefore, there is a number that shows the ratio of weight against a fixed length or vice versa, the ratio of length against a fixed weight. For example, fineness is indicated by Denier, Tex, or yarn count. The excellence of fiber quality is evaluated from its fineness.
Length is an important characteristic that defines the usefulness of a textile fiber. The length should also be many times its diameter. In general, this would mean that when one talks of fiber length in terms of a few centimeters it has to be a few microns of fiber diameter. The staple length of spinnable fibers is generally not less than 18 mm. Fibers below 5 mm are just not integrated into the yarn. In the case of filament fiber this ratio would be very large and perhaps irrelevant. The cut staple length depends on the spinning system to be used and the fiber it is blended with in case of blends [6].
It is essential that the fabric should be durable enough. For durability, the fabric must be strong enough. The strength of the fabric is more influenced by the strength of the fiber present in the cloth. Basically it indicated strength to resistance constant by fibers, yarns form, and cloths to breakdown when energy is applied to them. The basically is strength parameters like bending, tensile and bursting, etc. according to the direction and application power.
Basically, elasticity performance depends on capability of the garments to the material to area imaginative nature after being deformed by the use of strength. Elasticity or elastic recovery is generally influenced by the extent of stretch, during time which material is kept in its stretched condition, and the time to recover.
It is essential that there should be limited variations in length and diameter between the fibers to fiber. In other words the fiber should be more uniform which will ensure uniformity in the yarn as well as in the fabric.
It indicated that the individual fibers must be capable of being spun into a yarn and then fabric with sufficient strength. For better spinnability the fiber must have better cohesiveness i.e., they must hold together to prevent slippage. The spinnability is normally used for the man-made fiber-developed procedure.
If a fiber is left in the atmosphere, it has the properties of absorbing moisture automatically. The limit of this absorption differs according to the kind of fiber. It differs even in the same fibers according to temperature and relative humidity. Generally, the volume of moisture absorption increases along with the increase of humidity. However, the increment ratio is not always in direct proportion with the increase in humidity.
Fibers are mostly used in raw material for clothing and the purpose of clothing is to decorate. However, the main purpose is to prevent from cold or heat (specially to prevent from clod). The amount of thermal conductivity of fibers is one of the important properties.
The reaction of fibers to chemicals varies a lot according to their types. But generally, nature fibers of vegetable origin are weak in acids and strong in alkalis. Other natural fibers of animal origin are strong in acids and weak in alkalis. The man-made fiber, fibers of the cellulose series are weak in both acid and alkali, whereas synthetic fiber is stable to a certain extent in acid also and alkali also.
All the textile fiber classification is mention in below Table 1.
Natural fibers are those, which are obtained from plants, animals, or minerals.
Among vegetable fibers, the kind of fiber differs according to the part of the tree/shrub, from which it is taken.
For example, collections of fiber growing on the seeds like raw cotton, Kapok, etc. collection of grown as the skin of the plant stem (bast) like flax, ramie, hemp, jute, etc. the collection of fiber from fruit shells like coir fiber (coconut fiber). The out of this most important one is raw cotton and next to it are flax, jute, Manila hemp, and ramie [7, 8].
Raw cotton is being used as a material for clothing for a long and its origin can be traced to 2200 BC. The cotton hair during its growth is almost cylindrical and contains a central canal called is the lumen. When remove from the seed, however the cell collapse into a flat ribbon which forms an irregular spiral band under the influence of light and air.
The cotton fibers are having different lengths. These depend upon the types of soil, weather condition, duration of harvesting the crops, etc. the length of cotton fibers are expressed in the terms of staple length. Very good fibers measure a length of 2 inches. The length of fiber also depends on the fineness of the fibers, longer the fiber finer will be the diameter. The length of cotton fiber varies from 1200 to 1300 times its width.
Kapok is a silky fiber obtained from the pod of kapok tree. The botanical name is Ceiba pentranda of the family Boombacaceae. This tree is grown principally in Java, Africa, Netherlands, and South East Asia, where the soil and hot climate conditions are especially suited for its growth. The fibers are contained in the outer shell, loosely surrounding the seeds and entirely free from the cell. The Kapok fiber has a hollow structure with an external radius of around 8.25 (±4) mm, internal diameter around 7.25 (±4) mm, and length around 25 (±5) mm. Combined with the specific material density of 1.3 g/cm3.
Basically are the bast fiber category in Jute, Flex, Hemp, Ramie, etc. [9].
Jute fiber is moderately strong, lustrous & yellowish-brown in color. It tends to disintegrate in water and has poor elasticity. However, this rigidity becomes virtuous. It is our best bagging material. Jute is difficult to bleach and it cannot be made pure white. It is the most important among all bast fibers. It is 2rd only to cotton in terms of crop polymer. It is easy to be spun but deteriorates when exposed to moisture. It can be converted wool-like fiber by treatment with strong caustic soda. It is highly hygroscopic with moisture regain of 13.75% and moisture content of 12% and the staple length of the fiber varies between 60 and 120 inches. Its color varies from yellow to brown. Generally, fiber is coarser and it is harsh. It is attacked by bacteria when damp. Jute is mixed with wool. Jute cloth is used for covering the cattle during winter because of its thermal insulation properties. It can be used for backing cloth for carpets and in the making of gunny bags, ropes, etc. it can be substituted for plywood also [10, 11].
Flax is also called as linen and many times it is called as linen, when it is turned into yarn or fabric. This is known very well around the world as the oldest of all the cultivated fiber raw materials. Flax is the bast fiber found in the stem of the plant “Linium usitatissium”. The plant is cultivated in cold and humid conditions. So, the plantation is centered in cold countries. The major source of supply of flax is from the old U.S.S.R. the other countries which have flax growing areas are North Ireland, Egypt, Japan, Brazil, France, U.S.A., Australia, Canada, etc. Like jute, flax is an annual plant. The plant from which the fiber extracts grows in moist and cold conditions. The plant grows up to 160 to 170 cm in height and 1.5 cm in diameter. The tree is matured by changing its color from green to yellow. The flax fiber color is yellowish to gray, length 18 to 30 inches, elongation at a break of 2.7 to 3.5%, and moisture regain 10 to 12% [12].
Basically hemp fiber is bast fiber category and similar harvesting process like for the flex fiber. These fibers are thick as compared to flax and darker color, tough to bleach process. This fiber is strong and more durable. The strands of the hemp fiber, approximate length of 6 to 8 feet and fiber length of 1.2 to 2.5 cm. The hemp fiber cross-section is polygonal shape and fiber is very stiff and surrounds considerable lignin. They are hemp fiber to produce for the coarse count cloths like sack material, rope, canvas, etc. Generally, hemp fiber is color yellowish to deep brown and moisture regains 12%. The hemp fiber is very poor elasticity recovery performance [13].
The ramie fiber is also bast fiber categories and generally to known this fiber as a china grass. All produced fiber processes are similar to hemp fiber. The ramie fiber is a white color with more luster and good strength. This fiber is basically used for industrial application and furnishing where rough, irregular clothes are desired. The plant grows to a height of 1 to 3 meters with a diameter of approximately 8 to 20 mm thick. The plant requires a tropical climate, where the winter temperature should be above freezing. This plant is also grown in India Australia, America, Japan, Brazil, etc. Ramie is a perennial fiber, with a yield from two to five crops of fiber per year, which depends upon the soil and climate. Ramie is ready for harvesting when the lower part of the stalk turns light yellowish-brown and the lower leaves matured by turning yellow and detachable. Harvesting is done by cutting the stalks. The physical properties of Ramie fiber exhibited high tenacity, high luster, and brightness. It has resistance to heat, light, acid, and alkali, etc. The ramie fiber is moisture regain used 12% [14, 15].
They basically are used for animal fiber like wool and silk.
Animal hairs are obviously natural clothing material; they protect the body from wind and rain and also soften the extremes of temperature in various climates. A typical hair contains three parts the cuticular layers or epidermis, the fiber layer or cortex, and the pith or medulla. The wool is the haircut and collected from the sheep. Therefore before elaborating about the sheep wool, it is necessary to elaborate a little about the sheep. In the wool market, they are broadly classified into merino variety and crossbred variety. Sometimes only are used for comeback variety [16].
Silk originated from the silkworm which is cultivated in a warm shiny climate and usually employs cheap labor. The silk fabrics comprise the fabrics woven with raw silk and degummed after weaving and the fabrics woven by using the degummed silk yarn. They generally are used raw silk material to make woven cloth in white color. They are dyed on fabric surface plain color or according to consumer demand printed used. There is also a method of degumming and dyeing in which the dye is put into the degumming tank and dyeing is carried out instantaneously with scouring [17, 18].
Tenacity dry 2.8 to 5.2 gpd, tenacity wet 75 to 95% of dry.
Classification natural fibre.
S. No. | Type of fiber | Fiber moisture regain (%) | Fiber density (g/cm3) |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Cotton | 7.5 to 8 | 1.52 |
2. | Kapok | Above 7 | 1.30 |
3. | Jute | 12 to 13.5 | 1.52 |
4. | Flax | 10 to 12 | 1.52 |
5. | Hemp | 12 | 0.83 |
6. | Ramie | 10 to 12 | 1.50 to 1.55 |
7. | Sisal | 11 | 1.46 |
8. | Coconut | 8 to 12 | 1.18 |
9. | Banana | 13 | 1.19 |
10. | Bamboo | 12.7 | 1.1 |
11. | Wool | 12 to 14 | 1.31 |
12. | Silk | 11 | 1.34 |
Natural fiber moisture regains and density specification.
S. No. | Type of fiber | Fiber moisture regain (%) | Fiber density (g/cm3) |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Nylon | 4 | 1.14 |
2. | Polyester | 0.4 | 1.38 |
3. | Polypropylene | 0.01 | 0.769 |
4. | Polyurethane | 1.3 | 1.0 |
5. | Acetate | 6 | 1.32 |
6. | Viscose | 11 to 13 | 1.46 to 1.54 |
7. | Acrylic | 1.5 to 2 | 1.17 |
Man-made fiber moisture regains and density specification.
Generally, fiber identification is of three types microscopy view, burning test, and solubility test [19, 20, 21].
The textile fibers, particularly the natural ones, have typical longitudinal and cross-sectional shapes and therefore can be identified by viewing them under the optical microscope. This technique cannot be used very successfully in the case of man-made fibers, except for a few because their cross-sections can be modified during production. Typical cross-sectional and longitudinal shapes of some of the fibers are given in the following Tables 4 and 5.
S. No. | Fiber | Longitudinal appearance | Cross-sectional shape |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Cotton | Ribbon like Convolutions (twist) that often change direction | Collapsed, bean-shaped, Irregular size, lumen visible |
2. | Flex | Presence of cross marking and nodes. Pointed tips and smooth outline is present | Fiber bundle, fiber exhibit polygonal structure with sharp angles and small central lumen. |
3. | Jute | Poorly defined nodes fiber present in bundles observation spiral elements with cross markings. | Fiber bundles with irregular outline. Fiber exhibit polygonal structure with sharp angles, outline regular in shape with thick circular. |
4. | Hemp | Fiber bundle, cross markings, and nodes present. Smooth and pointed tips | Polygonal with sharply defined angles with small central lumen. |
5. | Ramie | Broad ribbon like fibers and longitudinal striations, rounded tips. | Flattened structure, radical fissures, elongated lumen, and thick walls. |
6. | Gummed Silk | Irregular elliptical Ribbons | Triangular with rounded corners in pairs. |
7. | Degummed silk | Single, smooth, nearly structure less | Triangular cross-section with rounded corners. |
8. | Tussar Silk | Flat irregular ribbons | Very elongated triangles normally separate, with rounded corners. |
9. | Wool | Rough surface scales, medulla or central fiber or core | Round or nearly round, medulla may appear shaped |
Microscopic appearances of the natural fibers.
S. No. | Fiber | Longitudinal appearance | Cross-sectional shape |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Polyester, Nylon and Polypropylene | Rod like smooth profile | Regular, circular |
2. | Acetate, Triacetate | Distinct lengthwise striations | Irregular, serrated |
3. | Acrylic | Broad, indistinct lengthwise striations | Irregular, dog bone shape |
4. | Viscose | Distinct lengthwise striations | Irregular, serrated |
Microscopic appearances of the man-made fibers.
This test is basically identification for fiber smell, bead, and burning behavior performance (Table 6).
S.No. | Fiber | Inflame | Behavior outside the flame | Smell | Residue |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Cotton, Jute, Flex and Viscose | Burns quickly | Continues to burn | Burning like paper | Light gray ash |
2. | Wool | Burn slowly | Self-extinguishing | Burning like hair | Crushable black bead |
3. | Silk | Burn slowly | Self-extinguishing | Burning like hair | Crushable black bead |
4. | Polyester | Melts. Burns slowly | Burns, drips may extinguish because of dripping | Chemical smell. Slightly sweet, chemical odor. | Hard tough light colored bead |
5. | Nylon | Melts. Burns slowly | Burns, drips may extinguish because of dripping | Burning beans like | Hard tough light colored bead |
6. | Acetate | Burn quickly | Continue to burn noncrushable | Acid (hot vinegar) | Hard black bead |
7. | Acrylic | Burn rapidly | Continue to burn | Acid like | Irregular, hard black bead |
8. | Polypropylene | Burn rapidly | Burns continuously | Burning like plastic | Hard tough tan bead |
Burning behavior common fibers.
The solubility of a fiber in the specific chemical component is frequently means of fiber identification (Table 7).
S. No. | Fiber | Solubility |
---|---|---|
1. | Cotton | 75% H2So4 at room temperature |
2. | Wool | Soluble in 5% NaoH at room temperature, soluble in 0.25% sodium hypochlorite solution |
3. | Silk | Soluble in 5% NaoH (Hot) |
4. | Nylon | Soluble in formic acid 85% and M-Cresol |
5. | Polyester | Dissolves in ortho chlorophenol at room temperature, 95°C meta cresol soluble. Concentration 75% H2So4 at room temperature soluble polyester, |
6. | Viscose | Dissolves in sodium zincate solution, 59% Sulfuric acid dissolves |
7. | Acrylic | Dissolves in DMF, DMSO, Ammonium thiocyanate (70% solution at boil) |
8. | Polypropylene | Dissolves in boiling Xylol, floats on water, Meta Xylene (at Boil) |
9. | Acetate | Cold acetone, glacial acetic acid at 25 °C |
10. | Triacetate | Solution in chloroform and methylene dichloride |
Identification of fibers through solubility tests.
In present study has given an overview concept of basically different types of textile fibers, classification fiber, and fiber identification performance knowledge. According to all textile fibers important characteristics view in the following conclusion are drawn:
The overall appearance and luster of a textile can be related to the shape and light-absorbing and scattering characteristics of the individual fiber within the structure.
They are generally man-made and natural source, both fibers are important aspects got in comfort properties like fiber fineness, strength, length, and moisture regain, etc.
A number of fiber end-use properties in textile constructions relate to the esthetic, tactile, and comfort characteristics of the fiber.
Textile fibers is a vast and challenging field in which required functionality can be designed by a suitable choice of raw material, fabric structure, cloths design, and finishes.
Due to the suitable properties of fibers such as cotton, hemp, polyester, elastane, and blends of fibers and filaments, their use in comfort clothing is of paramount importance.
Protection and safety are the important design aspects of garments a fabric, which provides comfort to the wearer by protecting it from adverse weather conditions and also enhances the performance of the selection of fiber.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nYuekun Lai
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\\n\\nGang Chen 2016-18
\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMark Connors 2015-18
\\n\\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\\n\\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\\n\\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\\n\\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\\n\\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\\n\\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\\n\\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\\n\\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"70919",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin 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Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. 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