A summary of ZnO sol-gel precursors, substrates, deposition methods, sintering conditions, and post-processing environments and thicknesses. Thicknesses were evaluated by SEM, ellipsometry, and profilometry techniques [20, 21].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8837",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Teeth - Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides information on nomenclature, tooth numbering systems, tooth morphology, and anatomy and stages of tooth formation. It continues with root canal morphology and anatomy of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. External and internal anatomies of mandibular permanent incisors and maxillary permanent first molars are presented according to a literature review. Orofacial structures affecting tooth morphology are discussed in detail. The book ends with the evolution of dental implant shapes and today�s custom root analog implants.",isbn:"978-1-78923-840-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-839-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-522-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81278",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",numberOfPages:258,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16321,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:29,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"68734",title:"Can Orofacial Structures Affect Tooth Morphology?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88807",slug:"can-orofacial-structures-affect-tooth-morphology-",totalDownloads:876,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents how orofacial muscles can affect teeth positioning, occlusion, and also the size/shape of teeth. Pressures exerted on teeth will be discussed in specific cases such as mouth breathing, chronic mastication disorders, oral habits, like thumb sucking or tongue thrust, and also when there is hyperfunction of masticatory muscles during sleep or wakefulness. In these situations, the imbalance of muscle forces brings undesirable consequences to the dentition. Each condition will be explained, showing which muscle is affected, how it changes, and what consequences to the teeth it brings. It is a chapter that shows how close the relationship is between dentistry and speech language pathology (orofacial myology).",signatures:"Amanda Valentim, Renata Furlan, Mariana Amaral and Fernanda Martins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68734",authors:[{id:"106418",title:"BSc.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Valentim",slug:"amanda-valentim",fullName:"Amanda Valentim"},{id:"113857",title:"MSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Furlan",slug:"renata-furlan",fullName:"Renata Furlan"},{id:"274941",title:"MSc.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Amaral",slug:"mariana-amaral",fullName:"Mariana Amaral"},{id:"274942",title:"BSc.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Guimarães",slug:"fernanda-guimaraes",fullName:"Fernanda Guimarães"}],corrections:null},{id:"66644",title:"Embryological Development of Human Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85703",slug:"embryological-development-of-human-molars",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental development is a complex process by which teeth from embryonic cells grow and erupt into the mouth. It is governed by epithelio-mesenchymal interactions. The biological mechanism is the same for all teeth; however, epithelial signaling and homeogenous combinatorics are different from one type of tooth to another. The primary dental blade splits into the vestibular and primary dental blades opposite to the mesenchymal condensation. During dental development, three successive stages are described: bud, cup, and bell. The secondary dental blade responsible for the formation of germs in permanent teeth is formed from the primary dental blade in the bell stage. For the central incisor, lateral incisor, canine, first temporary molar, and second temporary molar, each primary dental blade gives rise to a single secondary dental blade for the corresponding permanent tooth. On the other hand, the primary dental blade of the second temporary molar will cause the formation of four secondary dental blades that will cause the formation of permanent germs of the second premolar, the first permanent molar, the second permanent molar, and the third permanent molar. The objective of this chapter is to focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms explaining the normal development of molars by presenting the different current data and theories of science illustrating the human molar embryological development.",signatures:"Fatiha Rhrich and Hakima Aghoutan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66644",authors:[{id:"172240",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakima",surname:"Aghoutan",slug:"hakima-aghoutan",fullName:"Hakima Aghoutan"},{id:"288550",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatiha",surname:"Rhrich",slug:"fatiha-rhrich",fullName:"Fatiha Rhrich"}],corrections:null},{id:"68957",title:"Prologue: Tooth Anatomy and Morphology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89148",slug:"prologue-tooth-anatomy-and-morphology",totalDownloads:931,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zühre Akarslan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68957",authors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],corrections:null},{id:"65806",title:"External and Internal Anatomy of Mandibular Permanent Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84636",slug:"external-and-internal-anatomy-of-mandibular-permanent-incisors",totalDownloads:1205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A clear understanding of dental root anatomy, external and internal, is an essential prerequisite to all dental procedures. In periodontology, the external root morphology has been proven to have a clinical significance in the predisposing factors of periodontal diseases. Orthodontic literature shows the importance of radicular anatomy in orthodontic mechanics through the concept of anchorage. The significance of internal root anatomy has been emphasized by studies demonstrating that variations in canal geometry before cleaning, shaping, and obturation procedures had a greater effect on the outcome than the techniques themselves. The mandibular central incisor is the smallest tooth in the mouth, but the buccolingual dimension of its root is very large. This tooth is usually single-rooted; however, the root canal system of this group is unpredictable. The incidence of two canals has been reported as low as 0.3% and as high as 45.3%. The wide range of variation reported in literature regarding the prevalence of a second canal has been related to methodological and racial differences. This chapter will summarize the morphological aspects of the root canal anatomy published in the literature of the anterior mandibular teeth. This will provide precious knowledge regarding root canal morphology and its variation among populations.",signatures:"Mohammed A. Aldawla, Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal and Ahmed A. Madfa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65806",authors:[{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa"},{id:"281125",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed A.",surname:"Aldawla",slug:"mohammed-a.-aldawla",fullName:"Mohammed A. Aldawla"},{id:"281126",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulbaset A.",surname:"Mufadhal",slug:"abdulbaset-a.-mufadhal",fullName:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal"}],corrections:null},{id:"67975",title:"Tooth Morphology Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87153",slug:"tooth-morphology-overview",totalDownloads:1736,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of tooth morphology, including a review of tooth anatomy, tooth development, and associated nomenclature and numbering systems. First, basic tooth morphology nomenclature is presented. Next, various tooth numbering systems are described and discussed, and the Federation Dentaire Internationale (FDI) system is detailed. Third, tooth surfaces and ridges are explained along with terminology, followed by an explanation of tooth crown and root anatomy. Fourth, the stages of tooth formation are described, starting with the bud stage, and followed by the cap stage, bell stage, and maturation. Annotated diagrams are presented for clarity. Finally, two currently accepted hypotheses explaining tooth formation are presented.",signatures:"Abeer ALShami, Shatha ALHarthi, Munerah Binshabaib and Monika Wahi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67975",authors:[{id:"190958",title:"Ms.",name:"Monika M.",surname:"Wahi",slug:"monika-m.-wahi",fullName:"Monika M. Wahi"},{id:"280663",title:"Dr.",name:"Shatha",surname:"ALHarthi",slug:"shatha-alharthi",fullName:"Shatha ALHarthi"},{id:"280665",title:"Dr.",name:"Abeer",surname:"Alshami",slug:"abeer-alshami",fullName:"Abeer Alshami"},{id:"280666",title:"Dr.",name:"Munirah",surname:"Binshabaib",slug:"munirah-binshabaib",fullName:"Munirah Binshabaib"}],corrections:null},{id:"65711",title:"External and Internal Anatomy of Maxillary Permanent First Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84518",slug:"external-and-internal-anatomy-of-maxillary-permanent-first-molars",totalDownloads:1367,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adequate knowledge of the tooth morphology is of paramount importance for clinicians worked in the different branches of dentistry in order to maintain good oral health. Unfortunately, tooth morphology shows a high level of complexity and variability. These anatomical variations have been reported to be related to many factors including age, gender and ethnicity. The permanent first molars are the largest teeth in the maxilla which play an important role in mastication. Because of their early eruption, they are more vulnerable to caries and subsequent pulp and periapical pathoses. This chapter will summarize the internal and external morphologic features of these teeth with the reported variations in relation to age, gender and population in order to provide clinicians with the morphological knowledge necessary for performing successful dental treatments.",signatures:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal, Mohammed A. Aldawla and Ahmed A. Madfa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65711",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65711",authors:[{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa"},{id:"281125",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed A.",surname:"Aldawla",slug:"mohammed-a.-aldawla",fullName:"Mohammed A. Aldawla"},{id:"281126",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulbaset A.",surname:"Mufadhal",slug:"abdulbaset-a.-mufadhal",fullName:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal"}],corrections:null},{id:"67177",title:"External and Internal Root Canal Anatomy of the First and Second Permanent Maxillary Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85746",slug:"external-and-internal-root-canal-anatomy-of-the-first-and-second-permanent-maxillary-molars",totalDownloads:1295,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A successful endodontic treatment depends on a comprehensive knowledge of the morphology of canal and its variations, an appropriate access cavity, cleaning and shaping, and adequate root canal filling. Lack of knowledge in this regard and missing a root canal are among the most common causes of failure of root canal treatments. Most previous studies on maxillary molars have reported that they usually have three roots and four canals since an extra canal is often found in the mesiobuccal root. Other anatomical variations, such as an extra C-shaped canal, have also been reported in distobuccal and palatal roots. Thus, because of having a more complex anatomy compared to other teeth, maxillary molars have the highest rate of endodontic failure. Several studies have assessed the morphology of root canal anatomy in different populations using different techniques such as sectioning, root canal clearing, association of a dental operating microscope and ultrasonic tips, periapical radiography, and computed tomography scanning. Recently, CBCT was suggested to three-dimensionally explore the root canal details before an endodontic treatment. The purpose of this chapter was to highlight the importance of having a thorough knowledge about the root canal morphology of the permanent first and second maxillary molar.",signatures:"Said Dhaimy, Lamyae Bedida, Hafsa El Merini and Imane Benkiran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67177",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67177",authors:[{id:"289623",title:"Prof.",name:"Said",surname:"Dhaimy",slug:"said-dhaimy",fullName:"Said Dhaimy"},{id:"297310",title:"Dr.",name:"Lamyae",surname:"Bedida",slug:"lamyae-bedida",fullName:"Lamyae Bedida"},{id:"297367",title:"Dr.",name:"Imane",surname:"Benkiran",slug:"imane-benkiran",fullName:"Imane Benkiran"},{id:"298239",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafsa",surname:"El Merini",slug:"hafsa-el-merini",fullName:"Hafsa El Merini"}],corrections:null},{id:"65451",title:"Morphology of Root Canal System of Maxillary and Mandibular Molars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84151",slug:"morphology-of-root-canal-system-of-maxillary-and-mandibular-molars",totalDownloads:1144,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The root canal system is complicated and has many anatomical variations among different populations. It is so important to understand the morphology of root canal system before any endodontic procedure, since the lack of knowledge of root canal system could lead to missing the additional root canals which causes failure of endodontic treatment. The study of root canal anatomy was carried out by many researchers and among different populations using various techniques. The presence of additional root canals was most commonly observed in molars. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the morphology of root canal system of maxillary and mandibular molars and its variation among populations.",signatures:"Svetlana Razumova, Anzhela Brago, Haydar Barakat and Ammar Howijieh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65451",authors:[{id:"282099",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Haydar",surname:"Barakat",slug:"haydar-barakat",fullName:"Haydar Barakat"},{id:"282405",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Howijieh",slug:"ammar-howijieh",fullName:"Ammar Howijieh"},{id:"283571",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Razumova",slug:"svetlana-razumova",fullName:"Svetlana Razumova"},{id:"283572",title:"Prof.",name:"Anzhela",surname:"Brago",slug:"anzhela-brago",fullName:"Anzhela Brago"}],corrections:null},{id:"67419",title:"Root Canal Morphology and Anatomy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86096",slug:"root-canal-morphology-and-anatomy",totalDownloads:1107,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Success in root canal treatment depends on the proper application of all procedures of root canal treatment. This wholistic approach includes leakproof crown restoration, following ideal instrumentation, irrigation and hermetic obturation. Therefore, the first step of root canal treatment begins with understanding the tooth morphology in detail. The teeth vary according to their localization at the jaws and the gender and race of people. Detection of the extra canals, canal curvatures, isthmuses and lateral and accessory canals plays an important role in the success of root canal treatment. With all this, the academic knowledge and proficiency of the dentist and/or endodontist enable tooth morphology to be more clearly understandable.",signatures:"Esra Pamukcu Guven",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67419",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67419",authors:[{id:"277522",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Esra",surname:"Pamukcu Guven",slug:"esra-pamukcu-guven",fullName:"Esra Pamukcu Guven"}],corrections:null},{id:"68918",title:"The C-Shaped Root Canal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89121",slug:"the-c-shaped-root-canal",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A thorough understanding of root canal anatomy is of paramount importance in the field of dentistry. The C-shaped root canal is an anatomical variation occurring mostly in mandibular second molars. In a transverse section, the shape of this canal is observed as the letter C. The presence of a fin or web connecting the individual root canals is another anatomic feature. Due to its complex anatomy, different classifications have been proposed through the years for a better comprehension. In endodontic literature, the C-shaped root canal has been of high interest and its prevalence is reported in different regions of the world. Additionally, its endodontic management has been widely described and analyzed.",signatures:"Jesús Alejandro Quiñones Pedraza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68918",authors:[{id:"284538",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús Alejandro",surname:"Quiñones Pedraza",slug:"jesus-alejandro-quinones-pedraza",fullName:"Jesús Alejandro Quiñones Pedraza"}],corrections:null},{id:"69760",title:"Pathology and Abnormality of the First Permanent Molar among Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89725",slug:"pathology-and-abnormality-of-the-first-permanent-molar-among-children",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The first permanent molar (FPM) plays an essential role in the masticatory function by contributing to the implementation and the maintenance of the occlusion. However, it is considered as the most frequently affected and the earliest affected tooth by caries; 27.4% of the 6–8 years old children have developed at least one cavity on one of the four first permanent molars, according to a study conducted among 3276 school children in Casablanca .Therefore, the FPM should benefit from special vigilance on the part of the practitioner to ensure that any early carious lesion is intercepted. In addition, the FPM, due to its period of mineralization coinciding with early childhood diseases, can erupt with a structural abnormality. Molar incisor hypomineralization (MIH) is considered to be the most common defects observed on first permanent molars among children. A study conducted among 1077 children aged 7–10 years enrolled in schools in Casablanca showed that 7.9% of children were affected with MIH. About 84.7% of the children had the four molars affected. Children with HIM had a significantly higher prevalence of caries: 78.8 versus 33.5%.These structural abnormalities of the enamel must be carried out earlier to ensure that the coronary anatomy is the least compromised.",signatures:"Mouna Hamza, Amal Chlyah, Bouchra Bousfiha, Bouchra Badre, Maria Mtalsi, Hasna Saih and Samira El Arabi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69760",authors:[{id:"52178",title:"Ms.",name:"Mouna",surname:"Hamza",slug:"mouna-hamza",fullName:"Mouna Hamza"},{id:"288350",title:"Prof.",name:"Samira",surname:"El Arabi",slug:"samira-el-arabi",fullName:"Samira El Arabi"},{id:"288775",title:"Prof.",name:"Bouchra",surname:"Bousfiha",slug:"bouchra-bousfiha",fullName:"Bouchra Bousfiha"},{id:"288776",title:"Prof.",name:"Amal",surname:"Chlyah",slug:"amal-chlyah",fullName:"Amal Chlyah"},{id:"288778",title:"Prof.",name:"Bouchra",surname:"Badre",slug:"bouchra-badre",fullName:"Bouchra Badre"},{id:"311623",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Mtalsi",slug:"maria-mtalsi",fullName:"Maria Mtalsi"},{id:"311624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasna",surname:"Saih",slug:"hasna-saih",fullName:"Hasna Saih"}],corrections:null},{id:"66877",title:"Orthodontic Management of Residual Spaces of Missing Molars: Decision Factors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85944",slug:"orthodontic-management-of-residual-spaces-of-missing-molars-decision-factors",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the daily practice, the orthodontist may be confronted with particular clinical situations with one or more missing teeth. This can complicate the therapeutic plan and influence the choice of possible extractions imposed by treatment requirements. In case of permanent molar absence, making decision becomes even more delicate. The practitioner must use his/her critical sense and clinical common sense to make the right choice between closing and redeveloping the residual spaces. Its choice must meet the patient’s expectations and correct the clinical problem without risking overtreatment, or extending duration care. Several factors guide the therapeutic decision, ranging from the patient’s age to economic factors, not to mention the technical complexity, therapeutic predictability, and patient comfort, which determine proper compliance and therefore success. In this chapter, we will focus on these decision-making factors by determining the scientific evidence level in terms of success, survival, and patient-centered outcomes (quality of life and functional efficiency).",signatures:"Hakima Aghoutan, Sanaa Alami, Amal El Aouame and Farid El Quars",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66877",authors:[{id:"172240",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakima",surname:"Aghoutan",slug:"hakima-aghoutan",fullName:"Hakima Aghoutan"},{id:"172553",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanaa",surname:"Alami",slug:"sanaa-alami",fullName:"Sanaa Alami"},{id:"290814",title:"Dr.",name:"Amal",surname:"El Aouame",slug:"amal-el-aouame",fullName:"Amal El Aouame"},{id:"290815",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",surname:"El Quars",slug:"farid-el-quars",fullName:"Farid El Quars"}],corrections:null},{id:"69931",title:"Impacted First and Second Permanent Molars: Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86671",slug:"impacted-first-and-second-permanent-molars-overview",totalDownloads:1355,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Impaction of a permanent tooth is a relatively common clinical occurrence in the human dentition. First mandibular molars and maxillary second molars are rarely impacted with a reported prevalence of 0–2.3% for second molars, 0.02% for the maxillary first molar, and of less than 0.01% for the mandibular first molar. The failures in their eruption mechanism may occur due to an obstacle such as the presence of a supernumerary tooth or an odontoma, lack of adequate space in the arch, an abnormal eruption path, or with idiopathic etiology. It is an asymptomatic pathology which is usually a casual discovery. Early diagnosis and treatment of permanent molars eruption disturbances contributes to optimal outcomes and favorable long-term prognosis by reduction of complication. The purpose of this is chapter is (1) to define prevalence and etiopathogeny of impacted first and second permanent molars, (2) to pinpoint the needs of earlier diagnosis, and finally (3) to highlight the treatment options.",signatures:"Sanaa Alami, Hakima Aghoutan, Meriem Bellamine and Farid El Quars",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69931",authors:[{id:"172241",title:"Dr.",name:"Sana",surname:"Alami",slug:"sana-alami",fullName:"Sana Alami"},{id:"285209",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakima",surname:"Aghoutan",slug:"hakima-aghoutan",fullName:"Hakima Aghoutan"}],corrections:null},{id:"65527",title:"Evolution of Dental Implant Shapes and Today’s Custom Root Analogue Implants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83746",slug:"evolution-of-dental-implant-shapes-and-today-s-custom-root-analogue-implants",totalDownloads:733,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Native tooth has a unique design to serve perfect stomatognathic function and esthetics which could never be replaced with another material or apparatus if it is lost. Over the past few decades, screw-type endosseous implants have been considered to be as the gold standard for the rehabilitation of edentulism owing to the similarity with the anatomical root shape and location inside the alveolar bone. They have been widely investigated so as to find out the ideal characteristics. Further researches have focused on the cervical region of the dental implant because the maximum stress is pronounced around the implant neck. The ideal characteristics indicate that a wide implant neck for better stress distribution, and a large surface area with a minimal thread geometry for a better long term crestal bone stability. Along with the growing clinical knowledge and digital technology, an innovative and noteworthy approach for implant dentistry, custom root analogue implant (RAI), has evolved. With the computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) methods, original and optimized characteristics could be transferred to the custom dental implants just as performing an original root replacement.",signatures:"Ayse Sumeyye Akay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65527",authors:[{id:"217236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayşe",surname:"Sümeyye Akay",slug:"ayse-sumeyye-akay",fullName:"Ayşe Sümeyye Akay"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"1",series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",issn:"2631-6218",editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. 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Before coming to the United Arab Emirates, he was a consultant in Respiratory Medicine, Critical Care Medicine, and Sleep Medicine at Escorts Heart Institute and Apollo Hospital, New Delhi India, a tertiary level of care hospital in India. Dr Vats’s interest is to utilize his professional knowledge and interpersonal skills in order to provide the highest degree of patient care and satisfaction. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3309",title:"Respiratory Disease and Infection",subtitle:"A New Insight",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e85d47bf0576f1c2ccf642156ccbda2",slug:"respiratory-disease-and-infection-a-new-insight",bookSignature:"Bassam H. Mahboub",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3309.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148941",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayank",surname:"Vats",slug:"mayank-vats",fullName:"Mayank Vats"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5449",title:"Sleep Apnea",subtitle:"Recent Updates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a24e07959eedce97032e4191b88003bb",slug:"sleep-apnea-recent-updates",bookSignature:"Mayank G. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64329",title:"Synthesis of Conductive Sol-Gel ZnO Films and Development of ZnO Printed Electronics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82041",slug:"synthesis-of-conductive-sol-gel-zno-films-and-development-of-zno-printed-electronics",body:'\nPrinting electrically functional inks has emerged as an important research topic to drive device technologies into the future. It has some advantages compared to conventional fabrication techniques in terms of low cost and applicability for flexible devices. This is promising for wearable, implantable, patch-like, and textile-integrated electronics, advancing the device field. With the right ink and substrate, it would be possible to achieve lightweight, flexible, transparent devices with a good electrical performance, which will revolutionize our daily lives.
\nUntil recently, organic inks have monopolized printing technology because of their printability, flexibility, and electronic functionality. However, developing printable inorganic inks would allow for higher performance—like conventional devices—at a much lower cost than conventional fabrications, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and sputtering. In addition, printing techniques allow for deposition at low temperatures and at specified locations, a controllability of both parameters that no other deposition techniques can claim. These advantages make printing much easier and more compatible with flexible substrates, as some polymers cannot withstand the high processing temperatures of some deposition techniques or the harsh chemicals and UV radiation in the photolithography necessary to construct a functional device.
\nSome facile printing technologies are inkjet (IJP) and aerosol jet printing(AJP). Inkjet printing (IJP) is very quick and a simple drop-on-demand or continuous stream technique with micrometer precision [1, 2]. Aerosol jet printing (AJP) is favored as a clean and precise technique, using a continuous stream to print features down to 10 μm [3]. Nonetheless, both techniques are new and exciting ways to fabricate electronic devices. Both AJP and IJP techniques are currently used to print a wide variety of organic and inorganic inks for use as flexible photodetectors, transistors, and other circuit board components [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. ZnO is an exciting material for electronics due to its direct wide bandgap (3.2 eV at 298 K), strong UV absorption, and electrical tunability. Many researchers have successfully fabricated ZnO devices at low cost and relatively low temperature by way of printing sol-gel precursor and other nanoparticle-based inks [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. In addition, the authors of this chapter have successfully fabricated ZnO transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) using a simple sol-gel, spin coating technique [21]. Research efforts utilizing sol-gel-derived ZnO thin films for device applications have greatly increased, recently [22, 23, 24]. Through these methods, the resultant ZnO material properties can be tuned by introducing group III metal ions during the precursor sol synthesis. In this chapter, we present the use of a sol-gel technique to develop ZnO printed electronics.
\nTo understand the applications of ZnO sol-gel precursors, we employ spin coating, IJP, and AJP deposition with thermal and photonic sintering to synthesize and tune ZnO thin films. Extrinsic shallow donors, such as Al3+, In3+, and Ga3+, have similar ionic radius to that of Zn2+ and thus can easily replace it with little effect on the lattice structure [20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. These donors are introduced during the precursor solutions’ synthesis and various atmospheric post-processing heat treatments are applied to introduce, eliminate, or passivate intrinsic defects that greatly alter the electrical conductivity of the films. The ZnO thin film properties are studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), ultraviolet-visible range (UV-VIS) absorbance, Van der Pauw and Hall effect measurements, and positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS).
\nTo make a ZnO sol-gel precursor, we dissolve zinc acetate (99.99%) in 2-methoxyethanol (99.8%)—using ethanolamine (99%) as a stabilizer—to obtain a 0.75 M solution, with zinc acetate and ethanolamine at a 1:1 molar ratio. To dope ZnO thin films, aluminum(III) nitrate nonahydrate (99.997%), gallium(III) nitrate hydrate (99.9998%), and indium(III) acetate hydrate (99.99%) metal salts were implemented to replace some zinc acetate in the mixture to obtain a doping level of 1% in solution while keeping the 1:1 molar ratio with ethanolamine and the molarity at 0.75 M. Undoped ZnO, aluminum-doped ZnO (AZO), gallium-doped ZnO (GZO), and indium-gallium-codoped ZnO (IGZO) precursor solutions were prepared in an open-air environment, then covered with plastic paraffin film, heated to 60°C, and magnetically stirred for 2 h to obtain a transparent homogenous solution and then left to cool before deposition (Figure 1).
\nSynthesis procedure for ZnO, AZO, GZO, and IGZO precursor solutions.
Quartz, cyclic olefin copolymer (TOPAS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyimide (Kapton) substrates were selected based on their transparency and/or flexibility. Before ZnO deposition, substrates were cleaned and etched to improve substrate/solution compatibility. Quartz substrates were treated in piranha baths to clean residual contaminants from the substrate and induce a surface charge. The substrate was placed in a 3:1 H2SO4:H2O2 bath at 80°C for 15 min, rinsed with deionized water, placed in a 3:1 NH4OH:H2O2 bath at 80°C for 15 min, rinsed with deionized water again, and placed in an oven at about 100°C to dry. Before IJP and AJP, quartz, TOPAS, PET, and Kapton substrates were prepared by swabbing with acetone and isopropanol, drying with a nitrogen gun, and applying atmospheric plasma treatment from a corona discharge wand with the transformer set at 200 W at a standoff distance of 5 mm from the ground electrode.
\nOnce the sol-gel precursors and substrates have been prepared, ZnO thin films were deposited using spin coating, IJP, and AJP. Table 1 summarizes ZnO sol-gel precursors, substrates, deposition methods, sintering conditions, and post-processing environments and thicknesses.
\nSample | \nSubstrate | \nDeposition method | \nSintering conditions | \nThickness (nm) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
GZO | \nQuartz | \nSpin coating | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n800 | \n
GZO | \nQuartz | \nSpin coating | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n808 | \n
AZO | \nQuartz | \nSpin coating | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n515 | \n
ZnO0 | \nQuartz | \nSpin coating | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n600 | \n
ZnO0 | \nQuartz | \nSpin coating | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n173 | \n
ZnO1 | \nTOPAS | \nInkjet printing | \n170°C, 60 min, air | \n~600 | \n
ZnO2 | \nKapton | \nInkjet printing | \n300°C, 20 min, air | \n~600 | \n
ZnO3 | \nTOPAS | \nInkjet printing | \nXenon, 180 bursts, N2 | \n~600 | \n
ZnO3 | \nKapton | \nInkjet printing | \nXenon, 180 bursts, N2 | \n~600 | \n
ZnO3 | \nPET | \nInkjet printing | \nXenon, 180 bursts, N2 | \n~600 | \n
ZnO4 | \nTOPAS | \nInkjet printing | \n150°C, 30 min, air | \n~600 | \n
ZnO4 | \nKapton | \nInkjet printing | \n150°C, 30 min, air | \n~600 | \n
ZnO5 | \nKapton | \nInkjet printing | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n~600 | \n
ZnO6 | \nKapton | \nAerosol jet printing | \n200°C, 60 min, air | \n~400 | \n
ZnO7 | \nKapton | \nAerosol jet printing | \n300°C, 60 min, air | \n~400 | \n
ZnO8 | \nKapton | \nAerosol jet printing | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n~400 | \n
IGZO1 | \nQuartz | \nInkjet printing | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n~600 | \n
IGZO2 | \nKapton | \nInkjet printing | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n~600 | \n
IGZO3 | \nKapton | \nAerosol jet printing | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n~400 | \n
A Laurell Technologies Corporation spin coater was used to spin a quartz substrate at 500 rpm. Then, 40–50 drops of precursor solution were dispensed, before the substrate/solution was accelerated to 3000 rpm and left spinning for 30 s to obtain a gel-like thin layer. Next, the gel film was placed in an oven to dry at 150°C for 10 min. The spin coating and drying processes were repeated to obtain the desired number of layers (10–16 layers total). Finally, the films were annealed in ambient air at 400°C for 60 min, to obtain a ZnO wurtzite structure. ZnO, AZO, and GZO films were fabricated using this spin coating technique. To tune the electronic properties, several samples were further annealed in the following flowing gas conditions: (1) forming gas of 95% N2 and 5% H2 at 400°C for 60 min, (2) H2 flow at 400°C for 60 min, and (3) Zn-rich environment in Ar at 400°C for 60 min. The Zn-rich environment was created with Zn powder (99.999%) and Zn foil (99.994%, 0.1 mm thick). Thin films and Zn powder were wrapped tightly in Zn foil, while an Ar gas flow was used to prevent oxidation of the ZnO.
\nA Dimatix inkjet printer printed 7 mm × 7 mm squares of ZnO and IGZO sol-gel precursors onto various substrates for a total of 12 layers. The jet and platen temperatures were set to 39°C, and the droplet overlap was set to at least 50%. The droplet size was between 50 and 100 μm, depending on the substrate. The resultant gels were dried at 150°C for 10–30 min (until visibly dry) to remove any residual solvent. Here, processing techniques were limited by the thermal expansion coefficient of the substrates. Post-print sintering was carried out using thermal and photonic sintering methods. Thermal sintering took place in ambient atmosphere on a hot plate at temperatures between 170 and 400°C for 20–60 min. Photonic sintering was carried out in a N2-rich atmosphere using a xenon arc lamp placed 4.445 cm above the substrate platen, set at 2 kV with 6-ms pulse width for a total of 180 bursts.
\nAn Optomec aerosol jet printer printed similar 7 mm × 7 mm squares of ZnO sol-gel precursors onto Kapton substrates for a total of six layers. A 200-μm nozzle was used at a speed of 3 mm/s. The line width of the aerosol spray was about 75 μm, so a 50-μm serpentine pattern was selected to achieve ~33% overlap. The resultant gels were dried at 90°C for 30 min (until visibly dry), then subject to thermal sintering in ambient atmosphere on a hot plate at 200°, 300°, and 400°C for 60 min.
\nSpin-coated AZO thin films that were post-processed in H2 and Zn were imaged by SEM. Low-magnification surface images show worm-like structures (Figure 2), while a higher magnification shows round particles with an average particle size of 20 nm (Figure 3). Platinum was then deposited on the film surface by a focused ion beam and a trench was milled through the sample to obtain a high-resolution cross-sectional image (Figure 4). It can be seen that the film is deposited as distinct individual layers (each layer is ~40 nm thick). The images also reveal non-uniform thickness, with ~25% variation across the film and indicate that it is difficult to obtain uniform thickness using sol-gel methods. These images represent the first high-resolution cross-sectional images for sol-gel films. They illustrate that the distinct individual layers and the non-uniformity in thickness are inherent of the spin coating method, but they may be reduced by further annealing. This non-uniform layering leads to interference in UV-VIS transmission spectra, a well-known feature in sol-gel films.
\nLow-magnification SEM surface image for AZO film deposited by spin coating and post-processed in H2 and Zn environments, consecutively [
Film crystallinity was studied using a Rigaku X-ray diffractometer to determine the ZnO crystal phase (
High-magnification SEM surface image for AZO film deposited by spin coating and post-processed in H2 and Zn environments, consecutively [
XRD patterns for IJP ZnO films (Figure 6) reveal that ZnO phases form at temperatures as low as 150°C, with more peaks appearing at increased sintering temperature. Although there is a lack of ZnO phase formation for ZnO4 on Kapton and an impurity phase for ZnO3 on TOPAS, the results demonstrate that ZnO thin films can be successfully fabricated by inkjet printing and thermal and photonic sintering processes.
\nHigh-magnification cross-sectional SEM image of AZO films deposited by spin coating and post-processed in H2 and Zn environments, consecutively [
XRD measurements for AZO films annealed in various atmospheres [
XRD patterns for AJP ZnO reveal amorphous nature at 200°C and an increasing polycrystallinity with the sintering temperature. In addition, increasing the sintering temperature increases the average grain size, which is consistent with previous reports [30, 31]. XRD patterns for AJP IGZO XRD show a ~50% increase in grain size due to the low doping concentration of In3+ and Ga3+, with a minimal effect on the polycrystalline structure. Table 2 presents the average grain sizes of the aforementioned thin films. The grain size
where
Sample | \nSintering conditions | \nAverage grain size (Å) | \nEstimated standard deviation | \n
---|---|---|---|
ZnO6 | \n200°C, 60 min, air | \n32.33 | \n6.04 | \n
ZnO7 | \n300°C, 60 min, air | \n239.17 | \n36.25 | \n
ZnO8 | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n500.32 | \n119.91 | \n
IGZO3 | \n400°C, 60 min, air | \n736.84 | \n27.85 | \n
ZnO, AZO, GZO, and IGZO sol-gel precursors are viable options to achieve a ZnO wurtzite structure at low sintering temperatures. Films are generally inhomogeneous in thickness and amorphous or polycrystalline in nature, with grain size and polycrystallinity increasing with the sintering temperature. A low doping concentration does not inhibit ZnO wurtzite formation, but the incorporation of In3+ and Ga3+ dopants effectively increases the average grain size. Furthermore, post-processing in H2 and Zn environments can change the polycrystallinity of the films.
\nA dual-beam Perkin Elmer UV-VIS spectrometer was used to record the transmission and absorbance spectra of spin-coated and printed ZnO films. A blank substrate was placed in line with that reference beam, while the sample spectra were recorded.
\nTransmission measurements for spin-coated ZnO0 and AZO show the band edge near 380 nm with a high visible range transparency (Figure 8). The individual layering, as observed from SEMs, leads to interference effects in the spectra, which can be reduced by a greater H2 concentration during annealing and lead to improved transparency (Figure 8a). This can be explained by a decrease in polycrystallinity observed in XRD analysis. However, the opposite effect occurs after annealing in a Zn environment (Figure 8b), which is due to the increase in polycrystallinity.
\nXRD spectra for IJP films on Kapton and TOPAS substrates sintered by hot plate and xenon arc lamp [
Printed ZnO and IGZO films also show a band edge near 380 nm from optical absorbance measurements (Figure 9a). The bandgap is near 3.2 eV for all printed films, as calculated by the Tauc method (Figure 9b). AJP IGZO films are more transparent than IJP films due to better overall print quality. Figure 10 compares the IJP and AJP techniques, as seen by the naked eye. It is clear that AJP films are more transparent because of less light scattering from surface roughness and striations in the IJP films.
\nXRD spectra for AJP ZnO films on Kapton sintered at 200°C, 300°C, and 400°C and AJP IGZO films on Kapton sintered at 400°C [
UV-VIS transmission measurements for: (a) AZO films before and after hydrogen treatment at different pressures and (b) ZnO0 before and after Zn treatment [
These results established that the sol-gel precursor method can produce films with good visible range transparency in spin coating and printing techniques. Interference in the visible range absorbance can be reduced by the post-processing conditions. Here, AJP yields a better print quality than IJP and offers similar visible range transparency to spin coating.
\nAt 300 K, the resistivity was obtained via van der Pauw measurements using an MMR Hall effect system. All spin-coated and printed ZnO, AZO, GZO, and IGZO films show high electrical resistivity after the initial sintering. All spin-coated films were too resistive to initially measure, and the printed films measured resistivity >104 Ω cm. However, post-processing of spin-coated GZO, AZO, and ZnO0 in H2 and Zn environments induced a large conductivity. Van der Pauw and Hall effect measurements for ZnO, AZO, GZO, and IGZO films are summarized in Table 3.
\nSample | \nPost-processing conditions | \nResistivity (Ω cm) | \nMobility (cm2 V−1 s−1) | \nCarrier concentration (cm−3) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
GZO | \n400°C, 60 min, H2 | \n1.03 × 101 | \n<1 | \n1.43 × 1019 | \n
GZO | \n400°C, 60 min, H2 & 400°C, 60 min, Zn | \n1.97 × 10−1 | \n<1 | \n1.44 × 1020 | \n
AZO | \n400°C, 60 min, H2 & 400°C, 240 min, Zn | \n1.71 × 10−2 | \n<1 | \n3.01 × 1021 | \n
ZnO0 | \n400°C, 60 min, H2/N2 & 400°C, 180 min, Zn | \n1.83 × 10−1 | \n2.94 × 101 | \n1.16 × 1018 | \n
ZnO0 | \n400°C, 60 min, Zn | \n1.08 × 102 | \n<1 | \n1.86 × 1017 | \n
ZnO5 | \n— | \n4.59 × 105 | \n— | \n— | \n
IGZO2 | \n— | \n3.06 × 104 | \n— | \n— | \n
ZnO6 | \n— | \n1.02 × 105 | \n— | \n— | \n
ZnO7 | \n— | \n8.36 × 104 | \n— | \n— | \n
ZnO8 | \n— | \n2.25 × 105 | \n— | \n— | \n
AZO thin films annealed in both H2 and Zn offer the lowest electrical resistivity (1.71 × 10−2 Ω cm) and the highest carrier concentration (3.01 × 1021). We emphasize that the electrical conductivity results only after the post-processing steps. The large decrease in resistivity is attributed to the passivation of defect states, which will be discussed further in the PAS section of this chapter. The low resistivity coupled with the high visible range transparency offers solution-processed ZnO as a viable option of TCO in printed electronics.
\nIn3+ and Ga3+ dopants were also investigated through electrical measurements by comparing printed IGZO2 and ZnO5 thin films. Both use IJP deposition on Kapton substrates and have a thickness of 600 nm. Unsurprisingly, IGZO2 has a lower resistivity (3.06 × 104 Ω cm) than ZnO5 (4.59 × 105 Ω cm). It is well understood that In3+ and Ga3+ increase conductivity in ZnO, an effect studied in other In- and Ga-doped sol-gel ZnO [32, 33].
\nThe lowest resistivity for AJP ZnO is in the thin film that was annealed at 300°C. The overall resistivity of ZnO depends on its structural properties, which are affected by the oxygen concentration in the film. At higher sintering temperatures, resistivity increases with annealing temperature [34, 35]. However, at temperatures below 300°C, we see the opposite effect [36]. While increasing the sintering temperature, we are removing more solvent, forming a ZnO structure, and increasing the grain size, which creates more pathways for conduction. As we further increase temperature, the grain size continues to increase—as seen in XRD—but more oxygen is being introduced to the ZnO. Increasing the grain size is expected to decrease the resistivity [37], while introducing more oxygen may increase the resistivity [38], resulting in a local minimum in the resistivity as a function of sintering temperature.
\nIn general, doping, sintering, and post-processing all play a vital role in the conductivity of sol-gel ZnO films because of their effects on the ZnO lattice structure and defect formation. First, shallow donors can increase the free carriers in the conduction band. Second, the solvent must be completely evaporated, and the grain boundary concentration and adsorbed oxygen must be minimized to increase the mobility and carrier concentration, respectively. And lastly, post-processing techniques can be utilized to further improve the polycrystallinity and passivate defect charge states.
\nThe MMR Hall effect system was equipped with a 365-nm light-emitting diode (LED), positioned 1.8 cm from the sample stage, to measure the resistivity as a function of light intensity. After dark measurements were taken, the LED light intensity was increased in steps up to 24 mW (~4.4 × 1016 photons·cm−2 s−1), allowing the light and temperature to stabilize for at least 1 min prior to each measurement. Although light from the LED produces localized heating, the temperature was maintained at 300 K using a Joule-Thompson refrigerator located directly beneath the sample stage, operating in combination with a heating element. Photoconductivity was observed in IJP ZnO5; IJP IGZO2; and AJP ZnO6, ZnO7, and ZnO8 (Figure 11).
\n(a) UV-VIS absorbance spectra for IJP and AJP ZnO and IGZO films sintered by different methods, exhibiting a band edge near 380 nm and (b) Tauc plots of direct-bandgap transitions for each spectrum with linear fits extrapolated to (
Upon initial UV LED illumination at 0.98 mW (~4.4 × 1016 photons·cm−2 s−1), there is a sharp decrease in resistivity. We credit this to ZnO absorbing light and promoting an electron from the valence band to the conduction band because the incident UV photons are of greater energy (~3.4 eV) than the ZnO bandgap (~3.2 eV). The photoresponse is due to oxygen chemisorption, where light illumination causes oxygen desorption and the release of trapped electrons to the conduction band [39]. Here, the greatest conductive response is seen at the greatest sintering temperature in AJP ZnO. This may be because larger grains desorb more oxygen when illuminated. In addition, the larger grain size would allow for better electron mobility.
\nWith increased light intensity, IJP ZnO thin films quickly saturate, as there is no more oxygen to desorb. But, AJP ZnO—which has a greater photoconductive response—does not saturate at higher light intensity. As the intensity increases, photogenerated holes can be produced and then trapped at charged boundary states, while excess electrons can be promoted to the conduction band, increasing the free carrier concentration. In addition to the effect of the grain boundary, the charge state of defects may also undergo a change upon illumination and lead to an increase or a decrease in electron scattering affecting electron mobility. For instance, a change in the charge state of defects could increase electron scattering, decreasing the electron mobility and compromising the conductivity. Both the carrier concentration and electron mobility strongly affect the transport properties of ZnO films, and different photo-induced processes could lead to the observed non-linear behavior with increasing light intensity.
\nIt is impossible to understand the effect of annealing on the transport properties without investigating the presence of point defects in the films. PAS is a well-established technique for measurements of cation vacancies, which strongly influence the transport properties [40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. In fact, many works have applied PAS and identified Zn vacancies in ZnO films and bulk single crystals [39, 40, 41]. The sensitivity of PAS to open volume defects such as vacancies can be understood as follows. The lack of positive ion cores at vacancies forms an attractive potential that traps positrons leading to characteristic changes in the measured positron annihilation parameters. Therefore, PAS is a very useful tool to further improve the development of sol-gel ZnO film. Here, depth-resolved Doppler broadening of PAS measurements was applied to elucidate the aforementioned effect of annealing on the electrical properties of ZnO films. The measurements were carried out on AZO films before and after annealing in forming gas (5% H2, 95% N2). Figure 12a and b shows S and W parameters, respectively, for the films as a function of incident positron energy and mean implantation depth. The S and W parameters represent the annihilation fraction of positrons with valence and core electrons, respectively, and they provide an indication about defect density [45, 46, 47]. The S parameter was obtained from the annihilation peak by dividing the counts in the central peak by the total counts in the peak, while the W parameter was obtained by dividing the counts in the wings of the peak by the total counts in the peak. Trapped positrons at defects are more likely to annihilate with low-momentum valence electrons causing an increase in S parameter and a decrease in W parameter [45, 46, 47]. In Figure 12a and b, an increase in S parameter and a decrease in W parameter at low positron energy (0–5 keV) are due to positron annihilation at the surface of the films. The figures show a significant decrease in S parameter and an increase in W parameter after H2 processing, which can be interpreted as follows. A Zn vacancy has a negative charge state and is therefore an effective trapping center for positrons, while an O vacancy or interstitial defects cannot trap positrons. Therefore, a decrease in S parameter and an increase in W parameter after H2-annealing are a clear indication for the reduction or passivation of Zn vacancy-related defects. Annealing in forming gas cannot eliminate Zn vacancies; however, hydrogen can partially or completely fill Zn vacancies modifying their negative charge state, which prevents positron trapping. Similarly, Zn interstitials can fill Zn vacancies decreasing positron trapping
Comparison of ZnO thin films printed by IJP (
Resistivity measurements of printed ZnO films as a function of light intensity (365-nm LED) [
Depth-resolved PAS for AZO before and after forming gas post-processing: (a) S parameter as a function of positron beam energy and mean positron implantation depth and (b) W parameter as a function of positron beam energy and mean positron implantation depth [
S-parameter versus W-parameter plot for bulk ZnO single crystal and AZO before and after processing in forming gas. The three points lie on a straight line, indicating one dominant defect type [
In conclusion, ZnO films were deposited on various substrates using a simple sol-gel precursor method. This precursor has proven compatible spin coating, IJP, and AJP techniques to fabricate TCOs and photodetectors. SEM measurements reveal surface roughness and non-uniformity that are inherent to the sol-gel process. However, these drawbacks can be overcome to optimize the UV-VIS and electrical properties. XRD analysis shows polycrystallinity that can be tuned by sintering temperature and processing atmosphere. The post-processing step and the addition of In3+ and Ga3+ have both shown to enhance the electrical conductivity of ZnO either through the suppression of acceptor vacancies or the addition of shallow donors. Resistive ZnO thin films also exhibited an overall photoconductive response of 106. PAS was executed to study the role of hydrogen passivation of cation vacancies in the electrical properties of sol-gel ZnO thin films and to illustrate its need for the development of conductive sol-gel ZnO films. Overall, this work demonstrates the compatibility of sol-gel ZnO with printed electronics and other devices and presents fundamental research to understand the structural, optical, and electrical properties of the material system.
\nThe authors would like to thank the following collaborators for their contributive efforts: Wolfgang Anwand and Andreas Wagner at the Institute of Radiation Physics; Pooneh Saadatkia, Erik Flesburg, and Micah Haseman at Bowling Green State University; and Emily M. Heckman, Eric Kreit, Roberto S. Aga, Brett Wenner, Kevin Leedy, Steve Tetlak, David C. Look, Jeff Allen, and Monica Allen at the Air Force Research Laboratories at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and Eglin Air Force Base.
\nFunding for this work was provided by multiple AFRL and DAGSI projects.
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Radar satellite altimetry provides global, frequent, and precise measurements of uniform accuracy of the sea level height related to a desired geodetic reference frame at different time epochs and from various altimeter sensors. Designed in 1969 at the Williamstown Conference on Solid Earth and Ocean Physics [1, 2], the technology was developed through the experimental missions Skylab (see [3]), Geodynamics Experimental Ocean Satellite 3 (GEOS-3, see [4]), and SEAfaring SATellite (SEASAT, see [5]). Since the early 1990s, different altimeter satellite missions provide reliable and solid information on the sea level thus enabling various applications in geodesy, oceanography, glaciology, climate research, atmosphere, wind, waves, biology, and navigation [6, 7]. To this day, more than 80,000 publications discuss or include altimeter data, technology, or products [8].
In geodesy, satellite altimetry is used to study Earth’s shape and size, sea-level variability, Earth’s gravity field over oceans and its change, tectonic plate motion, bathymetry, natural hazards, and inland water-related occurrences. The data acquired by the satellite altimeters are distributed at different levels of complexity and applicability; from source, non-processed measurements, which must be corrected using various atmospheric and geophysical models and corrections, up to complete products ready to use in different applications. The measurements are distributed with different timeliness, most often in near real-time (e.g., in less than 3 hours after the acquisition).
This book chapter presents the theoretical background of the technology, basic principles and data processing procedures, current trends in technology, and different applications of the technology. The chapter gives an overview of the relevant literature and points towards more specific studies.
This section gives the theoretical background on the altimeter principles and concepts, the development of the technology and the satellite missions, and current advances on altimeter data processing and product deriving.
Conceptually, satellite altimeters measure the distance from the satellite to the sea-level surface, i.e., the range
After applying the corrections to the measurements, the basic equation can be modified to present corrected range
where
The basic principles of the technology integrated with the other related remote sensing systems are shown in Figure 1. The accuracy of determining the satellite altimeter position is critical for the measurements of the range. The accurate position of the satellite is ensured through the precise orbit computations in combination with satellite and ground-based tracking systems. Satellite altimeters are usually equipped with GNSS and DORIS receivers to ensure onboard satellite tracking. Some of the altimeters are additionally equipped with star trackers, which give altitude and position information when GNSS is not available [11]. The ground tracking system is most often based on satellite laser ranging (SLR) tracking methods that provide satellite position from a global network of observation stations.
Satellite altimetry and related observation systems (tide gauge sea level measurements, interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), GNSS (global navigation satellite system), Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning integrated by satellite (DORIS) and satellite laser ranging (SLR)) shown in integrated observation systems of the earth (adapted from [
Besides the on-board navigation devices and retroreflectors for laser tracking, satellites carry microwave radiometers, which usually operate on two or more frequencies. A radiometer is an instrument that measures radiant energy reflected from the oceans and serves to estimate the surface water vapor (see e.g., [12]). The measurements depend on surface winds, ocean and near-ocean air temperature, salinity, foam, and the absorption by water vapor and clouds [7].
As shown in Figure 1, satellite altimeters are measuring ranges relative to the center of the Earth, i.e., to the reference ellipsoid. Satellites are flying in known pre-defined orbits
The analyses of the shapes of signals returned from the sea surface are used for derivation of the Significant Wave Height (SWH) information. SWH is defined as four times the standard deviation of sea surface elevation and it corresponds to the average crest-to-trough height of 1/3 of the highest waves [6]. Therefore, it is often denoted as
Overall, the development of the satellite altimetry can be divided into three phases – (1) experimental, (2) modern, and (3) future phase (following [6, 9]). Figure 2 present the timeline overview of the altimeter satellite missions launched during all three phases along with the origin of the satellite missions and their period of orbit repeating. The modern (current) era can be defined from the launch of the ERS-1 and TOPEX/Poseidon missions in 1991 and 1992 onwards. European ERS-1 was launched on July 17, 1991, into a sun-synchronous polar orbit (Francis, 1984) with three setups of repetitivity: 3-day, 35-day (the most used), and 336-day repeat cycle. The mission lasted till March 2000, exceeding its expected lifespan by far. To support ERS-1, ESA (European Space Agency) developed a satellite-based tracking system within Precision Range and Range-Rate Equipment (PRARE) mission and widespread ground segment that enabled:
calibration of the radar altimeter to 10 cm using the ground-based laser retroreflector,
real-time data acquisition,
data processing and generation of fast-delivery products [13].
Altimeter satellite missions’ timeline overview divided into an experimental era (yellow), modern era (green), and future altimetry era (blue) along with the missions’ orbit reportativity and information about their countries of origin (following and updating from [
Data were disseminated as low-rate fast-delivery products and high-rate products via the Broadband Data Dissemination Network. At the same time, the efforts by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and CNES (French National Centre for Space Studies) resulted in TOPEX/Poseidon mission, being the product of 20 years of technological and engineering development [14]. That satellite mission has revolutionized satellite altimetry by introducing the second altimeter frequency (C-band, 5.3 GHz) and the third frequency on the microwave radiometer (18 GHz), which enabled computations of ionospheric delay corrections, and removing of the effects of wind speed on measurements, respectively [14]. The mission provided high measurement precision of measured data with an RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) of 2 cm and orbit accuracy estimated at around 2.5 cm (see [6, 9]). Later improvements of the TOPEX/Poseidon data processing based on its dual-frequency altimeter estimates of sea-surface height resulted in an overall precision expressed with root-sum-of-squares (RMS) of about 4 cm [6], which today is an expected accuracy of altimeter data from different satellite missions and can get up to RMS of 2 cm for open ocean altimetry [9]. The advances in orbit determination were due to the development of the DORIS satellite tracking system. DORIS was developed by CNES to determine the satellite orbits with centimeter accuracy from a network of 60 ground stations settled worldwide [15].
At present, several satellites are providing measured altimeter data:
Cryogenic Satellite (CryoSat)-2 designed and built by ESA and launched in 2010,
Haiyang (HY)-2a approved and led by China National Space Administration (CNSA) launched in 2011,
SARAL launched in 2013 as a cooperative mission between the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and CNES,
Sentinel-3 launched in 2015 by ESA and operated by EUMETSAT,
Jason-3 designed in collaboration of the NASA and ESA as the successor of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason 1/2,
Haiyang (HY)-2b launched as the second in the series of Chinese Haiyang satellites in 2018,
and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich (previously referred to as Jason CS) launched in late 2020, which continues the EU Copernicus and NASA program and previous TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason 1/2/3 satellite missions.
Sentinel-6 satellite mission is currently in its commissioning phase, i.e., in the calibration/validation phase. Figure 3 presents Sentinel-6 sea-level anomaly derived from ‘Short Time Critical Level 2 Low Resolution’ data, overlaid on a map showing similar products from the other Copernicus altimetry missions: Jason-3, Sentinel-3A, and Sentinel-3B (for details and original research, please see [17]). The background image is a map of sea-level anomalies from satellite altimeter data provided by the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service for 4 December 2020. The data for this image were taken from the Sentinel-6 products generated on 5 December 2020. Being in its commissioning phase, the measurements obtained by the Sentinel-6 are promising [17].
Early Sentinel-6 measurements validation comparing to Jason-3, sentinel-3A, and sentinel-3B [
The characteristics of previous and current satellite missions are given in Table 1.
GEOSAT | 785 | 108° | 72° | 163 | Ku | 13.5 |
ERS-1/2 | 785 | 98° | 81° | 80 | Ku | 13.8 |
TOPEX/POSEIDON Jason-1/2/3 Sentinel-6 | 1336 | 66° | 66° | 315 | Ku/C | 13.6/5.3 |
GFO | 785 | 108° | 72° | 163 | Ku | 13.5 |
Envisat | 785 | 98° | 81° | 163 | Ku/S | 13.6/3.2 |
CryoSat-2 | 717 | 92° | 88° | 7 | Ku | 13.6 |
HY-2A/2B | 964 | 99° | 60° | 90 | Ku/C | 13.6/5.3 |
SARAL/ALTIKA | 800 | 98° | 81° | 90 | Ka | 35 |
An overview of the basic characteristics of satellite altimetry missions.
Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission is planned to be launched primarily to enable terrestrial water monitoring. The mission is a joint project of NASA, CNES, the Canadian Space Agency, and the UK Space Agency. It is expected to operate in Ka-band with a 0.86 cm radar wavelength [18].
Pulse-limited altimetry, often referred to as low resolution mode (LRM) altimetry, or traditional altimetry, is limited by the size of the radar surface footprint, i.e., the size of the area illuminated by the radar from the satellite [6]. Depending on the SWH, the radius of the altimeter footprint can range from 1 km up to 7 km (e.g. for Jason missions), which enables high accuracy of the altimetry in open ocean areas, and on the other side, due to the contamination in the reflected radar altimeter signal caused by the land [19], lower accuracy in the coastal and inland areas (see e.g., [14]).
Significant efforts were done to overcome coastal altimetry issues through different projects, e.g., for the Mediterranean Sea projects were conducted such as ALBICOCCA (Altimeter-Based Investigations in Corsica, Capraia and Contiguous Areas), ALTICORE (Altimetry for Coastal Regions), COASTALT (Development of Radar Altimetry Data Processing in the Coastal Zone), SAMOSA (SAR Altimetry Mode Studies and Applications), and the PISTACH (Coastal and Hydrology Altimetry product) [20]. The projects resulted in improvements of the onboard trackers and developments of the waveform retrackers. On-board trackers are devices used for the prediction of surface measurements thus enabling outlier detection and easier surface tracking [21]. The waveform retrackers work on the ground after the waveform data are downloaded from a satellite. The retrackers most often attempt to fit the model or function to the measured waveform to provide as accurate as possible results [21]. The retrackers integrate physical functions (such as the Brown ocean retracker) or empirical functions. Altimeter retrackers are further discussed in [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Different retrackers process different satellite mission data for different areas. For instance, ALES (Adaptive Leading Edge Subwaveform) is designed to be applied to Jason 1/2 and Envisat in both open ocean and coastal zones [27], X-TRACK retracker was designed particularly for coastal areas, ALES+ was later designed for the sea ice leads, coastal and inland waters [28], Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) designed several retrackers for ice areas [29], etc. Such retrackers nowadays enable utilizing of satellite altimetry in the coastal zones, and inland water areas. All the retracked data is available through the Coastal altimetry community [30].
One of the most significant recent developments in satellite altimetry technology was the introduction of the Delay-Doppler (DD) or SAR-mode altimetry that enables better observations of the small-scale features (below 50 km) and improved spatial resolution along the satellite track compared to conventional pulse-limited altimeters (see [31]). DD satellite altimeters employ the Doppler effect caused by the movement of the satellite in the along-track direction to improve the spatial resolution in the same direction [31] enabling the data sampling along-track e.g., up to 300 m for Sentinel-3. In other words, the altimeter footprint of the DD altimeters is reduced by an order of magnitude with respect to conventional altimeters – from a few kilometers up to a few hundreds of meters [32]. Hence, DD altimeters, such as those on the CryoSat-2 (SIRAL, SAR Interferometric Radar Altimeter), Sentinel-3 (SRAL, Synthetic Aperture Radar Altimeter), deliver more and/or improved data over the ocean, and, especially, in sea ice areas and coastal areas in general.
The SAR altimetry is based on the coherent processing of multiple echoes (e.g., 64 Ku-band pulses emitted by CryoSat-2 and Sentinel-3) within each altimeter burst (aperture duration of approx. 3.5 ms for CryoSat-2 and Sentinel-3), which enables resolving the reflected signals for along-track cells rather than the large footprints generated by the pulse limited altimeters. That naturally results in an improved resolution in the along-track (azimuth) direction of the satellite with the pulse-limited form that depends on the altimeter footprint maintained in the across-track direction (see [31, 32]).
Figure 4 presents the SAR technology and processing compared to the conventional satellite altimeters. The SAR processing includes counting for the along-track phase shift within each echo obtained from different radar burst, which depends on the geometry of the observation [31]. That produces the multiple echoes gathered at the same ground cell, which allows for the subsequent averaging (i.e., summing coherently) that increases the signal-to-noise ratio, i.e., it results in improved observations of the sea surface.
Comparison of the principles of the conventional and SAR altimetry (adapted from the [
In [33] different studies on satellite radar altimetry pointed out that the SAR altimetry already performs better over the coastal zones than the conventional altimetry (see also [34]). They also emphasized the potential of the SAR technology for applications to inland water monitoring as well as the applications in cryosphere studies, such as measuring the ice sheet elevation change and sea ice freeboard.
Altimeter data are available at different levels of complexity through different platforms and for various purposes. AVISO (Archiving, Validation, and Interpretation of Satellite Oceanographic Data) for instance offers gridded and along-track multi-mission altimeter data products (not) corrected for the geophysical effects and for different purposes [35]. Besides, AVISO offers access to Basic Radar Altimetry Toolbox (BRAT) software as well as the tools such as Marine Geospatial Ecology Tools (MGET). On top of that, through the Live Access Server (LAS), AVISO offers on-the-fly data visualization, metadata access, and quick comparisons of the measurements. For geodetic purposes, AVISO’s most valuable products are related to the SSH, often upgraded to show ocean variability or cryosphere changes.
Near-real-time along-track satellite altimeter data are available also through the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) PO.DAAC Drive system (Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center). The data are delivered as a map or digital data, focusing on the SSH, wind speed, wave heights, and geostrophic velocity vectors [36].
Different products are also available from Copernicus Marine Service [16], which offers complete studies on sea-related topics. That includes original measurements, sea-level-related maps, and sea-level forecasts.
Finally, all the georeferenced source altimeter measurements and many corrections for the measurements are available through the RADS (Radar Altimeter Database System) [37]. RADS provides harmonized, validated, and cross-calibrated sea level altimeter data for the desired area and period of the observations, and it is probably the best place to start with the altimetry for the geodetic studies. Also, RADS offers data preprocessing and processing steps integrated within the system and available through the additional tools.
A wide variety of satellite altimetry products cover many research fields. In the following section, we focus on presenting the application of altimetry in geodesy.
Sea level change is studied as the global and local phenomena (Figure 5). Today, the global sea-level change is routinely computed from the altimetry for the period from 1992 onwards by AVISO, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), University of Colorado Boulder (CU), NASA - Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and others. All the global research studies agree on the current sea level linear trend of approx. 3.2 mm/yr. although the processing methods could differ slightly. The estimates on the global sea-level change trends from satellite altimetry are regularly reported within the IPCC (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) reports that provide policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate change. Several studies reported on the regional and local sea-level change, e.g., [39] consolidated the trends and expected sea-level change globally and for the ocean regions, [40] reported on the projections of the regional sea level for the 21st century, [41, 42] recomputed all satellite altimeter data to get more pronounced sea-level change estimates and a better perspective on the impact of future sea-level rise.
Global Sea level trends (data downloaded from [
The satellite altimetry enabled finer detection of the current acceleration of global and regional sea-level rise. E.g., [38] reported on the climate-change-driven acceleration in sea level rise over the altimeter era, [43] investigated the regional sea-level rise during the altimeter era with previous studies done on uncovering the anthropogenic influence on the sea level rise in some regions [44]. With the climate change acceleration, monitoring of the sea-level change and its variation is going to be even more important. A future perspective on gauging the sea-level change and the needed improvements, both for the satellite observations and the terrestrial (tide gauge and other) measurements, is summarized in [45].
The mean sea surface and its change are one of the bases for vertical height system modeling and implementation. A wide initiative on unifying the vertical height reference systems (for details see [46, 47, 48]) most usually encompasses absolute sea-level modeling from satellite altimetry extended for the tide gauge measurements at the coast (see e.g., [49]) along with the extensive analysis of vertical land movements, GNSS measurements, gravity estimations, etc. For such purposes, further progress in coastal altimetry and altimetry, in general, is crucial.
One of the basic geodetic tasks is determining the Earth’s shape and size. The satellite altimetry gave an insight into the topography of the oceans, which later enabled the reconstruction of the Earth’s gravity field over the oceans through gravity recovery. Gravity recovery stands for the geodetic operations and procedures of fitting the (altimeter) data to a gravity field that allows for the determination of the gravity information at any location [6]. Three standard procedures can be used to compute the gravity field from the altimetry: (1) employing the least-squares collocation on the altimeter measurements with the computed slopes of the sea surfaces along the satellite tracks or (2) along with the computed deflections of the vertical (e.g. [50, 51]), and (3) using the Vening Meinesz formula for the computations of the gravity field from the deflections of the vertical derived from satellite altimetry [52] (Figure 6).
Altimetry-derived global ocean gravity map (data downloaded from [
Today, the global gravity field models are usually derived from gravity satellite mission(s) only or from combined observations (both ground and satellite data). When using combined data, satellite altimetry is most often included in modeling. Such combined models are, e.g., XGM2019e_2159 [54], GAO2012 [55], EIGEN-6C4 [56], and EGM2008 [57]. Models derived from altimetry only are given in, e.g., [53, 58].
Due to the expenses of the traditional bathymetric measuring methods (e.g., weighted lines/poles), the information about the water depths and topography of the seafloor remained mainly unexplored over the open ocean until the utilization of satellite altimetry. Today, with the global and uniform coverage, satellite altimetry is crucial in computations of the global bathymetric models fulfilling the in-situ data gaps.
Predicting the bathymetry from the altimetry relies on the method developed in 1983 by [59], who have shown the potential of such modeling using the Seasat altimetry data. Over the years, the methods were further developed (e.g., [58]). Today most of the bathymetric models integrate the same altimetry-derived bathymetry. Table 2 presents some of the most common global bathymetric models starting from the most recently updated: (1) GEBCO_2019 (The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans) [60], (2) SRTM15+ (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: Global Bathymetry and Topography at 15 arcseconds) [61], (3) EMODnet (European Marine Observation and Data Network) [62], (4) SRTM30_PLUS [63], (5) S&S V19.1 (Smith & Sandwell) [59], (6) DTU10BAT (Technical University of Denmark) [57], and (7) ETOPO1 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s dataset) [64, 65].
Name | Year of issue/update | Resolution |
---|---|---|
GEBCO_2019 | 2019 | 15” |
SRTM15 + V2.1 | 2019 | 15” |
EMODnet | 2018 | 1/16” |
SRTM30_PLUS | 2014 | 30” |
S&S V19.1 | 2014 | 1’ |
DTU10BAT | 2010 | 1′-2′ (Equator) |
ETOPO1 | 2008 | 1’ |
Basic details on the most common global bathymetric models derived from satellite altimetry and shipborne data.
Bathymetric models derived from satellite altimetry are not reliable enough for underwater navigation, construction works, or similar, as the errors of the bathymetric estimates sometimes exceeds 100 m but do offer general insight onto the seafloor topography and make the best available bathymetric data for many areas (see e.g., [60, 66]). Figure 7 presents an example of the global bathymetric model.
Altimetry-derived global ocean bathymetric map (data downloaded from [
As mentioned above, the satellite altimeter data for geodetic purposes can be integrated with tide gauges when estimating the sea-level change, with shipborne bathymetry obtained by echo sounders when modeling the bathymetry, and with discrete gravity measurements or satellite gravity when computing Earth’s gravitational field. Furthermore, the satellite altimetry can be used to access the vertical land motion over the coastal area by comparing the sea level change trends from satellite altimetry and from tide gauges where the latter obtain the trend accounted for the vertical land change (e.g., [10, 67, 68]). The altimetry can further be employed in multidiscipline-based early warning systems such as those forecasting the floods [69], or tsunamis [70], and the other climate-related forecasting systems that lead towards the operational oceanography, i.e., to the forecasting system of the sea-related variables such as sea level, temperature, and currents, based on the long-term routine measurements and real-time observations of the oceans and atmosphere (see e.g., [71]).
Satellite altimetry has proven over the years to be a reliable source of the information on the oceans. Many of the applications of the technology are related to the geodetic tasks, out of which some are almost exclusively reserved for geodesy (such as the gravity field modeling), and some are taking a great part in multidisciplinary research (e.g., as in the climate-related studies). The overview given in this book chapter summarized the theoretical basis of the technology, its evolution, and current developments with insight on the availability of different altimetry data and the ready-to-use altimeter products. The chapter could be a good starting point for diving into the geodetic or related research and practical studies on satellite altimetry.
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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"88",type:"subseries",title:"Marketing",keywords:"Consumer Trends, Consumer Needs, Media, Pricing, Distribution, Branding, Innovation, Neuromarketing",scope:"