Star‐shaped geometries.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-571-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-570-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-599-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dd81bc60e806fddc63d1ae22da1c779a",bookSignature:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan and Dr. Irem Demirkan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10818.jpg",keywords:"Decision Making, Blockchain, Accounting, Earnings Management, Strategic Alliances, Innovation, Performance, Corporate Governance, Accounting Quality, Digital Assets, Internationalization, MNCs",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 hours",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Academician in the area of accounting who believes in the impact of interdisciplinary research. Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan's research interests are in the areas of financial accounting, capital markets, auditing, corporate governance, strategic alliances, taxation, CSR, and data analytics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher of strategic management, corporate entrepreneurship, and international business; specific interests include innovation, the ambidexterity framework, inter-organizational relationships, and networks. Experienced in teaching graduate and undergraduate courses in strategy, entrepreneurship, and international business and management areas.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"336397",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebahattin",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkan",slug:"sebahattin-demirkan",fullName:"Sebahattin Demirkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336397/images/system/336397.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan is a Professor of Accounting. He earned his Ph.D. in Accounting/Management Science at Jindal School of Management of the University of Texas at Dallas where he got his MS in Accounting, MSA Supply Chain, and MBA degrees. He got his BA in Economics and Management at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Bogazici University, Istanbul. He worked at Koc Holding, a private venture capital firm, and the University of California, Berkeley during and after his education at Bogazici University. His research interests are in the areas of financial accounting, capital markets, auditing, corporate governance, strategic alliances, taxation, CSR, and data analytics. Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan has published articles in Contemporary Accounting Research, JAPP, JAAF, TEM, Journal of Management, and other top academic journals. He teaches several different classes in both undergraduate and graduate levels in Accounting and Analytics programs. He is a treasurer and vice president of the TASSA, board member of the BURCIN and member of the American Accounting Association.",institutionString:"Manhattan College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Manhattan College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"342242",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkan",slug:"irem-demirkan",fullName:"Irem Demirkan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000033HrA8QAK/Profile_Picture_1606729803873",biography:"Dr. Irem Demirkan earned her Ph.D. in International Management Studies and M.S. in Administrative Studies at Jindal School of Management at the University of Texas at Dallas, USA. She got her BA in Economics at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey. She worked in the finance and textile industries before joining to academia. Dr. Demirkan has published research in the areas of strategic management and corporate entrepreneurship in journals such as the Journal of Management, Journal of Business Research, Management Science, European Journal of Innovation and Management, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, among others. 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When the information age emerges from an increasingly networked world, the digital information, and communication technology permeate the society and are increasingly important to their development [3, 4]. Modern wireless applications demand esthetic, multifunctional, and portable terminals that operating in multiple frequency bands and can integrate different wireless services: 4G, Wi‐Fi, Bluetooth, NFC, GPS and so on. Future trends toward 5G systems also require enhanced mobile broadband for emergent applications [5].
With the rapid advance of wireless communication systems, the use of antennas in base stations and portable terminals must meet increasingly stringent criteria, such as miniaturization, integration with other systems, and multiband or broadband operation [1–4]. Due its attractive features, low‐profile microstrip antennas (MSA) and arrays are well suitable to meet the demands of fixed or mobile wireless applications [6–9].
Antenna parameter specifications change according to application. Indeed, fixed antennas must have high gain, stable radiation pattern, and bandwidth tolerance; embedded antennas should be efficient in radiation and possess larger beam width [3]. In short‐range UWB wireless systems, the antenna bandwidth exceeds the lesser of 500 MHz or 20% of the center frequency [9]. Thus, impedance bandwidth, gain, radiation pattern, and polarization are fundamental parameters for antenna designers to take into account.
A trend in the application of antennas for modern wireless systems is the use of compact antennas with stable radiation coverage over a wideband [2–4]. An antenna must be compact in many situations: embedded antennas, wearable antennas, camouflaged antennas, and so on. However, most often an antenna electrically small narrows the impedance bandwidth, reduces gain, and limits control of the resulting radiation pattern [4, 6, 9].
Various institutions around the world have invested resources and established research centers with focus on biologically inspired engineering as the Massachusetts Institute Technology, the London College, and the Harvard University, for example. This research branch looks in nature similar solution to the problems encountered in engineering. With appropriate adjustments, it is possible to adapt the solutions used by the nature of the engineering problems [10]. According to [11], the development of a bioinspired methodology requires three steps: identification of analogies, with structures and methods that are similar; understanding, detailed modeling of actual biological behavior; and engineering, which is the process of model simplification and adjustments to technical applications.
The researches that use the bio‐inspired geometry for the development of antennas are recent and can be divided into two groups: antennas with bio‐inspired geometries in animals and antennas with bio‐inspired geometries in plants. Bio‐inspired antennas in animals try to use internal organs or external parts of the animals which work analogously to the operation of the antennas used in the communication systems. A biomimetic antenna in the shape of a bat’s ear [12] can be cited, a biologically inspired electrically small antenna arrays that mimic the hearing mechanism of such insects [13], an antenna system based on the wasp’s curved antennas [14] and a biologically inspired vascular antenna reconfiguration mechanism [15]. Research on antennas with bio‐inspired plant geometries uses the plants or part of them (stem, leaves, and flowers) to develop antennas for various frequencies and technologies. The study of microstrip antennas with models bio‐inspired on leaves (leaf‐shaped antennas) has aroused the interest of researchers due to the good results. The leaves present similar characteristics to fractals as, for example, the reduction of the total dimensions with the increase of perimeter. Furthermore, the leaves have a light‐harvesting reaction center complex, i.e., an array of antennas capable of operating in the visible light range (400–700 nm) with characteristics which analog to satellite dishes. The main purpose of the leaf shape is to capture the sunlight to transform it in chemical energy by a photosynthesis process. The bioinspired on leaves open a vast research field for more compact antennas with low visual impact. Among the published works, the following can be highlighted. A leaf‐shaped monopole antenna with an extremely wide bandwidth is introduced in Ref. [16] and a leaf‐shaped bowtie slot antenna for UWB applications in Ref. [17]. A band‐notched tulip antenna for UWB applications is presented in Ref. [18] and a wide‐band tulip‐loop antenna in Ref. [19]. More recently, a MIMO antenna using castor leaf‐shaped quasi‐self‐complementary elements for broadband applications and a bio‐inspired design of directional leaf‐shaped printed monopole antennas for 4G 700 MHz band are presented in Refs. [20] and [21], respectively.
This chapter discusses the design of innovative bio‐inspired microstrip antennas with fractal, polar, and Gielis shapes, which are optimized for wireless applications. Section 2 presents the different methods to generate bio‐inspired shapes. In section 3 are presented some applications including esthetic wearable antennas and antenna arrays. In this last section, the results obtained from the Gielis superformula are highlighted due to the simplicity and flexibility of the formulation. Simulations are performed using ANSYS Electronics Desktop. Measurements of prototypes are compared to simulations and classical designs as circular printed monopole antenna in some cases.
From a mathematical point of view, a fractal refers to a set in Euclidean space with specific properties, such as self‐similarity or self‐affinity, simple and recursive definition, fractal dimension, irregular shape, and natural appearance [22]. Fractal geometry is the study of sets with these properties, which are too irregular to be described by calculus or traditional Euclidian geometry language [22, 23].
Fractals are resort to conventional classes, such as geometrical fractals, algebraic fractals, and stochastic fractals [24]. Two common methods used to generate mathematical fractals are iterated function systems (IFS) and Lindenmayer systems [22–25].
Lindenmayer system (or L‐system) was initially conceived to model growth phenomena in biological organisms [26]. An L‐system grammar performs an initial string of symbols (axiom) and includes a set of production rules that may be applied to the symbols (letters of the L‐system alphabet) to generate new strings.
In Figure 1 are shown four examples of fractal iterations using IFS and L‐system.
IFS and L‐system prefractals: (a) Koch curve; (b) modified Barnsley fern; (c) Koch island; (d) Minkowiski island.
Like fractals, polar transformations give rise to a wide class of shapes. A polar transformation is defined in this chapter through a vector function
Esthetic space‐filling polar transformation for k varying up to k = 24.
The superformula is a generalization of the superellipse and was first proposed by Johan Gielis in 2003 [27]. With this model, it is possible to describe mathematically a wide variety of natural and abstract forms, such as leaf and flower shapes, for example. Gielis started from the concept of superellipses (3) and obtained the superformula (4), which is based on the idea that many natural forms can be interpreted as modified circles. To obtain this result, it was used polar coordinates, replacing
From the manipulation of the six parameters (a, b, m, n1, n2, n3) of (4), called the Gielis superformula, it is possible to generate and modify several shapes. The superformula can also be multiplied by other mathematical functions, generating other forms. In order to illustrate the possibilities of the superformula, some examples of star shaped, leaf shaped, butterfly shaped, and flower shaped were generated. These shapes can be seen, with all the parameters used, in Tables 1–4, respectively.
Star‐shaped geometries.
Leaf‐shaped geometries.
Butterfly‐shaped geometries.
Flower‐shaped geometries.
The bio‐inspired shapes are generated using the software MATLAB© in format DXF.
The simulations were performed with the commercial software ANSYS Electronics Desktop™, and the measurements in the Radiometry Laboratory of the Federal University of Campina Grande, with the VNA Agilent Technologies, model E5071C‐280 (9 kHz–8.5 GHz) and the Measurements Laboratory of the Federal Institute of Paraíba (IFPB), Campus João Pessoa, using the VNA of Agilent Technologies model N5230A (300 kHz–13.5 GHz). The characterization of denim substrate was performed by the probe method using a VNA of Agilent model E5071C (300 kHz–20 GHz).
The rigid antennas were designed using a low‐cost fiberglass laminate (FR4) as dielectric substrate with a thickness of h = 1.5 mm, dielectric constant of εr = 4.4, and loss tangent of 0.02.
The wearable bio‐inspired antennas were designed using a denim as dielectric substrate with a thickness of h = 1 mm, dielectric constant of εr = 2.14 and loss tangent of 0.08, and flexible copper.
The use of wearable antennas are necessary some characteristics as easy interaction with the body, low visual impact, preferably low cost, and flexible structure [28], and for this reason, the materials used in the manufacture of the wearable antennas must follow some requirements: easy interaction with the body, flexible structure, reduced visual impact, and preferably low cost [28].
Figure 3 shows the development of wearable textile patch antenna generated by L‐systems with k = 4 interactions. Figure 3(a) illustrates the original bio‐inspired shape, and Figure 3(b)presents the image generated by MATLAB® using turtle algorithm. Figure 3(c) and (d) show the top and bottom layers of the prototype built, respectively.
Development of wearable textile patch antenna generated by L‐systems: (a) original shape, (b) image generated by MATLAB, (c) top layer prototype, (d) bottom layer prototype and (e) comparison between simulated and measured return loss.
As observed in Figure 3(e), the antenna presents an UWB behavior operating between the C‐Band (4–8 GHz) and X‐Band (8–12 GHz), with measured bandwidth of 5.95 GHz (5.9–1.85 GHz), and good relationship between simulated and measured results, with difference in bandwidth of 17%.
Figure 4 shows frequency resonance of bio‐inspired polar microstrip antenna for k‐interactions (k = 1, 8 12, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64) and the comparison of measured |S11| parameter, with prototype images. The proposed of bio‐inspired patch antennas is based on a circle patch antenna with displaced microstrip line feed, and quarter‐wave transformer, with dimensions calculated accordingly [7, 9].
Interactions of bio‐inspired polar microstrip patch antenna: (a) prototypes; (b) resonant frequency vs interactions and (c) return loss for k = 8, 16 and 24.
Figure 4 shows the |S11| parameters measured of the polar antennas to k = 8, 16, and 24. We noted that the increase of the patch perimeter by use of polar interaction provides a reduction of the resonant frequencies, similar to the fractal comportment.
Figure 5 shows the use of polar transformer in development of the array patch antenna with 4 petals, k = 8 interactions. The polar array presented good response, with simulated and measured results closed, and loss return less than −45 dB, bandwidth of 101 MHz, cover the WLAN band in 2.4 GHz.
Polar microstrip patch antenna 1×2 array.
The image of the tulip flower with three petals was generated by the Gielis superformula using the software MATLAB®, with values: m = 2, n1 = 400, n2 and n3 =1200, a and b = 1. In Figure 6 are shown the dimensions of the petals, the design simulated, and the prototype antenna.
Tulip flower–shaped antenna for UWB applications: (a) petals exported in DXF format; (b) simulated structure top and bottom and (c) prototype.
The radiation element is composed of one central petal and two lateral petals with an inclination of 25°. The antenna was designed for a first resonance frequency at 2.1 GHz, with wavelength of λ ≈ 13 mm, which was used as approximated dimension between the edge and the center of the structure.
Figure 7 presents the comparison of simulated and measured |S11| parameter of the tulip flower–shaped antenna. In Table 5, it can be observed the measured and simulated values of resonant frequencies and bandwidth of the bio‐inspired antenna. It can be noted that both antennas comply with the FCC parameters with a bandwidth greater than 7.5 GHz (3.1–10.6 GHz).
Comparison between simulated and measured return loss of the tulip flower–shaped antenna.
Antenna | BW (GHz) | f1 (GHz) | f2 (GHz) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Simulated | 9.45 | 1.37 | 10.82 | |
2 | Measured | 9.56 | 2.77 | 12.33 |
Measured and simulated values of resonant frequencies and bandwidth of the bio‐inspired antenna.
The 3D radiation patterns simulated for the frequencies of 6.3 and 8.6 GHz can be observed in Figure 8(a) and (b). The 2D radiation patterns simulated for the same frequencies can be observed in Figure 8(c) and (d) with radiation pattern measured in semi‐anechoic chamber for Phi = 90°. The results cover the FCC parameters, with omnidirectional radiation pattern, half power beam width (HPBW) greater than 60°, maximum gain in broadside direction, and current density of 6 A/m2.
Radiation pattern: (a) far‐field 3D with gain in dBi and current density in A/m2 at 6.3 GHz; (b) far‐field 3D with gain in dBi and current density in A/m2 at 8.6 GHz; (c) 2D, E‐plane (φ = 0°) and H‐plane (φ = 90°) with HPBW indication at 6.3 GHz; (d) 2D, E‐plane (φ = 0°) and H‐plane (φ = 90°) with HPBW indication at 8.6 GHz.
Based on a circular planar monopole antenna (PMA) with a radius of 10.71 mm, a bio‐inspired printed monopole antenna with the geometry of jasmine flower with 10 petals was designed. The image of the jasmine flower with 10 petals with 1 mm long was generated by Gielis superformula using the software MATLAB®, with values: m = 10, n1 = −2, n2 and n3 = 1.2, a and b = 1, and the parameters: m = 10, n1 = 8, n2 and n3 = −0.6, a and b = 1 for petals with 7 mm long.
In Figure 9 are shown the shapes generated, simulated structures with dimensions, and prototypes of the proposed antennas. The use of the bio‐inspired geometry provided a reduction of 11.3% in comparison with the classical PMA.
Jasmine flower–shaped antenna: (a) shapes exported in DXF format; (b) simulated structures, top and bottom; (c) prototypes.
As seen in Figure 10, for the circular PMA, measured and simulated results are close, indicating convergence between the designed and built prototypes.
Comparison between simulated and measured results for designed circular printed monopole antenna.
In order to validate the simulations, two prototypes of bio‐inspired PMA were built with petal lengths of 1 and 7 mm. The comparisons between simulated and measured results are shown in Figures 11 and 12.
Comparison between simulated and measured results for jasmine flower PMA with petal length of 1 mm.
Comparison between simulated and measured results for jasmine flower PMA with petal length of 7 mm.
It can be seen, from the Figures 11 and 12, that increasing the length defining the petals allows a reduction in the radius of the patch element in 11.30% and promotes the modification of the resonance frequency. The antenna with 7 mm presented an operating range within the range of the X‐Band frequency. The measurements of the return loss of the circular PMA and the bio‐inspired antenna with a petal length of 7 mm present a higher bandwidth than the simulation. The bio‐inspired antenna with a petal length of 1 mm presents a bandwidth 11% lower compared to simulations, but still cover the UWB range.
The bio‐inspired geometry of a jasmine flower increases the perimeter of the antenna compared to a classical PMA and consequently the frequency behavior. The perimeter of the antenna is bigger without changing its size. In the case of petal, length of 7 mm is possible to change the resonance frequency and bandwidth to operate in the X‐band range (8–12 GHz).
The Figure 13 shows the measured values of the circular PMA and the bio‐inspired antennas with petal length of 1 and 7 mm.
Comparison between measurements of |S11| for built printed monopole antennas: circular and jasmine flowers (1 and 7 mm).
The difference between the resonance frequencies and bandwidth of the built antennas is presented in Table 6.
Antenna | BW (GHz) | f1 (GHz) | f2 (GHz) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Circular simulated | 7.38 | 2.31 | 9.69 | |
2 | Circular measured | 10.69 | 2.81 | 13.50 | |
3 | Jasmine 7 mm simulated | 11.00 | 2.50 | 13.50 | |
4 | Jasmine 7 mm measured | 8.45 | 3.75 | 12.20 | |
5 | Jasmine 1 mm simulated | 4.25 | 8.00 | 12.25 | |
6 | Jasmine 1 mm measured | 3.44 | 9.25 | 11.69 |
Comparison of frequency response and bandwidth.
Figure 14 shows the 3D simulated radiation patterns of the circular PMA and the bio‐inspired antennas with petal length of 1 mm and 7 mm. The radiation patterns at 7.13 GHz of the circular PMA, at 7.06 GHz, of the jasmine flower with petal length of 1 mm and at 9.25 GHz of the jasmine flower with petal length of 7 mm are presented in Figure 14(a)–(c), respectively. The antennas presented maximum gain in the broadside direction close to 6 dBi and omnidirectional radiation pattern.
3D simulated radiation patterns: (a) PMA at 7.13 GHz, (b) 1 mm jasmine flower at 7.06 GHz, (c) 7 mm jasmine flower at 9.25 GHz.
The ginkgo biloba is a plant of Chinese origin; its name means silver apricot and can be found on all continents. The leaves of this plant have interesting characteristics, such as good ratio between its length and width, and a geometry with a larger perimeter than Euclidean geometries. Those characteristics, in a PMA, provide a broadband antenna, with reduced dimensions, covering the lower frequency bands. This feature allows a compact antenna design and the possibility of use in different frequency bands. From the determination of the perimeter, the use of geometry of ginkgo biloba leaf was applied to a broadband antenna structure, in which it was possible to run the project for an antenna that covers the frequencies of the technologies 2G, 3G and 4G.
The image of the ginkgo biloba leaf used for the proposed antenna was generated using the software MATLAB®, with values: m = 4, n1 = −0.1, n2 = 0.14, a = 0.1 and b = 1.
In Figure 15 are shown the shape generated and the simulated structure with dimensions and, in Figure 16, the prototype of the proposed antenna.
Simulated structure of the textile PMA ginkgo biloba.
Textile PMA ginkgo biloba prototype.
In Figure 17 is shown the comparison of the values of the parameter |S11| measured and simulated of the PMA ginkgo biloba. As noted, the measurement and simulation show similar results, indicating convergence between the simulation and the prototype.
Simulated and measured |S11| parameter of the PMA ginkgo biloba.
In Figure 18, the parameter |S11| measured of the PMA ginkgo biloba in the pocket can be seen, close of the head and hand at distance of 20 mm. As noted, the antenna used close to the body suffers interference, which promotes the shift of the frequency and bandwidth of the antenna. In Table 7, the measured and simulated values, resonant frequencies, and bandwidth of the bio‐inspired antenna can be observed. The resonance frequencies have difference <4,2%, the first frequency and bandwidth covering 2G (1850–1900 MHz), 3G (1920–1975 MHz) and 4G (LTE; 2500–2690 MHz) bands.
Simulated and measured |S11| parameter of the PMA ginkgo biloba with body interferences.
Antenna | BW (GHz) | f1 (GHz) | f2 (GHz) | f0 (GHz) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Simulated | 3.51 | 1.73 | 5.24 | 2.03 | |
2 | Measured | 2.70 | 1.80 | 4.50 | 2.12 | |
3 | Measured on head | 0.73 | 1.61 | 2.34 | 2.04 | |
4 | Measured in pocket | 1.04 | 1.49 | 2.53 | 1.97 | |
5 | Measured on hand | 0.94 | 1.47 | 2.41 | 1.83 |
Comparison of frequency response and bandwidth of the simulated and measured PMA ginkgo biloba.
The measurements, using the antenna nearly the head, hand, and in the pocket, showed different resonant frequencies and bandwidths. The biggest difference in the resonance frequency was observed nearly the hand, with a difference of 13.68%. The biggest difference in bandwidth was detected at the antenna close to the head, with a difference of 72.96%.
The Figure 19 shows the 2D and 3D radiation patterns of the PMA textile ginkgo biloba at 2.12 GHz, with a maximum gain 3.16 dBi in the broadside direction. The 2D radiation pattern measured for Phi = 90° was performed in semi‐anechoic chamber. It can be observed that the half‐power beam width (HPBW) in (φ = 90) E‐plane is ~120° with an omnidirectional radiation pattern. By presenting equivalent power distribution and omnidirectional radiation diagram, this antenna can be used in applications that require direct communication between devices, in which the transmitter/receiver can take various positions.
2D and 3D radiation pattern of the antenna proposed.
The Bidens pilosa is native to the Americas, but it is known widely as an introduced species of other regions. The use of geometry of Bidens pilosa with three leaves was applied to a broadband antenna structure, in which it was possible to run the project for an antenna that covers the WLAN range at 2.40 GHz (2.40–2.4835 GHz).
Based on the perimeter of a classical circular antenna, it is possible to design the bio‐inspired textile patch antenna with three elliptical leaves using the Gielis formula. Thus, the leaves are generated by the parameters n1 = 2, m = 400, n2 and n3 = 1200, a and b = 1. The final structure obtained total perimeter of 143.3 mm.
In Figure 20 are shown the circular patch simulated, the dimensions of the single leaf used, the simulated dimensions of the bio‐inspired array antenna and the prototype, respectively. In the simulation and the prototype, the under leaf was inclined at 20°, and the down leaves were inclined at 40° in relation to the geometry of Bidens pilosa, in order to provide fine‐tuning of the resonance frequency.
(a) Circular patch simulated (b) leaves array of Bidens pilosa, (c) single elliptical leaf, (d) bio‐inspired patch antenna simulated, (e) bio‐inspired prototype.
Figure 21 shows a comparison between the simulated |S11| parameter for the circular patch antenna and the bio‐inspired textile antenna. The circular patch antenna obtains a bandwidth of 140 MHz and the bio‐inspired wearable patch antenna of 130 MHz. Both antennas have bandwidth that fully covers the required frequency range for WLAN technology. However, the bio‐inspired array patch antenna presents a reduction of total length in 33.61% and width in 52.01% compared to the circular patch antenna.
Comparison between |S11| parameter of the circular patch and the bio‐inspired textile antenna.
Figure 22 shows a comparison between the simulated and measured |S11| parameter for the bio‐inspired wearable textile patch antenna proposed. As it can be observed, the simulated and measured prototypes show a convergent behavior. The measured bandwidth is 8.33% narrower than the simulated values, but still fully covering the WLAN band.
Comparison of |S11| parameter simulated and measured of Bidens pilosa patch antenna.
In Figure 23 is illustrated the radiation pattern in 3D and 2D with the half power beam width and relative front‐to‐back (F/B) for the simulated bio‐inspired textile array antenna. The 2D radiation pattern measured for Phi = 90° was performed in semi‐anechoic chamber. It can be noted that the antenna presents an end‐fire direction with maximum gain of 6.71 dBi, HPBW = 90° (indicated by the letters ‘A’ and ‘B’) and F/B = 21 dB.
Radiation pattern of the bio‐inspired textile antenna: (a) 3D with antenna structure, (b) 2D with HPBW and relative F/B.
In Figure 24 is shown the simulated current density of the bio‐inspired textile antenna and the circular antenna at 2.43 GHz. It can be observed that the surface current is more distributed on the edges than on the center of the patch. The current density of the circular patch is 5.86 A/m2, and the bio‐inspired is 40.06 A/m2. Therefore, the bio‐inspired antenna presents a higher concentration of the surface current in a smaller physical area of the antenna.
Current density distribution: (a) circular patch antenna, (b) bio‐inspired textile patch antenna.
In this chapter, we have described some trends for design innovative bio‐inspired microstrip antennas. The methods of analysis, manufacturing, and measurement have presented considering different dielectric materials (rigid and flexible) for the manufacture of the antennas. The unique properties of space filling and self similarity naturally result in more compact and multiband behavior antennas. Consequently, these antennas have their gain reduced, which in many wireless applications are undesirable characteristics. On the other hand, as observed on the last case, the bio‐inspired antenna presents a higher concentration of the surface current in a smaller physical area compared to classical geometries with esthetic appeal. The bio‐inspired microstrip antennas have few design variables and smooth responses in the region of interest of these design variables, which facilitates all steps of the design methodology. These characteristics open a vast research field for wearable embedded antennas.
Aortic stenosis can be defined as a narrowing of the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) and/or aorta at the level below the aortic valve, at the aortic valve, or above it. This narrowing produces a blood flow turbulence that is auscultated as a systolic murmur at the heart base, as well as increased blood flow velocity that can be detected and measured by Doppler echocardiography.
\nAortic stenosis is mainly considered to be a congenital defect found in many species including humans. In dogs, aortic stenosis has autosomal inheritance; however, the mode of inheritance seems to be more complex in monogenic traits.
\nVarious forms of aortic stenosis as well as its possible genetic background have been recorded in domestic animals since the late 1960s and 1970s [1]. In those times, the final diagnosis was mostly confirmed at necropsy. Currently, diagnosis is based on echocardiographic evaluation of the morphology of the left ventricular outflow tract and aorta and the velocity of blood measured by the continuous wave (CW) Doppler method after a murmur is detected. Prognosis depends on the severity of the stenosis being from no effect on life quality and expectancy in mild forms of the disease to decreased life quality and expectancy in moderate to severe forms due to possible complications. Those include syncopal episodes that can result in sudden death, tiredness on exertion, or in rare cases, congestive heart failure or infective endocarditis [2].
\nThe aim of this chapter is a review of the existing literature and our experience with clinical aspects of AS in dogs and cats. Genetic evidence for aortic stenosis has been shown in Golden Retriever, Newfoundland, and Dogue de Bordeaux; however, the genetic background of aortic stenosis at a molecular level remains unclear.
\nSubaortic stenosis (SAS) is common congenital cardiac defect in dogs [3, 4] and pigs [5]. In cats, SAS has not been so often described [1, 6, 7, 8].
\nSeveral classifications are used for aortic stenosis. According to anatomic location, aortic stenosis is classified into valvular (VAS), subvalvular (SAS), or supravalvular (SupAS) [9].
\nBased on functional characteristics of obstruction, subvalvular cases are further categorized as either fixed (static) or dynamic (labile) [2].
\nA dynamic form of subaortic stenosis can occur in the following instances: in a hypertrophied left ventricle (LVH) due to protrusion of the ventricular septum into the LVOT, systolic anterior movement of the anterior mitral valve leaflet (SAM) which occurs concurrently or in the absence of LVH, and in cases where aortoseptal angle is smaller than 180o [10].
\nThe subvalvular form—subaortic stenosis (SAS)—has been reported as the most frequently seen (in 95%) and can be presented as a complete or incomplete ring [1, 2, 11, 12, 13].
\nThe gross appearance of the lesions in SAS is variable [4, 14]. Current classification which is used by clinicians is based on anatomical and echocardiographic classification of SAS on the result of postmortem and angiographic studies of Pyle et al. [14, 15]. In a postmortem study performed on Newfoundland puppies, the gross lesions were classified according to severity with grades 1 through 3 [14]. Mild lesions (grade 1) are present as small (1–2 mm), raised white nodules on the endocardium of the ventricular septum below the aortic valve. In some dogs, the nodules are also found on the ventricular surfaces of the aortic valve cusps (Figure 1) [14]. Moderate lesions are present as a ridge of endocardial fibrous tissue that in most cases extends from the base of the anterior leaflet of mitral valve across the interventricular septum to beneath the aortic valve (Figures 2 and 3) [14]. In severe cases (grade 3), the fibrous band or ridge completely encircles the left ventricular outflow tract below the aortic valve and forms a concentrically narrowing tunnel (Figure 3). In most severe cases, anterior leaflet of the mitral valve and ventricular surfaces of the aortic valve are also thickened (Figure 3) [14].
\nGross pathologic specimen from a dog with severe subaortic stenosis. A subvalvular fibrous ring (lower arrow) below the aortic valve and a thickened valve above the fibrous ring of tissue can be seen. Ao—aorta, LV—left ventricle, LA—left atrium, and MV—mitral valve.
Gross pathologic specimen from a dog with severe subaortic stenosis. This is a close-up of a closed fibrous subaortic tissue that encircles the left ventricular outflow tract just below the entrance to the aorta.
Gross pathologic specimen from a dog with severe subaortic stenosis. A tunnel-like subaortic stenosis (upper 2 arrows) and a fibrous subaortic ring below the aortic valve is seen (lower arrow). Ao—aorta, LV—left ventricle, and LA—left atrium.
Microscopically, the zone of endocardial fibrous tissue below aortic valve contains proliferated mesenchymal cells, mucopolysaccharide ground substance, and foci of metaplastic cartilage [3, 4, 14].
\nOther cardiac lesions that develop as the consequences of the altered left ventricular outflow include compensatory left ventricular concentric hypertrophy [3] (Figure 3) and poststenotic dilatation of the aorta [4].
\nMicroscopic cardiac lesions also include foci of myocardial necrosis, fibrosis in the papillary muscles and subendocardium, thickening of the intramyocardial arteries [3], intimal proliferation of connective tissue, fibrous replacement of smooth muscle in the tunica media [16, 17], and luminal narrowing of intramural coronary arteries [18].
\nSeveral cardiac defects have been observed concomitantly with SAS in dogs. These defects include pulmonary artery stenosis (PS), patent ductus arteriosus, mitral valve dysplasia, ventricular septal defect, valvular aortic stenosis, aortic root hypoplasia, persistent left cranial vena cava, bicuspid aorta, quadricuspid aorta, tricuspid dysplasia, double chambered right ventricle, and supravalvular aortic stenosis [19, 20]. Coexistence of aortic stenosis and pulmonary artery stenosis is one of the most common complex cardiac malformations [13, 20].
\nSAS has been ranked the most common congenital heart disease (CHD) in dogs in most European studies accounting for 35% of all CHD. In the United States [12] and in a broad Italian study [20], SAS was on the second place (the most common being PS). However, these results must be taken carefully due to referral population included since a lot of cases were sent for ballooning. Of 4480 dogs included in this study, 976 dogs were diagnosed with congenital heart disease (CHD) of which 21.3% had subaortic stenosis (SAS), while valvular aortic stenosis (AS) was on the fifth place with 5.7% dogs diagnosed. The same study showed many multiple heart defects; the most frequent combination was SAS and PS (26.4%).
\nWe did a study on 9236 dogs, where cardiovascular disease was diagnosed in 6% of dogs, and from those, 12% represented congenital heart diseases of which 45% were aortic stenosis cases [21].
\nAccording to many epidemiological studies [20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27], affected breeds are: Boxers, German Shepherd, Newfoundland, Rottweiler, Golden Retriever, Pug, and Bouviers de Flandres. In the Italian study [20] and a Danish study [28], Dogue de Bordeaux was also shown to be significantly affected. German Boxers have proved to be the most sensitive breed in recent years [19, 21, 29, 30, 31]. Almost half of all the dogs in the Italian study diagnosed with SAS were Boxers. Boxers are also on top of the list of dogs with pulmonary artery stenosis (PS) and valvular aortic stenosis (AS). In Boxer breed, more male than female dogs are affected with SAS [20, 32]. Studies in cats did not show any breed predilection; aortic stenosis could be of all types described in dogs, with subvalvular stenosis being the most common [6, 7, 8, 33]. In our clinic, occasionally a cat with a fixed SAS is detected, usually due to an ausculted murmur. Dynamic left ventricular outflow tract stenosis is much more common in cats due to common occurrence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve (personal unpublished data).
\nDogs with mild SAS live longer and mostly remain asymptomatic. Prognosis for the untreated condition in this group is good. Dogs with moderate and severe gradients have shorter life expectancy. They have increased risk of infective endocarditis. The majority of dogs with severe gradients (>80 mm Hg) die before 3 years of age. Median survival was 18.9 months [9, 26].
\nSubaortic stenosis can be a progressive disease that attains its maximal severity within the first 12–15 months [15]. In dogs that already have high aortic velocity, further progression is unlikely; however, dogs with mild stenosis might progress to a moderate stage [34]. Breeding studies also indicate that AS may not be present at birth but develops during the first 4–8 weeks of life, which suggests that AS is not a true congenital trait but develops postnatally [27].
\nThe etiology of SAS is probably multi-factorial [35]. In the literature, there are two hypotheses on how the fibrocartilaginous ring around the LVOT is formed. It could be derived from embryonal endocardial tissue that retains its proliferative capacity and has chondrogenic potential for some time after birth [14]. A more recent hypothesis suggests that certain anatomic characteristics of the LVOT, including an increased mitral-aortic separation, a decreased aortoseptal angle (AoSA), and a small aortic annulus may cause cellular proliferation in the LVOT because of shear stress caused by abnormal flow patterns [35, 36].
\nClinical signs such as weakness, syncope, and sudden death are more commonly seen in dogs with severe or moderate AS than in those with mild SAS [2, 9, 11]. Dogs with mild AS rarely show any signs at all [2, 37]. Careful physical examination reveals crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur from grades 1 to 6. Final diagnosis has to be confirmed by two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography, by which evaluation of morphologic characteristics, the type of stenosis, and the pressure gradient across the stenosis can be assessed [2, 11, 15].
\nCats are more often identified when clinical signs such as heart failure develop [38].
\nIn the early years of the 21th century, cardiac screening programs have been proposed due to high incidence of some congenital heart diseases. Aortic stenosis has been recognized as one of the most common heart defects according to high prevalence in breeds such as Newfoundland dogs, German Boxer, Golden Retrievers, and Rottweiler to name just the ones mostly affected. Therefore, screening programs were introduced to reduce the high prevalence among the breeding dogs. Some breeders became aware that these breeding programs could help to reduce the incidence of affected animals and to breed healthy puppies. In Italy, such a breeding program helped to reduce the high incidence of AS among boxers [32]. In the case of AS, screening involves careful auscultation to detect cardiac murmur, which is a hallmark of AS. In cases where murmurs are found, 2-D and Doppler echocardiography is carried out, where the morphology of the left ventricular outflow tract with the ascending aorta, specific lesions characteristic for AS/SAS, and increased velocity of the aortic flow can be identified [39].
\nFor a screening program to be effective, a good mutual relationship between the veterinarians involved in screening and pertinent kennel clubs need to be established. Kennel club committees responsible for breeding need to suggest to breeders to screen their sires and dams before breeding or define the screening as a condition for breeding into their rulebook.
\nStenosis across the left ventricular outflow tract into aorta produces a pressure gradient between the left ventricle and aorta, and the gradient is inversely proportional to the degree of the stenotic orifice. The resistance to flow through the stenosis produces a rise of pressure in the left ventricle through the systole; increased wall stress results in concentric hypertrophy of the ventricle. The flow through the narrow passage is like when we squeeze the hose with water – the velocity (v) of the flow will increase proportionally to the narrowing. The relationship between the pressure and the flow is described by a simplified Bernoulli equation:
\nPressure gradient (PG) = 4v2.
\nThe velocity of the flow or the pressure gradient is used to assess the severity of the stenosis; higher the velocity or pressure gradient, the more severe is the stenosis. However, interpretation of PG must be careful in sedated and excited animals, where there is a change in the resistance and flow [2].
\nAdditionally, the left ventricular wall diameter and cross-sectional area of the aortic orifice are both proportional to the stenosis and can be used to assess the severity [40]. In the hypertrophied ventricle, diastolic filling can be impaired which can cause mild left atrial enlargement.
\nTurbulent and high velocity flow through the aortic orifice can damage the cusps, and aortic insufficiency can occur consequently. Damaged cusps can predispose to infective endocarditis, as well.
\nAnimals with aortic stenosis can develop heart failure, although this scenario rarely occurs. Myocardial failure could be the one of the reasons for heart failure to develop; however, other complications such as aortic or mitral insufficiency can lead to this kind of progression.
\nDogs or cats with aortic stenosis can die suddenly or experience syncopal episodes. The cause might be the reflex peripheral vasodilation on exertion and bradycardia; on the other hand, sudden hypoxia due to exertion or subendocardial fibrosis can predispose to fatal arrhythmias that can also lead to fatal fibrillation [2].
\nArterial pulse in patients with aortic stenosis can be reduced in amplitude and can have a delayed systolic peak [2].
\nTo make a diagnosis of AS, a thorough auscultation of heart sounds and murmurs should be carried out. Auscultation is the basic diagnostic technique to uncover AS and every clinically important AS will produce an audible murmur. It needs to be performed carefully in a quiet environment with a dog standing still to be able to hear low intensity murmurs. Although the murmur grade is found to correlate with the severity of AS, it is important to detect also low-grade murmurs to identify dogs with heart defects [41]. Early diagnosis of murmurs due to congenital heart defects may enable early intervention, which may substantially affect long-term outcomes [42]. Many healthy boxers tend to have a soft systolic low-grade murmur; in a study of 201 healthy Boxers, the prevalence of 1–3 grade murmurs was 56%. Boxers with murmurs had higher ejection velocities than boxers without murmurs [43] and young boxers may more commonly have functional murmurs that can also cause mild increase in ejection velocity due to the physiologic changes. It has been hypothesized that young animals have a larger stroke volume compared to the size of the great vessels than do older animals. This can result in an increase in flow velocity producing turbulence, either in the aorta or in the pulmonary artery, and a resultant innocent heart murmur. The increase in the velocity and associated turbulence is usually mild, so the heart murmur is soft (i.e., grade 1–3/6). The innocent heart murmur generally disappears before 4 to 6 months of age, when the great vessels enlarge in diameter with growth. A notable exception is the Boxer breed, where a smaller left ventricular outflow tract is associated with systolic murmurs in otherwise normal adults [44].
\nAortic or subaortic stenosis produces a typical crescendo-decrescendo mid-systolic to holosystolic murmur heard best over the left heart base or also on the right side of the thorax. Loud murmurs tend to radiate peripherally, some can be heard over the carotid artery or over the head. Severe cases of AS have usually harsh, mixed-frequency murmurs of high grade on the scale from 1 to 6 [41]. Murmur intensity significantly correlates with aortic ejection velocity [13, 41, 45]. Identification of low-intensity murmurs correlates with the level of experience. A stress test increased murmur duration and aortic flow velocity [46]. Assessment of the duration of murmur frequency >200 Hz can be used to distinguish physiologic heart murmurs from murmurs caused by mild AS in Boxers and can be used as a complementary method [47].
\nDogs with mild-to-moderate AS usually produce a normal electrocardiogram on the standard ECG recordings, whereas cases with severe AS may show signs of LV hypertrophy in leads II, III, aVF, V2, and V4. Hypertrophied ventricle can be hypoxic; therefore, depression of the ST segment and T wave changes suggest myocardial ischemia or secondary repolarization changes. We may observe ventricular premature complexes in severe cases as well [45]. In cases where AS is combined with other defects, for example, pulmonic stenosis or tricuspid dysplasia, a right axis deviation might occur, depending on the severity of additional lesions. In our study, in boxers with AS/SAS, arrhythmias were observed in 21% of dogs, such as ventricular premature contractions, left bundle branch block and supraventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, atrial premature contractions, sinus bradycardia, and ventricular preexcitation. Dogs with multiple arrhythmias have ussually also heart failure and/or have concurrent malformations [13]. Holter recordings are recommended in symptomatic dogs for detection of possible arrhythmias or S-T segment changes [2].
\nEchocardiography is the main noninvasive method for diagnosis of aortic stenosis. Two-dimensional mode is used to detect morphologic abnormalities associated with AS/SAS or supravalvular form. In severe cases, LV concentric hypertrophy, subendocardial hyperechogenicity, representing fibrosis (Figure 4), and a small subaortic cross-sectional area (Figure 5), is found with 2-D echocardiography. Left ventricular hypertrophy, demonstrated by M-mode, has a positive relationship with disease severity [40]. Subaortic fibrous hyperechogenic tissue protruding into the LVOT is seen in the right parasternal or left parasternal long-axis views (Figure 6 &
Two-dimensional echocardiographic image of a short axis of the left ventricle (LV), showing subendocardial fibrosis in the left ventricular free wall. MV—Mitral valve.
Two-dimensional echocardiographic image of a short axis at the base of the heart showing subvalvular (upper image) and valvular region (lower image) of the aorta (Ao). One can appreciate the small subvalvular circle compared to the bigger valvular circle. LA—Left atrium.
Subaortic fibrous hyperechogenic tissue protruding into the LVOT is seen in the right parasternal view in a young Newfoundland with severe subaortic stenosis. Ao—aorta, LV—left ventricle, and LA—left atrium.
A color-Doppler flow image of a Sphynx cat with fixed and dynamic subaortic stenosis and concentric hypertrophy of the left ventricle (LV) with concurrent mitral regurgitation (MR).
Continuous wave Doppler across the aortic orifice showing a high velocity jet (AS) of 4 m/s below the baseline, which gives a pressure gradient of 67 mmHg and an aortic insufficiency jet in diastole above the baseline(AI).
It is important to use low-frequency transducer for Doppler studies to ensure good penetration of tissues and adequate signal strength to obtain good flow recordings of maximal velocities. Diagnostic problem represents dogs with low intensity murmurs and subtle echocardiographic changes. No association was found between heart rate and aortic velocity [41].
\nAortic stenosis has been graded as “mild,” with pressure gradients (PG) either from 16 to 40 mmHg (corresponding to aortic velocities, (v), of 2.0–3.16 m/sec) or from 20 to 49 mmHg (corresponding to velocities of 2.25–3.5 m/sec, “moderate,” with PG either from 40 to 80 mmHg (v = 3.1.6–4.5 m/sec) or 50 to 80 mmHg (v = 3.5–4.5 m/sec), and “severe” with PG above 80 mmHg, corresponding to velocities over 4.5 m/sec [2, 15]. Pressure gradients derived by Doppler echocardiography showed good agreement with direct pressure measurements, especially for mean gradients [51].
\nThoracic radiographs may appear normal in dogs with AS/SAS; however, in severe cases, LV enlargement may be visible due to LVH and/or post-stenotic dilation of the aortic arch (Figures 9 and 10).
\nA dorsoventral thoracic radiograph of a 4-month-old Irish setter with severe aortic stenosis. A post-stenotic dilation of aortic arch is seen (arrow). Ao—aorta, RV—right ventricle, and LV—left ventricle.
A right lateral thoracic radiograph of the same dog as in Figure 9, showing a post-stenotic dilation of aortic arch (arrow). DV—right ventricle and LA—left atrium.
In cases where AS is combined with other defects, pertinent radiographic changes may be apparent. Congestive heart failure is rare in SAS, it might be observed in severe cases or with concurrent mitral regurgitation, aortic or mitral endocarditis [2].
\nAngiographic methods for further evaluation of aortic stenosis morphology are nowadays replaced with contrast computed tomography (CT) scans where needed in terms of interventional or surgical treatment plans. Cardiac CT angiography allows visualization of cardiac chambers and great vessels as well as coronary vessels through cardiac cycles retrospectively. Evaluation of the coronary arteries in the patient is commonly focused on determining if an aberrant vessel is present, which may relate to a pulmonic stenosis, which can be present concurrently with AS/SAS.
\nPrognosis of animals with aortic stenosis depends on the severity of the disease. Mild stenosis usually does not affect longevity; however, the possibility of aortic endocarditis exists, and antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended for dogs and cats with aortic stenosis [52].
\nBalloon valvuloplasty, although with an average 50% reduction in PG after ballooning, has not proved to be a long-term solution, because in most dogs restenosis occured [53]; however, in some cases, it may reduce clinical signs [54].
\nNo clear benefit in survival times was seen for dogs that underwent balloon valvuloplasty versus dogs that were treated with atenolol [55].
\nA new technique with a high-pressure ballooning or a cutting balloon might represent an opportunity for better outcome for dogs with AS/SAS, but to date we have no long-term results [56]. Moreover, aortoseptal angle >160° was associated with better long-term outcomes of treated dogs with cutting and high-pressure balloon [57, 58]. Authors and also others recommend saving patients with moderate and severe AS/SAS against strenuous exercise. Administration of beta-blockers can decrease heart rate, prolong diastole and coronary filling, thereby reducing myocardial hypoxia and protect against arrhythmia. Dogs do clinically well on beta-blockers; however, a study proved no benefit in terms of survival versus untreated dogs with severe SAS [59]. There is no literature on evaluation of other medical treatment.
\nSurgical options such as closed transventricular valvotomy or open-heart surgery can present an option for dogs with symptomatic or severe AS/SAS; however, also these techniques did not provide long-term benefits or prevent sudden death. Additionally, they are not widely available, and they are risky and costly [60, 61, 62, 63]. Hopefully, this might change in the future with the development of minimally invasive techniques and their availability in veterinary medicine.
\nComparison of mixed and pure-breed dog populations showed a tendency toward higher incidence of AS in pure-breed dog populations [64]. Among pure-breed dogs, the incidence of AS is increased in herding, working, sporting, mastiff-like, and retriever breeds. The fact that the higher incidence of AS is associated with the increase of inbreeding coefficient in the population supports the suggestion that AS has a genetic component. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Animals (OMIA) database also reports AS in dog as heritable disorder with unclear mode of inheritance [65].
\nGenetic background of AS has been studied in several dog breeds with the aim to decipher its mode of inheritance and causal mutation for it. In the Dogue de Bordeaux, association of AS with several physiological parameters as left-basilar ejection murmur, increased aortic ejection velocity, smaller aortic annulus and decreased aortoseptal angle was discovered and genetic predisposition for AS in Dogue de Bordeaux has been proposed [28]. Familial nature of subvalvular aortic stenosis (SAS) was discovered in Golden retrievers [66] based on pedigree data, where SAS has been observed in several subsequent generations. Although a bit controversial, the most complete data about the genetic base of AS are available for Newfoundland dogs. In the study performed by Reist-Marti [67], an extensive pedigree data set comprising more than 230,000 Newfoundland dogs from European and North American population reaching back to the 19th century has been investigated. Similar to the situation in Golden retrievers, the autosomal inheritance was proposed. In addition, statistically significant association between the inbreeding level and incidence of SAS was also found. However, the most precise information about the putative molecular background of AS in Newfoundland dogs was discovered by Stern et al. [68]. The authors propose that a three-nucleotide insertion in the genomic region, coding for phosphatidylinositol-binding clathrin assembly protein (PICalM) is associated with the appearance of AS. The pedigree evaluation, similarly as in Newfoundland dogs, supported an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance. The authors demonstrated the presence of PICalM in the canine myocardium and in the area of the subvalvular ridge immunohistochemically, which is supporting the assumption that PICaIM has a role in development of AS.
\nIn Boxers, AS seems to have a genetic background too; however, the causal locus (loci) has not been identified yet. The higher risk for AS in Boxers might be associated with some breed-specific conformational traits, like small aortic annulus and steep aortoseptal angle [69]. The incomplete penetrance of modifier genes together with autosomal dominant mode of inheritance may be the expected genetic base for AS in Boxers [32].
\nDue to the rapid development of genome analysis in all species, several novel approaches are available also in dog genetics. From the genetic point of view, dog breeds represent a very special taxonomic group, characterized by extremely long regions of linkage disequilibrium (LD) compared to other species. This enables a very effective identification of causal genomic regions associated with monogenic genetic disorders using relatively small groups of animals in case versus control format of studies. The most frequently used strategy in this context is genome-wide association studies (GWAS), which can precisely map location of candidate genes in the genome. The candidate gene regions are then further screened for polymorphic sites using the targeted sequencing strategy in order to find causal mutation for genetic disorder (Figure 11). However, complex traits, where a larger number of loci are involved in phenotype shaping, represent a much more difficult task and normally require a larger number of individuals for genetic studies.
\nSummary of development and application of genetic markers for diagnosis of hereditary diseases.
The number of registered inherited disorders in dogs is permanently growing (over 400 disorders), and in many dog breeds, the point is reached where for the successful breeding against spreading genetic disorders within the breed requires new strategies in combination with currently available breeding schemes. The widespread use of a popular sire caused the overrepresentation of genomes of a low number of sires in many breeds. As a consequence, the effective population size reduced drastically and the risk for rapid dissemination of monogenic disorders within the population increased significantly. The accessibility of reliable genetic tests for detection of carriers of recessive disease-associated alleles represents an important tool for reduction or even elimination of genetic disorders from purebreed populations. Increasing the number of breeding animals (especially males), controlled introgression of genetic material into closed pure-breed populations, and application of advanced breeding strategies are measures, which will help the breeders to keep genetic pools of different dog breeds healthy.
\nAortic/subaortic stenosis has a guarded prognosis if moderate to severe; however, efforts have been made in several aspects to fight the disease. First, screening programs have lowered the incidence of the disease (Bussadori 2006, personal unpublished data), and secondly, interventional methods have advanced and might give better prognosis for severely affected dogs; on the other hand, there is still room for surgical methods to take place in veterinary medicine and be more readily available. The genetic background for aortic stenosis is not completely known; however, several mutations, associated with the disease in different breeds, allow development of strategies for genetic screening which would reduce the risk for the disease in pure-breed dogs.
\nThe authors acknowledge the financial support of the Slovenian Research Agency (research programs P4-0053 and P4-0092).
\nThe authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
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\\n\\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\\n\\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\\n\\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\\n\\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\\n\\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\\n\\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\\n\\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\\n\\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\n\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\n\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\n\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\n\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\n\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\n\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
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