\r\n\tThis book aims to cover following topics: i) the effects of long-term environmental change past events on turtle diversification and their evolutionary responses to climate change, ii) responses (developmental, physiological and behavioural) of extant species to environmental stressors, iii) impacts of changing environmental conditions on life history traits (growth patterns, sexual maturation, reproduction, longevity), iv) thermal environment change, biogeographic distribution and ecological niche modeling, v) environmental variation, population and community dynamics, and population level-response modeling, and vi) impacts of future global environmental change (climate change, alongside habitat destruction and fragmentation and overexploitation,) on population future trend and viability and their implications for informing adaptive conservation management strategies.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec7c5f39f89066d7d788873d669bf740",bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammed Znari and Dr. Mohamed Naimi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8155.jpg",keywords:"Climate-mediated species diversification, turtle fossil record, evolutionary adaptation, Environmental stressors, growth, sexual maturation and reproduction, fluctuating asymmetry, homeostatic adaptations, ecological niche modelling , population and community dynamic, conservation strategies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 6th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"223073",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Znari",slug:"mohammed-znari",fullName:"Mohammed Znari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223073/images/system/223073.jpg",biography:"Mohammed Znari, has PhDs in Ecology (from Pierre & Marie Curie University, Paris, France, 1988 and Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco, 1999). He is a full Professor of ecology and conservation biology at the Faculty of Science – Semlalia, Marrakech. His research interests are morphometrics, systematics and molecular phylogeography, physiological ecology, ecology and life history along with conservation ecology in various taxa including turtles, steppe-land birds and mammals. He has been involved in several international projects and obtained several international fellowships and research-conservation grants. He is also the curator of vertebrate zoology at the Natural History Museum of Marrakech. He was a member of the International Committee of the World Congress of Herpetology and he is currently a vice-President of the Moroccan Herpetological Society. 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He is a member of the Polyvalent Laboratory for Research and Development (LPVRD) at SMSU and associate member of the Biodiversity and Ecosystems Dynamics Laboratory and the Natural History Museum of Marrakech –UCA-. His research interests are trophic ecology, developmental and reproductive biology, morphometry and physiological ecology (on various taxa, including aquatic animals, herpetofauna and terrestrial mammals). He has participated in several international projects and received different scholarships. He has produced several papers in peer-reviewed journals and communications in international scientific meetings. 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1. Introduction
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Throughout evolution each species has been armed with certain defence mechanisms to help the organisms cope with internal or external threats. These defence mechanisms are highly individual from one species to another.
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The term anxiety can also be used to describe normal reactions to danger, which can then be differentiated from fear because anxiety is much weaker and lasts longer than fear; however, anxiety can also be a pathological state of mind, because constant fear of unknown, undefined or unreal comes from inside the person.
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Fear is the best activator of stress response because it has a vast array of peripheral and neuroendocrine changes which help us survive. Fear also impacts the brain, altering the way emotional and cognitive systems process information [1]. Even though all these mechanisms help us when needed, they are a later threat because of chronic activation which when triggered can cause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and even some physical symptoms [2].
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Fear is an emotion which has a central role in evolution and natural selection. It is also one of few emotions which we share even with lower mammals. Because of this connection, it is easy to research fear and its effect on animals and compare the result with human behaviour.
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Psychoanalysis provided a highly influential theory for the development of anxiety also showing the way anxiety was maintained. Psychodynamic notions of anxiety have since lost favour to the more parsimonious and empirically grounded behavioural theories. These theories have a strong ground in treatment of anxiety. On the other hand, the main problem of behavioural theories is that they cannot be applied to explain all cases of anxiety.
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Every person throughout their lifespan has experienced the feeling of anxiety. Fear and anxiety have become such strong synonyms that people are having a hard time differentiating between the two. According to Freud, anxiety is the fear of unknown, when a person cannot describe what they are afraid of. When a person is able to describe exactly what they are afraid of, the term fear is used.
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Emotions affect our behaviour; every day we experience a lot of emotions most of which do not have a great effect on our behaviour. But when the intensity of emotions shifts up, they can have a huge impact on our behaviour [3].
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The primary emotions are anger, fear, pleasure, sadness and disgust [4]. Emotions help us find balance in our surrounding, and they also help with adapting our behaviour to the situation we are faced with. They can be divided into two groups: positive and negative. Negative emotions express an attempt or intention to exclude. Strengthening one\'s own position at the expense of others. Keeping bad stuff away, destroying what is perceived as a threat. Negative emotions are fueled by an underlying fear of the unknown, a fear of the actions of others, and a need to control them or stop them to avoid being harmed.
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Positive emotions express an attempt or an intention to include. Taking the whole into consideration. Working on learning more viewpoints, interacting more with others, enjoying making things better. Positive emotions are fueled by an underlying desire for enjoyment and unity.
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Anxiety is a sign of life and experience, and it does not always have to be a part of an illness. Anxiety is a psychological, physiological and behavioural state induced in animals and humans by a threat to well-being or survival, either actual or potential. In biology, the term anxiety is associated with awareness and stimuli of the conscious on danger. When a living organism faces danger, it reacts in only two ways: fight and flight. When a human faces danger, the first sign is anxiety. Anxiety can stimulate a human being to fight, retreat, exhibit hyperactivity and awareness. If anxiety activates awareness and readiness, then the person can overcome all the difficulties that they are faced with, in order to achieve their aim. This type of anxiety is called normal, and we benefit from normal anxiety. It helps us become aware and ready for all the problems we have to deal with, and it also awakes a sense of satisfaction and joy when the task is complete [5].
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To understand anxiety on the biological level, it is necessary to be familiar with the physiology and anatomy of the brain and neurotransmitters. Pharmacological research shows us that in anxiety there is hyperactivity of the noradrenergic nuclei, locus coeruleus and noradrenergic pathways. Also it was noticed that lower levels of serotonin and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GABA) neurons cause anxiety disorders. Technical breakthroughs help us pinpoint certain regions and structures of the central nervous system which are responsible for conditioning and integrating the felling of fear and producing an adequate response. These neuroscientific insights are based on the Pavlovian (classical) conditioning. Modern neuroimaging techniques have located Papez circuit, limbic system and the complex of amygdala nuclei, which is the primary structure responsible for the processes of learning and fear conditioning [6].
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2. Psychodynamic aspects of anxiety
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Glen Gabbard provides a modern understanding of the psychodynamic aspects of anxiety disorder [7]. One can only admire the insights he derives from Freud’s seminal work on the subject, Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety [8]. Many of Freud’s ideas are now being proven correct by neuroscientists. It has been proven that there is a memory system for anxiety responses in the amygdala that processes stimuli without any reference to conscious memory. Gabbard points out that panic attacks may not just happen without any reason but are more likely to happen because of stress memory activation which is specific to each patient. He also discusses panic disorders which find cause in childhood. These can be compared to scientific finding on animals which were separated in early life from their parents showing later in life as an anxiety prone adult animal [7].
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The creator of the psychoanalytic paradigm is Sigmund Freud. The psychoanalytic model, which is based on Freud’s works and later expanded by his followers and other psychoanalysts of the modern times, now includes the ideas of all those who reviewed and tried to change his mind. The model is based on the assumption that human behaviour is determined by intrapsychical impulses, desires, motives and conflicts.
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For Freud, there are three stages in the development of the concept of anxiety. The first period (works between 1893 and 1895) is in connection with the neurosis of fear and its relationship with sex life [9]. In the second period (between 1909 and 1917), Freud elaborated the relationship between anxiety and repressed libido [10–13], and in the third period (between 1926 and 1932), he discusses the relationship of anxiety with the mental apparatus [8, 14, 15].
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In his major work, “Inhibition, symptom and anxiety”, Freud gave his final views on the theory of anxiety [8].
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The alarm signal is a form of anxiety that occurs at provoking some old situations of danger and is a manifestation of the ego, which is used in order to start defensive measures against drives coming from the id or its representations. Defence mechanisms of the ego, no matter how much unskilled they are, condition the symbolic activity of a similar opinion.
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Freud elaborated the relationship between anxiety, pain and grief for the object. Pain is a personal reaction to the loss of an object, while anxiety is a reaction to the danger that implies that loss and, through shifting, a reaction to the threat of the loss. The loss of the object causes the pain to penetrate insurmountable amount of excitation to the ego, which is experiencing anxiety because of fear of helplessness. In order to prevent this occurrence of pain and fear of helplessness, anxiety signal precedes the disaster and warns ego to employ defensive measures that will be able to cope with danger [14].
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To sum up, this theory is based on the concept of danger and “dangerous situations” and is based on two main pillars: (1) anxiety occurs as a response signal for the purpose of preparing a person to a dangerous situation and (2) the ego is the centre of anxiety and sometimes can even be the cause, whether it is repeated anxiety for their own account (eroticized anxiety) or as a signal of impending danger instinctively. Functional anxiety is determined by two aspects:
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historical aspect, since the anxiety as a signal represents a repetition of infantile anxiety experiences, which it plays, creating at the same time some protection from the return of the repressed;
symbolic aspect, since it is a function of anxiety at the same time and symbolic because it represents in itself symbolically a dangerous situation.
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As a universal reaction of the human being, anxiety frequently occurs as a situational conditioned disorder, and only further observation usually allows us to distinguish normal, neurotic and psychotic anxiety.
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2.1. Object relations theory
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Beside Freud’s theory, in the later development of psychoanalysis, a second significant theory arises—object relations theory. Without this theory, we would not be able to explain the necessity to communicate with other individuals [16–18].
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Object relations theory stresses the importance of the earliest interactions with other people from our surrounding as a building stone in the construction of the id, ego and superego. More specifically, from birth onwards, our relations with others are highly influenced by strong emotions which form specific memories and integrate us in the society by our behaviour. Positive experience helps us form ourselves as mature individuals, and the same goes for negative experience. Each experience is individually processed and stored in our memory [19].
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Simply put, we can say that we are born with a certain capacity of perception, memory and establishing a representation of our perception and to gradually develop symbolic thought, or the capacity of abstract thinking and intelligence. Let us imagine that the ego is a computer that absorbs, stores and integrates information and learns how to sort and classify the specific pattern of priorities. It also has to distinguish the important from the unimportant, good from bad. Gradually, we learn and differentiate what is inside from what is outside, and so, overtime, our inner world is built. The largest part of it remains in the unconscious memory, or preconscious area (reservoir of information that we do not use all the time, but can access), while only a small part goes into the realm of conscious. The rest is stored in an even deeper level, the dynamic unconscious or id [20].
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3. Biological aspects of anxiety
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Neurochemistry is the only way to understand and cure anxiety disorders. Pharmacological treatment is based on neurochemistry. Neurons communicate with each other with neurotransmitters; at least three neurotransmitters can be associated with anxiety. In recent studies, there is a sign that certain large neurotransmitters also play a role in anxiety and they are called neuropeptides. This neuropeptides are not only used in communication between neurons, but can also regulate them and cause hormonal misbalance. This is because of their chemical structure which biologically has a strong effect on the human body. Research on neuropeptides is still at its beginnings, so it will not be mentioned any more through this chapter because there is no clinical finding which can be used to help us. For now, we will base ourselves on gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GABA). When this neurotransmitters balance is disrupted in the body, we can note a relationship with anxiety. Benzodiazepines, drugs that exert their effect through GABA receptors, are used to help people suffering from acute anxiety [21].
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Serotonin is greatly important in anxiety. It is a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in controlling a wide range of behaviours by affecting the neural system. These behaviours include emotions which are connected with fear and anxiety. All serotonin neurons emerge from the raphe nuclei. The raphe nuclei have a part called median raphe which acts as a connection with the septo hippocampal system as well as the cortex. Because of these connections, it has an important role in emotional cognition [22].
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Studies on animals have successfully proved the connection between different neurotransmitters and anxiety. These types of studies are called knockout studies, because a certain receptor in the animal genetic code is knocked out. Animals which have had their serotonin re-uptake transporters knocked out show in case studies abnormal response to fear and anxiety in a number of behavioural conflict tests. This confirms the role of this receptor in modulating anxiety [23].
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On the other hand, animals which had their serotonin receptor knocked out showed an increased heart rate and anxiety in a large variety of tasks such as eating and locomotion. Foot shock on animals with the serotonin receptor removed showed longer freezing and increased tachycardia.
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Together these data show the importance of serotonin in modulating the levels of fear and anxiety in our brain.
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As stated above, the median raphe nuclei (MRN) provide the necessary input to the neural circuits within the brain causing fear and anxiety modulation. MRN lesion showed us that short-term fear is independent from MRN, while long-term fear depends on MRN [24].
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In human research, it was found that people with short serotonin transport acquired faster fear than people with longer serotonin transport. All these findings are consistent with the findings in animal models.
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However, the best proof of the function of the serotonergic system in fear and anxiety is the pharmacological evidence. Drugs that change the function of serotonin have beneficial effects on various forms of anxiety. The best pharmacological treatment of anxiety is serotonin re-uptake inhibitors which allow greater levels of serotonin to accumulate and in that way help in treatment of anxiety [22].
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Noradrenalin is also an important neurotransmitter in anxiety. Neurons which carry noradrenalin rise from the locus coereuleus (LC), and these are also a centre associated with warnings or alarms. The LC secretes directly into the brain causing immediate response. Increased levels of noradrenalin cause higher levels of anxiety. In pharmacology, noradrenalin blockers lower the levels of noradrenalin and do the same to a patient as do serotonin re-uptake blockers. Among adults, agents that alter noradrenergic functioning are powerful anxiolytics. Similarly, agents, such as yohimbine, that increase firing of the locus coeruleus are potent anxiogenic compounds [25].
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3.1. The visceral brain
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At the beginning of the twentieth-century, scientists have identified the hypothalamus as a key structure in the control of the autonomic nervous system [26]. Based on these assumptions, there was a so-called hypothalamic theory of emotion, which contained three main strands: first—the hypothalamus in a way valued events in our environment; second—the expression of emotional response is proportional to the outbreak of the pulses from the hypothalamus in the brain stem; and the third—hypothalamic projections into the cortex allow conscious perception of emotion [27, 28]. American neurologist James Papez in 1937 proposed that the circuit connecting the hypothalamus to the limbic lobe was the basis for emotional experiences. Papez circuit (or medial limbic circuit) is a neural circuit for the control of emotional expression [29]. Papez theory was later reconceptualized and expanded by an American neuroscientist Paul D. MacLean [30]; MacLean redefined the circuit as the “visceral brain”, which consisted of the limbic lobe and its major connections in the forebrain—hypothalamus, amygdala and septum. Overtime, the concept of a forebrain circuit for the control of emotional expression has been modified to include the prefrontal cortex. The amygdale, complex nuclei (central, medial and cortical basolateral, which is still divided on the lateral, basal and accessory basal nucleus) located in the medial temporal lobe was also part of MacLean’s theory of the limbic system, but not of any importance, until the 1956 publication by the British psychologist Lawrence Weiskrantz. In this work, he tried to explain the causes of clinical manifestations of the Kluver-Bucy syndrome (a set of behavioural disorders due to the bilateral damage to the temporal lobes usually after temporal lobotomy).
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Weiskrantz suggested that the main cause of such a clinical picture is just the damaged or removed amygdala. For years after its publication, numerous studies have focused on the amygdale function and its relationship with other parts of the central nervous system; however, greater progress in understanding the role of the functions of the amygdala and its link with emotions, including fear, has been in the 70s and 80s, when the scientists returned Pavlov method of classical conditioning [31].
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3.2. The amygdala in fear conditioning process
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Evolutionary man has developed a number of coping mechanisms, some of which are based on the ability to anticipate and avoid dangerous, potentially life-threatening situations. Neural circuits involved in the processes of memory and processing emotions play a key role in these mechanisms; each new stimulus is incorporated and based on the nature of that stimulus and appropriate behavioural, psychological and somatic reaction that, in addition to character, must match the intensity of the resulting stimulus. The scientists used this knowledge in research of pathways related to emotions, while the main tool used was the simple method of classical conditioning, similar to that used by Pavlov in his experiments. In it he explored the mechanisms by which animals predict a dangerous or a pleasant event. In these studies, emotionally related stimulus (unconditioned stimulus), which was the unpleasant, threatening, associated with fear, or rewarding, and reward-related event, preceded by an emotionally neutral (s conditioning) stimulus, mainly sound or light pulse [32–35].
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After a period of learning (conditioning), animals are using these conditioned stimuli to predict the magnitude and time of occurrence of the desired or undesired events. In further analyses of conditioned fear, the researchers were able to map the entire neural path from the input of sensory stimuli to output behavioural responses [36–38]. Studies have shown that just amygdala, a complex structure of the temporal lobes, plays a key role in the coordination of behavioural and psychosomatic reactions associated with fear [37–42]. When sound (neutral stimulus) arrives to organ of Corti to signal danger, impulse to the amygdala comes from two ways. The first is through the thalamus, through nucleus corpora geniculate medial, responsible for fast processing of sound information that allows quick preparation of the body to potentially dangerous and threatening event before sound region of the cerebral cortex of the temporal lobe processes the audio information and discern whether it is a real danger or “false alarm” [40]. The second path, which leads from the sound region temporal cortex to the amygdala, is slower, but also more complex because it integrates functions of the higher centres of the central nervous system. Electrophysiological studies have shown that conditioned stimuli that preceded those unfavourable fear conditioning, then the fear associated, strengthens synaptic connections between the auditory thalamus and lateral nuclei of the amygdala. The stimulus is passed into the central amygdala nuclei that project axons to different regions of the hypothalamus, activating the sympathetic system and inducing the secretion of stress hormones such as CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone). The secretion of CRH in the periventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus results in an increased secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in adenohypophysis and consequently increases the secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex, by which the body leads to a catabolic state. The central nucleus of the amygdala plays an important role in emotional behavior. Nociceptive inputs through the spino-parabrachio-amygdala pathway probably contribute to pain-induced changes in affective behavior, and the projections of the amygdala to the PAG-RVM (rostroventromedial medulla) circuitry may be involved in mediating the influence of emotions on pain. Stressful situations like physical exercise, exposure to extreme temperatures, fight, fear and pain may induce a decrease in pain sensitivity. However, if these mechanisms are deregulated, it creates a strong etiological factor backing the development of anxiety disorders [43].
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4. Case study: example of connection psychodynamic and neuroscientific approach to treatment of anxiety
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In recent years, there are numerous mental disorders as the consequences of extreme stress; they are the official classifications of anxiety and PTSD. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) develops in some people after exposure to an extreme stress or traumatic event. It is characterized by three distinct types of symptoms consisting of re-experiencing of the event, avoidance of reminders of the event and hyper arousal, which continue for a substantial period of time. These symptoms indicate dysfunction in acquisition and extinction of fear conditioning, and the hippocampus has been the most consistently implicated brain region.
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Our clinical experience has shown that hyper arousal symptoms and especially those associated with impulsive aggressiveness, such as hyperirritability, hyper excitability, hypersensitivity, aggressive acting outs, outbursts of anger, present one of the dominant disturbances for chronic PTSD patients. This kind of symptoms can be understood in the perspective of loss of the affective modulation, which can explain the PTSD patients’ lack of capacity to use effect states as cues to attend to incoming information. The elevated—arousal—state is likely to precipitate flight-or-fight reactions in these patients, so they often go immediately from stimulus to response without psychologically assessing the meaning of the event. This makes them prone to freeze or, alternatively, to overreact in response to minor provocations [44].
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The aim of our study was to assess possible changes in brain activation in PTSD patients after 2 years of intensive psychotherapy in form of closed-door group analysis in a heterogeneous group specially designed in our clinic for treatment of PTSD patients.
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4.1. Method and participants
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Participants in our study were selected from all PTSD patients treated at the Clinic for Psychological Medicine, University of Zagreb Medical School, in the period from April to July 2001. We selected 25 participants from the total of 82 patients treated in the day hospital unit at the clinic over the period. All the participants in the study, as the most of our patients, were Croatian war (1991–1995) veterans who actively participated in the combat and were exposed to multiple traumatic experiences such as witnessing the death of the fellow soldiers and sudden air-rides or artillery attacks. The patients who experienced other kinds of traumatic experiences such as prisoners of war and concentration camp detainees were not included in this study (because they have difficult symptoms, and they need psychopharmacological therapy, and other reason was ethical because we do not want to retraumatize these vulnerable patients). They all signed informed consent to participate in the study.
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The group evaluation was performed over 2-week group psychotherapy, as described above, encompassing four group sessions and consisted of monitoring of patients’ symptom manifestation. The same co-therapist couple performed the selection for all the participants in the study. Individual evaluation was organized in the form of Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-CV) [45]. The interview was held during the first week of patients’ treatment at the Clinic and was conducted by the same therapist for all the participants. All therapists conducting the selection were clinicians with at last 3 years of experience in working with psych traumatized patients. Group therapists were not informed of the evaluation performed by the individual therapist, conversely.
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All patients selected for the investigation had chronic, combat-related PTSD with severe hyper arousal symptoms, impulsive aggressiveness and no other Axis-I and/or Axis-II diagnosis in accordance with DSM-IV criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) [46]. Severity of hyper arousal symptoms was assessed on the basis of anamnesis and heteroanamnesis and also on the basis of symptoms they manifested in group therapy and individual psychiatric interview. Only the patients who continuously over the two-week observation presented all hyper arousal symptoms as defined in DSM-IV, and impulsive aggressiveness symptoms were selected for the study. Impulsive aggressiveness symptoms were defined as: hyperirritability, aggressive acting outs and outbursts of anger. Only patients who manifested these symptoms in both individual interviews and all four group sessions over the observation period, and who had positive anamnesis and heteroanamnesis for hyper arousal symptoms in the month preceding the hospitalization, were included in the study. This selection design had to be implemented because no psychometric instrument for assessing hyper arousal and/or impulsive aggressiveness symptoms as such, qualitatively or preferably quantitatively, was available in Croatia.
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The patients selected for the study received no other than benzodiazepine pharmacotherapy for at least 6 months preceding the study. Also, 4 weeks before the study entry the patients received no psychotropic medication at all. After the psychiatric evaluation, neurological examination was conducted for all participants to exclude those with possible neurological comorbid conditions, head trauma or loss of consciousness in the year preceding the study.
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All patients included in the study were male, right-handed, of similar age (mean = 42 years, SD = 2) and had no history of alcohol or drug abuse or dependence.
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Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) using Tc99-ECD functional brain imaging was organized in the week after the two-week observation period immediately after the first group session in that week to establish possible alterations in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). The procedure was organized in the following way: patients who manifested at least one and no more than three aggressive acting outs during the pre-SPECT session were asked to remember the specific situation in the group that provoked the last aggressive acting out. The ultimate of no more than three aggressive acting outs during the designated session was a preset criteria to enable remembering of the specific situation that provoked the last acting out, but was not used because none of our subjects actually manifested more than three aggressive acting outs during the pre-SPECT session. The subjects were asked to try to remember the exact situation in the group that provoked their aggressive acting out and to describe it, and they were included in the further procedure. Once again, all of our subjects fulfilled these criteria and all declared very distressed when remembering the situation. Following this, subjects were introduced into SPECT procedure, and the scans were obtained in 50–60 min after the end of the session. Once again, immediately before the SPECT brain scan was made, each subject was asked to remember the situation that provoked his last aggressive acting out in the pre-SPECT session.
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SPECT scans were started 20 min after the administration of 740 MBq of 99mTc-ECD in resting state (“white noise” environment, without any auditory or visual combat stimuli provocation). Measurements were made with IRIX triple-headed rotating scintillation gamma camera fitted with high-resolution collimators, using a 360° circular orbit and step and shoot mode (20-s image each 3°), so that the acquisition lasted 40 min. Within-subject correlated slices were obtained.
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Following regions of interest (ROI) were considered: temporal, frontal, orbitofrontal and occipital cortices, cingulate gyrus, amygdala, thalamus, basal ganglia (caudate, putamen, ventral basal ganglia) and cerebellum. The irregular ROIs were outlined in the right hemisphere and mirrored in the left. The same investigator, blinded for all clinical data, placed ROIs. For each ROI, mean counts per pixel in two consecutive slices were averaged to minimalize partial volume effects. In each patient, studies were normalized to the mean whole-brain uptake, so relative hypo/hyper perfusion was established for each ROI. The percentage of asymmetry between two homologous regions was calculated as 200× (right-left/right-left), where right and left indicate mean average counts per pixel in the ROIs of the respective hemisphere. The negative values indicate thus lower perfusion in the right hemisphere. Percentages of interhemispheric asymmetry between homologous brain regions were used to identify abnormalities.
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4.2. Therapy
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Patients were subdued to a group psychotherapy used in the form of closed-door group analysis with once a week 90-min session rate, focusing on patients’ interpersonal and social relations and communication, specially designed in our clinic for treatment of PTSD patients. The group consisted of 10 members: six men (Croatian war veterans) and four women (partners of the war veterans, who were not related to the men in the group). During the psychotherapy period, the patients consumed no pharmacotherapy, except anxiolytic (benzodiazepine) therapy over the first 3 weeks of the therapy in order to alleviate acute symptoms and enable the psychotherapeutic process.
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People whose reactions to early traumas have become integrated into the totality of their personalities are apt to repeat aspects of the trauma and defensive reactions to it in their relationships with other people. In heterogeneous group, transference-oriented trauma groups, the social expressions of those trauma-related affects and cognitive schemata are inevitably expressed on a social level and became readily observable.
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Long-term heterogeneous groups can be particularly helpful to people with previous individual therapy, where they had an opportunity to develop a language in which they can identify their feelings and a basic curiosity about how they may contribute to their problems in interpersonal relationships themselves. Patients “fitting” for the group analysis should have the ability to observe their own problems, the ability to react emotionally as well as a certain capacity to save somebody else’s emotions and the capacity for insight [47].
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The therapeutic environment should be created in that way to enable individuals who are similar in some way to understand and feel with others, but in the same time different enough so they could watch and help other group members from different perspectives and positions. The best group composition is if the members are similar in terms of ego development and different in terms of interpersonal style. Groups that focus on the relationships between the members allow new losses to be experienced, as object loses with concomitant grief and sadness, rather than with narcissistic injuries accompanied by feelings of helplessness, numbing and vengeful rage. As heterogeneous trauma groups mature, they gradually make that transition. When that happens, the group members start getting the full benefit of the strengths that traumatized persons have developed to survive catastrophic trauma.
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4.3. Results
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Based on the studies of normal subjects, it is well documented that the normal cerebral blood distribution is bilaterally symmetric, with percentages of interhemispheric asymmetry never exceeding 12% for any brain region [48, 49]. In our study, SPECT brain scans at the beginning of the psychotherapeutic treatment, with two-week period between, showed unilateral (dominant brain hemisphere) 20% or more increase in the regional blood flow (rCBF) in the projection area of ventral basal ganglia (VBG).
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After 2 years of group psychotherapy, PTSD patient’s symptoms diminished, and they regained adequate impulse control. Control SPECT scans, of the same group of subjects, were performed in two separate occasions with 3-week period in-between. No differences from normal pattern were found. Because of that reason, we do not need control group, because subjects acted as their own control (before and after group psychotherapy).
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5. Conclusion: the integration knowledge of psychodynamics and biological aspects in treatment of anxiety disorder
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In our study, we found unilaterally increased perfusion in the projection area of ventral basal ganglia (VBG) in the dominant brain hemisphere, in our PTSD subjects with severe hyper arousal symptoms and impulsive aggressiveness, and after 2 year of group psychotherapy, our patients show no differences from normal pattern. Possible conclusion is that SPECT findings are associated with the symptoms of PTSD. They receded together with the clinical manifestation of symptoms, so it could be used as neurobiological indicator in order to make psychotherapeutic intervention focused on symptoms and clinical remission yet neurobiologically verified, as in our study.
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Trauma is biochemically encoded into the brain in a variety of ways, including changes in the availability and effects of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
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Neuroanatomical encoding occurs through changes in structures like the hippocampus, through coordination and integration of neural network functioning. The hyper arousal symptoms and persistent re-experiencing of the traumatic event suggest abnormalities in emotion and memory regulation implicating thus limbic brain regions as possibly associated with the disorder.
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As scanning techniques become more precise and the hardware more affordable, they will without doubt become incorporated into treatment of PTSD and other disorders. As a part of initial assessment, they could help therapists pinpoint areas of neural activation and inhibition.
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Treatment planning will come to include specific psychotherapeutic and pharmacological intervention to enhance growth and integration of affected networks.
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Regular scans during the course of therapy may someday replace psychological tests as ways of fine-tuning the therapeutic process and measuring treatment success. The psychiatrist must be thought to think about the whole person first, to appreciate that each one is interesting and unique, not simply a composite of symptoms that are used to make an ICD or DSM diagnosis and provide treatment according to a standard algorithm.
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It is possible to conclude that SPECT findings are associated with the symptoms of PTSD.
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They receded together with the clinical manifestation of symptoms, so it could be used as neurobiological indicator in order to make psychotherapeutical intervention focused on symptoms and clinical remission yet neurobiologically verified, like as in Seedat study [50]. Functional brain imaging has opened a window to the living human brain in the acts of motor tasks, experiencing symptoms, imagining a feared situation or telling a lie.
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An examination of areas activated during different tasks has enhanced our understanding of which neural networks participate in various functions [51].
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Recent neurobiological research has confirmed Freud’s original observation that there are essentially two forms of anxiety: one largely determined by psychological issues and another driven by autonomous biological factors outside the realm of psychological content. Research of locus coeruleus has been productive in defining the biological dimensions of anxiety. Whereas Freud viewed the ego as the psychological seat of anxiety, modern neurobiological researchers have identified the locus coruleous as the biological seat of anxiety. Neural pathways enter this nucleolus from every level of the central nervous system, and efferent pathways lead to all the major psychological systems involved in anxiety.
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The existence of a neural mechanism for anxiety does not, however, preclude the usefulness of psychotherapeutic techniques. Effective psychotherapy most likely results in long-term structural and functional changes in the brain that are related to changes in the expression of genes.
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Contemporary approaches to the treatment of mental disorders are not distinguished from older ones by emphasis on drugs as by an emphasis of effective treatment. Psychotherapy is fundamentally a learning process for its patients and as such is a way to rewire the brain. In this sense, psychotherapy ultimately uses biological mechanisms to treat mental illness. This does not mean, however, that psychotherapy involves learning, while drug therapy involves something else, like correction of genetically dictated chemical imbalance. Even if chemical imbalance was to account for mental disorders, the imbalance could result purely from environmental factors, like some intensely stressful experience, or from environmental events that trigger and amplify a genetic predisposition. The therapist’s job, whether using drugs or not, is to restore mental well-being [52].
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At the centre of psychotherapy is an understanding of mutual interweaving of nature and education, successful and unsuccessful development and its impact on the healthy functioning. When psychotherapy results in a reduction in severity of symptoms, the brain is, in some ways, changed [52].
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Fundamental premise was “that any form of psychotherapy is successful to the degree to which it enhances positive experiential change and underlying neural networks, growth and integration”. All forms of psychotherapy are successful to the extent they enhance change in the relevant neural circuits. The brain is an organ of adaptation and built by experience during development and rebuilt during psychotherapy. At the neural level, integration and communication of neurons are associated with feelings, cognition and behaviour. On the psychological level, integration is marked with the ability to experience important life situation to be dismissed with the inclusion of minimum defence.
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From the perspective of neuroscience, psychotherapy can be understood as a special form of enriched environment created to facilitate the growth of neurons and the integration of neural connections. The therapeutic environment is, in fact, an environment tailored individually, according to the symptoms and the patient’s needs [52].
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Historically speaking, before the Freud’s treatment of psychiatric disease was the area of neurology. Even Freud, who was a neurologist, believed that most psychiatric disorders have an organic substrate and anticipated application medication. Freud wrote in 1914: “We must be aware of the fact that our provisional ideas in psychology probably one day be based on organic substructures”. In the article, “The draft of psychoanalysis” Freud says: “Maybe in the future we learn to direct, through chemical substances, influence the quantity of energy and its distribution in the mental apparatus” [53].
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In the years that followed, the more emphasized the difference in the two approaches became, but its peak is experienced in the 50s when the current psychodynamic psychiatry equated with intellectual and better educated grouping of pharmacologically oriented psychiatrists. Neuroleptics and antidepressants, which were discovered in the late fifties, have not been as effective in the treatment, but research has increasingly intensified, and the drugs have become more efficient, which resulted in the DSM-III-R classification of diseases that did not include psychodynamic knowledge in diagnosis mental illnesses [54].
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Our neural web is determined by two types of effects: first one is genetics: this part is individual from person to person; and the second one is external factors: it includes the environment which moulds our genetics. This process of moulding genetics is to actually activate or inactivate certain genes that are not used causing parts of the neural network to stop working due to the inactivation. Moulding is dependent on multiple life style factors, like diet and exercise [54].
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Synaptic connections and communications do not go away. Psychotherapy works in such a way that it uses the brains plasticity to cause forming of new synaptic connections which will be stronger than the earlier ones and in cause be used more. Psychotherapy can also inhibit the usage of undesired synaptic connections. Of course, for Stahl, this is ideally achieved through the synergy with drugs and psychotherapy. He also states that medication can help the facilitation process and enhance the health situation [55].
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All this research of learning and the way we memorize does not just help us understand psychotherapy, but it also gives us a new perspective of anxiety disorders involving the inability to control fear, obsessions, compulsions and delusions. To end this paper, it should be stated that the greatest leap forward would be a better collaboration between neurobiologists and psychotherapists in trying to find links between neurobiology and psychotherapeutic processes [56].
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\n\n',keywords:"anxiety, aetiology, psychodynamics, neuroscience, biological aspects, neuroscientific aspects",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52538.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52538.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52538",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52538",totalDownloads:1554,totalViews:591,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 3rd 2016",dateReviewed:"September 8th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 7th 2016",dateFinished:"October 3rd 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Anxiety is a normal human reaction to stressful and threatening events in their surroundings, but if it does not correlate with inducible stimulus with respect to intensity and duration and if it permanently impairs a person’s ability to function normally, then we are dealing with pathological anxiety, that is to say, a symptom of one of the anxiety disorders classified in 9th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), or in American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV classification. We may consider the aetiology of anxiety from psychodynamic, biological and neuroscientific aspect. Finally, certain genes have been located, the variability of which in the expression of “visceral brain” neurons modulates remembrance of fear and somatic reactions to anxiety. These genes also represent the potential focal points for future pharmacotherapeutic solutions for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety-connected psychic disorders.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52538",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52538",book:{slug:"new-developments-in-anxiety-disorders"},signatures:"Rudolf Gregurek and Rudolf Gregurek",authors:[{id:"187991",title:"Prof.",name:"Rudolf",middleName:null,surname:"Gregurek",fullName:"Rudolf Gregurek",slug:"rudolf-gregurek",email:"rgregurek17@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Psychodynamic aspects of anxiety",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Object relations theory",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Biological aspects of anxiety",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1. The visceral brain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2. The amygdala in fear conditioning process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Case study: example of connection psychodynamic and neuroscientific approach to treatment of anxiety",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Method and participants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3. Results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion: the integration knowledge of psychodynamics and biological aspects in treatment of anxiety disorder",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'LaBar KS, LeDoux JE. Coping with danger: the neural basis of defensive behaviors and fearful feelings. In BS McEwen (ed.) Handbook of physiology, Section 7: the endocrine system, vol. 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School of Medicine Zagreb, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
School of Medicine Rijeka, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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Beck and Jennifer E. Catuzzi",authors:[{id:"71254",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Beck",fullName:"Kevin Beck",slug:"kevin-beck"},{id:"166022",title:"Ms.",name:"Jennifer",middleName:null,surname:"Catuzzi",fullName:"Jennifer Catuzzi",slug:"jennifer-catuzzi"}]},{id:"42942",title:"Social Anxiety Disorder in Psychosis: A Critical Review",slug:"social-anxiety-disorder-in-psychosis-a-critical-review",signatures:"Maria Michail",authors:[{id:"160823",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michail",fullName:"Maria Michail",slug:"maria-michail"}]},{id:"43754",title:"Social Anxiety, Beliefs About Expressing Emotions and Experiencing Positive Emotions",slug:"social-anxiety-beliefs-about-expressing-emotions-and-experiencing-positive-emotions",signatures:"Jasminka Juretić and Ivanka Živčić-Bećirevic",authors:[{id:"165197",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasminka",middleName:null,surname:"Juretić",fullName:"Jasminka 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1. Introduction
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One of the most valuable and potential natural resources in coastal areas of Indonesia is the mangrove forest. With a coastal line exceeding 80,000 km, Indonesia possesses 4.2 million ha total area of mangrove forest [1]. In 2014, the total coverage area of mangrove forest in Indonesia is 4,227,800 ha, which comprises approximately 25.79% global coverage area of mangrove forest [2]. However, mangrove forests in Indonesia continue to be threatened albeit relatively more protected as private sectors, NGOs, and environmental protection communities strive to preserve what is left.
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There have been efforts to restore ecological, socio-cultural and socio-economical functions of mangrove forest, particularly in the northern coast of Java Island. One of most common restoration efforts is the replanting of mangrove trees.
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Mangunhardjo Village, Urban Community of Mangunhardjo, Mangkang Area, Kecamatan of Tugu, Central Java Province, Indonesia was an area which mostly consisted of brackish water ponds. This area had been impacted by climate change, which caused yearly flood from the overflow of Beringin River and seawater intrusion (rob), reducing the production capacity of the brackish water ponds. The community in this area was affected by this condition, considering the brackish water ponds were the main source of income for many people in the area, as presented in Figure 1. To cope with this adversity, many people in the Urban Community of Mangunhardjo shifted their livelihood.
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Figure 1.
The site of Mangunhardjo Village, Urban Community of Mangunhardjo, Mangkang Area, Kecamatan of Tugu, Cental Java Province, Indonesia before mangrove forest restoration (a) and after mangrove forest restoration (b).
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Most of the brackish water fish farmers became motorcycle taxi drivers, fragrant oil sellers, drinking water refill providers, fish-based food producers, mangrove tree seeders, etc. Today, what was once brackish water pond area has been turned into a mangrove forest restoration site. The existence of mangrove in the area has met the criteria of mangrove ecosystem. The ecosystem is protected from waves and currents as to support conservation of coastal areas in Semarang [3]. The shift in the socio-economic landscape of the community in Mangunhardjo Village came along with the progress of mangrove forest restoration. Once the restoration has shown viability, many in the community changed their focus on utilizing mangrove as a source of income. The restoration of the mangrove forest has had positive impact to the welfare of its surrounding community. In addition to enhancing the natural beauty and livability of the area and mitigating the negative impact of climate change, mangrove forest can provide a source of income to the surrounding community. Mangrove can provide economic benefit as the mangrove restoration project provide employment opportunity by sustainable planting and selling mangrove seedlings, producing and selling mangrove-based food, sourcing mangrove as basic materials for bioactivator in compost, and processing mangrove waste into natural textile dye.
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2. Mangrove tree planting
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Due to the decrease in productivity of brackish water pond, the community of Mangunhardjo, Semarang, took part in mangrove forest restoration project. This activity involved almost everyone from all ages in the community. In addition to plating the mangrove used to alleviate ecological stress through enhancing biodiversity by conservation activities, the local community also nurse seedlings to be sold all over the country. Today, ecosystem of mangrove forest and its diverse plant and animal life strives in Mangunhardjo village. Healthy mangrove ecosystem provide shelter and feeding ground for various marine life, such as fish, prawn and crab, which in turn provides additional source of income for the surrounding community.
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3. Mangrove-based food
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Mangrove fruit can be processed into snacks and food, such as chips, syrup, brownies, klepon, sticks and other kind of snacks. The species used in making food are Lindur (Bruquiera gymnorrhiza), Api-api (Avecennia sp), and Pidada (Sonneratia sp), (Rizhopora sp) Lindur fruit is rich in carbohydrate, higher than that of rice. Mangrove fruit has tannin content, which gives it a bitter taste. To lower its tannin contents, the fruits are boiled or immersing overnight, before they are processed. Boiling or immersion has proven to reduce the tannin content of mangrove fruits by 40%. The fruits are also made into flour, to preserve its quality. Storing mangrove fruits as flours halts its metabolism and giving it a longer shelf life due to the lack of water, making it a viable ingredient for various food.
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\nR Mangrove-based food made and marketed by women of the fishing community of Mangunhardjo village are chips, syrup, sticks, klepon, and cakes, as presented in Figure 2.
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Figure 2.
Cookies made from Avecenia mangrove fruit.
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4. Mangrove-based bacterial bioactivator for composting
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Microorganisms associated with mangrove waste synthesize secondary metabolites similar to their host. These microbes are viable source of new compounds. Symbiont bacteria of mangrove waste are bacteria which thrive in association with mangrove waste. These associated bacteria contribute in the cycle of nutrition of its host and are decomposing agents for the waste. Compounds produced by symbiont bacteria has the potential to be used as precursors for the biosynthesis metabolism of immunity against pathogenic bacteria and other predators [4]. Microbes are the most numerous of all the organisms living on water, and as symbiotes of other organisms [5]. One way that bacteria contributes to its ecosystem is to act as a decomposer in breaking down organic materials such as dead leaves around mangrove plants. Due to bacterial activities, dead mangrove leaves are eventually broken down into nutrition. One of the processes in mangrove ecosystem which significantly contribute to the biodiversity in the water is decomposition, or specifically, the disintegration of mangrove leaves into nutrition. Disintegration is a step in the decomposition process, which in turn will produce important nutrients within the food chain, through the productivity of the surrounding waters [6]. Decomposition bacteria are groups of bacteria with the capability of decomposing other dead microorganisms into its basic building blocks, all of which will return to the environment. These decomposition bacteria are categorized into saprophytic organisms, due to its ability to break down organic compounds in nature. Saprophytic bacteria break down dead plants or animals and remains or waste of other organisms [7, 8]. Mangrove waste is a supply of organic materials to mangrove ecosystems, which maintains the carrying capacity of the surrounding area [9].
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Microbes isolated from plants with bioactive compounds have been known to have similar compound to its host and, in some cases, even indicate greater activity than that of its host [10]. A study on symbiont microbes with bioactivator potential found four viable species, namely Pseudomonas sp., Flavobacterium sp., Acinetobacter sp., and Bacillus subtilis. The consortium of the 4 species can act as organic waste decomposer and restore the color and odor of fresh water [11]. The symbiont bacteria from mangrove waste have seen application in bioactivator products which has been used by the community in Urban Community of Tembalang, Semarang, Central Java to process organic waste into compost, as presented in Figure 3 below.
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Figure 3.
Liquid Bioactivator products from symbiont bacteria of mangrove waste, which are used in making compost.
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5. Using mangrove waste as natural textile dye
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The latest development in fashion industry sees a demand for breakthrough from designers and scholars to create textile materials and clothes that are creative, innovative and marketable. Batik, as one of the most sought after fashion products in Indonesia, are mostly made using synthetic dye. Synthetic dye has its advantages, namely its availability, range of colors and the practicality of its application. However, the use of synthetic dye pose health risk of consumers, and even greater threat to the environment. Due to its carcinogenic nature, the use of these dyes in fabric may trigger allergy reaction. The process by which these dyes is made also presents environmental hazards. Therefore, there is an opportunity to reintroduce natural dye as a safer, more environmentally friendly alternative. Batik clothes and fabric made using natural dye have high commercial value because of its artistry, unique colors and the sustainability by which they are made and sourced. The use of natural dye in batik also give impressions of ethnic-look and exclusiveness.
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\nRhizophora mucronata is one of the potential mangrove species to be used in the production of natural dye. Other than being an important species for the mangrove restoration project in Mangunhardjo village, Semarang, R. mucronata still sees limited utilization by the surrounding community. Yet, parts of mangrove have been known to be used as natural dye in several other areas in Indonesia such as Papua and Takisung. [12] mentioned that R. mucronata is a natural tanning agent commonly used in textile industry and can produce color variation depending on the mordant used. A number of studies also indicate the potency of R. mucronata as dye material. In Bontang, Borneo, fruit of R. mucronata is used as a material in dye production for the local industry [13]. One study also found that natural dye made from R. mucronata passed the quality test with a predicate of ‘fine’ [14]. Although color pigments of R. mucronata parts can be sourced as a material for natural dye, there are more color variation and and ways to retain colors that has yet to be tested.
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Pigments of R. mucronata is a unique potential of this species of mangrove. The pigment content can become an asset through effective and efficient utilization, which can provide economic value to the community around mangrove ecosystem. Therefore, further studies on pigments of bark, propagules, and leaves of R. mucronata in relation to their application in batik as dye materials.
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Batik has experience a rise in popularity among both the locals and foreigners in the last few decades. The increasing demand of batik products also creates increasing demand for and use of synthetic dye. This is due to the fact that synthetic dyes are marketed at a lower price point and have better color retention compared to natural dyes. However, as more and more consumers become more aware of environmental issues, fabrics with natural dyes becomes more popular in the market. Synthetic dye has been known to be carcinogenic, and the waste from its production poses danger for the environment. [15] mentioned that synthetic dye is mutagenic and non-degradable in nature. Orange II is one example of the most prevalent artificial dye in the industry. This artificial dye has been known to not easily broken down by natural means. The waste from production and use of synthetic dyes has also been known to contain high levels of heavy metals such as chromium, zinc, copper, etc. [15, 16] wrote that waste water from textile production activity was found to pose health hazard to the surrounding community in Palembang, due to its high content of corrosive chemicals, organic pollutants, and high levels of acidity in its waste. Pollutants from synthetic dye production and use contains high leves of heavy metals, and intermediate dyes which are mutagenic in nature [17]. Not only does this damage the environment, it also pose health hazard to the community.
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Compared to stock of sythetic dyes, the availability of natural dyes is more limited since artificial dyes are mass produced and have better distribution chain whereas natural dye often see limited production and must be sourced directly from its native area. Yet, not all sythetic dyes in Indonesian market is produced within the country. R. mucronata with its application potential as a material for natural dye can be found all over Indonesia, yet there has been limited commercial exploitation for this use. Studies of R. mucronata parts to be used as dyes for batik fabric are expected to contribute to the novelty of R. mucronata as an alternative source for dye in batik textile industry.
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6. The biology of \nR. mucronata\n
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\nR. mucronata is a species prevalent in the Indo-Pacific region. In Indonesia, R. mucronata is known locally as “Bakau Hitam” (lit. Black Mangrove), “Bakau Korap”, “Bakau Merah” (lit. Red Mangrove), “Angka Hitam”, “Belukap”, “Dongoh Korap”, “Jankar”, “Lenggayong”, and “Lolaro”. This mangrove often become the choice plant in mangrove restoration programs [18].
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\nR. mucronata is classified into the genus Rhizophora. One distinguishing feature of this species is its broad leaves. There are two other species within the Rhizophora genus, namely Rhizophora apiculata andRhizophora stylosa along with two hybrids, namely Rhizophora lamarckii (a hybrid between R. apiculata and R. stylosa) and Rhizophora annamalayana (a hybrid between R.apiculata and R. mucronata) [19].
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The tree of R. mucronata can reach a height of 30 meters. The trunk diameter can grow up to 70 cm with bark which is dark, mostly black and a horizontal crevice. Stilt roots and aerial roots grow on the lower branches of the tree. The stilt roots can be quite sizable and are woody. The stilt roots of R. mucronata are usually abortive, whereas the lateral roots can be quite numerous in one tree and extend from the tip of the branch as well as possessing numerous branches on itself, which are also known as stilt roots/hoop/pile-like which supports the tree. Aerial roots can sometimes be found in the lower branches. The trunk itself is enclosed cylindrical in form, with bark that are black or dark red, has a coarse, scaly texture, and with horizontal crevices formed around the bark [20].
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The leaves of R. mucronata has layers with green stalks. The leaves can reach a length of 23 cm. They are typically elliptical with narrow tips. The propagules of R. mucronata have an egg-like shape. The color of the fruit varies from green to brownish. The base of the fruit has a coarse texture and typically monocots. When ripe, the cotyledon neck will turn yellow.
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\nR. mucronata is a species with the highest tolerance for sandy environment, compared to other Rhizophora species. This species is commonly found in tidal area with sand substrates [21]. R. mucronata thrives in mud with fine, grainy soil and is believed to be one of the mangrove species capable of surviving during inundation by high tide [22].
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7. Chemical composition of \nRhizophora mucronata\n
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Mangrove commonly contains compounds such as alkaloid, flavonoid, phenol, terpenoid, steroids, and saponins [23]. Proximate analysis of R. mucronata fruit by [24] found that there were 46.63% of water, 1.96% of fat, 0.41% of protein, 1.25% of ash and 22.29% of carbohydrate. [25] identified the phytochemical contents of R. mucronata bark, and found Positive results on phenolic compounds (including flavonoid and tannins), and believed that the tannins are drawn in the methanol extract with testing using FeCl3. In addition to phenolic group compounds, secondary metabolites such as terpenoids/steroids, alkaloid and saponins were also found in the bark of R. mucronata, only in this study the results were obtained by the use of multiple solvents (ethyl acetate and methanol) and varying reagents.
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The leaves of R. mucronata was indicated as the most effective part to be used in extraction process [26]. It was found that the leaves of R. mucronata are rich in phenolic compounds, consisting of several flavonoid, phenolic acids, and tannin [27]. R. mucronata leaves contains dihydroflavonol with free 5-OH and 7-OH, with restored raffinose at 3-OH, caffeic acid, vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzoate acid, and tannin, believed to be catechin tannin. [28] elaborated that the extract of R. mucronata leaves, both fresh and dried, and extracted using sterilized distilled water contains the following phytochemical constituents: alkaloid, carboxylic acid, coumarin, flavonoid, phenol, protein, amino acid, quinone, resin, saponin, steroids/phtyosterols, tannins, xanthoprotein.
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8. The use of \nRhizophora mucronata\n
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In Madagascar, the wood of R. mucronata is extensively used in making boats and fishing nets for fish and shrimps, and is domestically used as a construction material for fences, housings and cooking fuel [29]. The indigenous people of Papua has also been using R. mucronata as materials for fence poles, walls and boats. In addition, fruits if R. mucronata has been used to treat diarrhea. Whereas in general, parts of the Rhizophora tree are brewed into alcoholic drinks in the Wondama Bay area [30]. In the field of biochemistry, bark from R. mucronata containing polysaccharides has been used as an in-vitro treatment for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [31].
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[32] stated that R. mucronata is one of eight types of sources for natural dye used by the people of Papua. This species is used for several purposes such as a material for dye, food ingredients, and cosmetics [33]. R. mucronata bark from Takisung area has been used for dyeing batik cloth [34]. [35] wrote that R. mucronata bark, which has a natural brown pigment, is used as a textile dye because its tannin content reaches 30%. [36] successfully used the stem and leaf waste of R. mucronata as a natural dye for batik on cotton and silk fabrics.
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9. Batik
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Batik is a form of textile product that are generally used in the form of various crafts, tablecloths, sheets, and clothing. In 2009, UNESCO awarded Indonesian Batik as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The uniqueness of batik products are often found in their style, use, and design which are not only attractive to the local market, but also to the international market. In the period between January to June 2014, Batik became one of the commodity groups that had the highest export value in Central Java, compared to the other two commodities, namely textiles and textile goods. Textile and textile goods have the largest contribution of 36.84% of total export value or approximately US$189.01 million. This export value shows that textiles and textile products in Central Java have a huge potential as a contributor to the country’s foreign exchange.
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10. Textile dye
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Color becomes visible to the eye when there is absorption of a portion of the color spectrum in the visible area by molecules. The molecular structure is responsible for the presence of compounds that absorb visible light, which will be interpreted as colors. Molecules in plants consist of chains of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen as main compounds and a few additional heteroatoms such as nitrogen. Molecules that absorb visible light are filled by chains of alternating and single carbon bonds that are alternating or conjugated. The longer the double bond, the more vivid the colors will appear. This bond can absorb visible light in certain areas, which provides coloration to the compounds [37].
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Textile dyes, based on the materials from which they are sourced, are classified into two namely Natural Dyes (ZPA) and Synthetic Dyes (ZPS). ZPA is a dye obtained from natural ingredients, which generally comes from the extracts of plants or animals. ZPS is artificial dyes or syntheses made by chemical reactions using the basic ingredients of charcoal, coal, or petroleum which are the result of aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives such as benzene, naphthalene, and anthracene [38].
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The intensity of the color produced in natural dyes depends on the type of coloring matter. Coloring matter is the substance that determines the hue of natural dyes and is an organic compound. The classification of natural dyes based on coloring matter is divided into four groups namely mordant dyes, direct dyes, acid/base dyes, and laver dyes. Mordant (natural) dyes in the coloring process must be combined with a metal oxide complex to form an insoluble dye. Natural dyes in mordant dyes have good color resistance potential, for example Moridin dyes from Noni roots. Direct dyes are retained to the fabric fibers based on hydrogen bonds, making the color retention low, for example Curcumin from turmeric. Acid/base dyes consist of a combination of acid and base groups, such as flavonoid pigments. The last group is laver dye. These dyes must go through the process of reduction–oxidation (redox) in the fabric dyeing process. In addition, laver dyes are also known as the oldest dyes in the world because they have the best color retention among the three other classes of natural dyes. One example of laver dyes is Indigo from torn leaves [13]. Natural dyes that have been explored from plants and have been used in fabric coloring include sengon leaves (Albizia falcataria) as silk fabric dyes, mangosteen rind (Garcinia mangostana) as natural dyes on cotton fabrics, Morinda citrifolia bark on Morinda citrifolia cotton cloth, purple sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), etc. [39, 40, 41, 42]. Extraction of natural dyes is mostly carried out using polar solvents such as distilled water, ethyl acetate, methanol, acetone and n-hexane [25, 37, 43].
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11. Dye extract
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In general, the results of extraction from leaves, bark, and propagules show brown color with different color density variations (Figure 4). The brown color indicates the presence of tannin [11]. Previous studies have found that high levels of tannin produce a dense color on tea leaves [44]. Several factors such as the extraction temperature below 100°C, the type of solvent (polar) used for extraction, particle size, and extraction time are things that need to be taken into account in producing quality tannins [45]. Tannins are found in the bark, fruit (propagules), and leaves of R. mucronata [46].
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Figure 4.
Batik fabric coloring from mangrove waste extraction with lime, tunjung and alum fixations.
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However, there is variation in tannin content in each part of the tree. The content of tannin R. mucronata has similarities with tannin derived from Ceriops tagal bark, which is soluble in distilled water that has polar properties [47, 48]. The tannin content produced from extraction using distilled water did not differ significantly compared to other solvents with similar polarity.
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12. FTIR analysis and UV-Vis spectrophotometry
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UV Vis spectropometry to extracts of R. mucronata leaves, bark, and propagules extracted at 70°C shows the maximum absorbance located at a wavelength of 412 nm. This shows the existence of conjugated C=C and C=O bonds. The maximum absorbance value obtained at wavelengths between 300 and 550 nm indicates the presence of π → π * denoting conjugated C=C and n transitions → π * in the form of chromophore C=O [49]. Tannins are classified as natural polyphenol compounds which contain phenolic hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups. In addition, there are also chromophore groups which generally give color to a compound. The C=C conjugated bonds and C=O are included in the chromophore group, thus supporting the notion that the brown color that arises from extraction is caused by the presence of tannin content.
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Subsequent testing to see the absorption pattern using an infrared spectrophotometer. Test results on the three types of dye extracts on leaves, bark and propagules showed a similar absorption pattern. Absorption in the range of wave numbers 3500 to 3000 cm−1 and 2000 to 1500 cm−1 indicates the presence of C-H groups. The C-O group is also indicated although it must be further analyzed in the fingerprint area. The C-O group forms an aromatic compound, which is part of the tannin together with the O-H and -CH2 groups [50]. The solid-shaped extract of D70 shows a different absorption pattern. O-H, C-H, C=O ester, and C-O-C ether groups are indicated. The existence of these four types of functional groups shows that the flavonoid compound is indicated in D70 extract. This is supported by research conducted by [51] who found that the flavonoid compounds from the flavonone group had the OH functional group bound, aliphatic CH, C=O, C=C Aromatic, C-O and C-H aromatics. [52] revealed that flavonoids are building blocks of proanthocyanidin compounds which are condensed tannins. Flavan-3-ols polymer compounds consisting of (+)-catechin and (−)-epicathecin are the main constituents of the group of flavonoid compounds that fall into the category of condensed tannins. To support these findings, Total Phenol Content and Total Flavonoid Content were conducted.
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13. Total phenol content and total flavonoid content
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Determination of total phenol in D70 extract was carried out using the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. This reagent is sensitive in reducing compounds such as polyphenols and in its reaction will show blue when measured by spectrophotometer [53]. The test results showed that the phenol content were 2.4950 mg GAE/g. The presence of phenol in the extract can be an indication of tannin. In general tannins are high molecular weight polyphenol compounds, which naturally form complexes with protein [54]. Testing of total flavonoids was also carried out and the results obtained were 0.6516 mg QE/g. Flavonoids are still included in polyphenol compounds and usually consist of flavones, flavonols, and condensed tannins, which are secondary metabolites of plants [53, 54].
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14. Fabric with mangrove-based dye
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Fabric dyeing using natural dyes of R. mucronata was done by immersing dry, white cotton fabric with the dye and then air-drying them. This step was repeated three times. When immersing the fabric into the dye solution, the fabric undergoes swelling so that the pores of the fabric fibers will open and the dye can be absorbed into the fiber together with the dye solution. Dyes that have been absorbed into the fiber will be bound by reactive groups on cellulose fibers in the form of hydroxyl groups (OH) and form hydrogen bonds. The finished dyed fabric was then aerated with protection from sun exposure. After the cloth dries, the cloth is then immersed in alum color-fixating agent (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O). When dyeing, the dye is absorbed into the fabric fibers. But in general there are substances on the fabric surface that block the process, so fixation agents such as alum are needed to help the absorption of dyes on the fabric and increase color retention by binding the dye molecules to the fibers of the fabric. The reaction between the fabric which has been dyed and fixated by alum (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O) does not produce complex salts but compounds which are ionically bonded [55].
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The colors produced by the three types of dyes from R. mucronata after fixation with alum through qualitative observations based on [56] were shades of tawny/tenné brown. The tawny brown digital code according to [57] is AE6938. Tawny brown can be described as a light brown hue with a combination of brown and orange The tawny brown color that was obtained after fixation with alum was not much different from the color before the addition of alum. This is in accordance with the nature of alum which gives out hue according to its original color [58].
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15. Color retention test
\n
The results of the color retention test of dyed fabrics from parts of the R. mucronata through extraction with temperature variations and fixation using alum showed permanent color properties. The value of Gray Scale and Staining Scale in the color retention test against fabric rubbing showed almost the same results, namely in the category 4 (fine) and 4–5 (fine). In the soap washing test, the average results showed 3–4 (adequate) to 4 (fine). Leaf extracts heated at 70°C (D70) and bark extract heated at the same temperature (K70) consistently showed a staining scale value of 4 showing the ‘fine’ category at three replications of the test. In general, all test results met the minimal SNI standards of 3.
\n
Tannin commonly used as dyes are found in Ceriops tagal mangrove bark and can produce a brownish red color [48]. The leaves have 15% less tannin content. Types of tannins in Ceriops tagal and R. mucronata are tannins condensed with procyanidin types. Tannin extraction from plants is strongly influenced by the composition of the solvent used [59]. The optimal solvent will be able to produce tannins in large quantities. In addition to the dyes obtained, the color retention of the fabric also depends on the fixation agent. Staining quality test results that showed the category of ‘adequate’ and ‘fine due to the use of alum fixation, creating strong molecular bond which in turn contributes to good color retention. According to [59], the strength of the bond that occurs between fabric fibers and dyes determines the color retention during the washing process. Dyes strongly retained in the fabric fibers will create better, more vibrant colors after being washed.
\n
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16. Conclusions
\n
Mangroves can be used as natural dyes on batik cloth, because of their high availability and positive impact on the household economy of the local community. Rhizophora mucronata, a mangrove species commonly found in the coastal areas of Semarang, is used in conservation efforts and beneficial in the field of fisheries. The existence of this species of mangrove forests can improve the catch and welfare of the local fishing community.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"batik, mangrove, natural dye, Rhizopora mucronata, waste",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75083.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75083.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75083",totalDownloads:68,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 16th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 2nd 2020",datePrePublished:"February 4th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mangrove, or bakau as it is known in Indonesia, is one of the vegetations commonly found along the shallow coasts, estuaries, deltas and protected coastal areas and are still influenced by rising tides. After the Aceh tsunami disaster, mangrove restoration was intensively conducted in coastal areas all over Indonesia and was made into a special conservation program by the government. Mangrove is distinguishable by its big, wooden stilt roots, sharpening tip in the form of supporting leaves. The roots of the mangrove tree are morphologically distinguishable into heart root which grows into the ground and the stilt root which appear to grabs onto the surface of the ground. Mangrove forests serve several important ecological roles: they act as filters which turns saline water into fresh water, buffer from seawater intrusion, prevent erosion and abrasion, hold sediments to form new habitats, feeding ground, nursery ground, and spawning ground for a number of aquatic wildlife. Mangrove forest also possess economical functions such as as source of income, industrial ingredients for the locals and as source of new mangrove seedlings. Mangunhardjo Village, Urban Community of Mangunhardjo, Mangkang Area, Kecamatan of Tugu, Semarang City, Indonesia was an area dotted with brackish water pond. However, the area had been suffering from the effects of climate change, being inundated by overflow of river and seawater intrusion (rob). These disasters caused decline in the productivity of the ponds in the area. In an effort to combat the adverse effect of environmental change in the area, the locals of Mangunhardjo village decided to shift their livelihood by restoring the surrounding mangrove forest. Mangrove conservation at Mangunhardjo Village was conducted through activities of the program such as mangrove planting, mangrove-based food production, and mangrove waste management by applications of bioactivator bacteria for mangrove composting and production of mangrove-based natural dye for batik fabric. Mangrove-based natural dye for batik fabric from Rhizopora mucronata mangrove waste is a quite promising product and increases people’s income.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75083",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75083",signatures:"Delianis Pringgenies, Ali Ridlo, Lutfianna Fatma Dewi and Ali Djunaedi",book:{id:"8050",title:"Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sahadev Sharma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8050.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-800-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-799-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-801-6",editors:[{id:"227169",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sahadev",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"sahadev-sharma",fullName:"Sahadev Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Mangrove tree planting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Mangrove-based food",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Mangrove-based bacterial bioactivator for composting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Using mangrove waste as natural textile dye",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The biology of \nR. mucronata\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Chemical composition of \nRhizophora mucronata\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. The use of \nRhizophora mucronata\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Batik",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Textile dye",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Dye extract",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"12. FTIR analysis and UV-Vis spectrophotometry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"13. Total phenol content and total flavonoid content",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"14. Fabric with mangrove-based dye",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"15. Color retention test",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"16. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nTarigan, M.S. 2008. Sebaran dan Luas Hutan Mangrove di Wilayah Pesisir Teluk Pising Utara Pulau Kabaena Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara. Makara Sains, 12 (2): 108-112.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nHamilton, S.E. dan D. Casey. 2016. Creation of a high spatio-temporal resolution global database of continuous mangrove forest cover for the 21st century (CGMFC-21). Journal of Macroecology, 25 (6): 729-738.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nZaky, C. Suryono, and R. Pribadi, "Kajian Kondisi Lahan Mangrove di Desa Bedono, Kecamatan Sayung, Kabupaten Demak dan Kelurahan Mangunharjo, Kecamatan Tugu, Kota Semarang," Journal of Marine Research, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 88-97, Feb. 2013.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nTaylor, W. J., dan R. Ford., 2007. Chickpea. In: Chittarajan, K., Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants, 3 (6): 109-122\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nPelczar, M. J., dan E. C. S. Chan. 2008. Dasar-Dasar Mikrobiologi Jilid I. Jakarta: UI Press.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nWidhitama S, Purnomo PW, Suryanto A. 2016. Produksi dan Laju Dekomposisi Serasah Mangrove Berdasarkan Tingkat Kerapatannya di Delta Sungai Wulan, Demak, Jawa Tengah. Diponegoro. Journal of Maquares. 5: 311-319.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nTodar, K. 2008. Online Textbook of Bacteriology. http://www.text book of bacteriology.net/index.html\n\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nSaraswati, R. dan Prihatini, T. 2004. Teknologi pupuk mikroba untuk meningkatkan efisiensi pemupukan dan keberlanjutan sistem produksi padi sawah. Dalam: Fahmuddin,A,. et al. Tanah sawah dan teknologi pengelolaannya. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanah dan Agroklimat. Bogor 40\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nLestari, T. 2015. Kumpulan teori untuk kajian pustaka penelitian kesehatan. Yogyakarta: Nuha Medika.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nKrinsky, N.I., dan E. J. Johnson. 2005. Carotenoid Actions and Their Relation to Health And Disease. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 26: 459-516.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nPringgenies, D., R. Widiyadmi., D. Ariyanto., R. Idris., dan A. Djunaedi. 2018. Bakteri Konsorsium dari Serasah Mangrove untuk Produksi Kompos. Jurnal Pengelolaan Perairan, 1(2): 19-26.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nLacasse, K. dan W. Baumann. 2004. Textile Chemicals: Environmental Data and Facts. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin, 1184 p.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nSulistyo, I. dan B. Budi. 2013. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat melalui Program Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) berupa Pengembangan Pewarna Alami dari Buah Mangrove Spesies Rhizophora mucronata untuk Batik Khas Bontang Kalimantan Timur. Jurnal Komunikasi Massa, 6 (2): 135-150.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nKwartiningsih, E., Paryanto, W. Agung W., E. Mastuti, R. Sonia A., dan Y. Pipit N. 2014. Pemanfaatan Ekstrak Buah Mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) untuk Pewarna Alami Batik. Seminar Nasional Tekstil, Bandung.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nAgustina, T.E., E. Nurisman, Prasetyowati, N. Haryani, L. Cundari, A. Novisa, dan O. Khristina. 2011. Pengolahan Air Limbah Pewarna Sintetis dengan Menggunakan Reagen Feton. Dalam: Prosiding Seminar Nasional AVoER ke-3 di Palembang Tanggal 26-27 Oktober 2011. Fakultas Teknik Universitas Sriwijaya, pp. 260-266.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nIndrianingsih, A.W. dan C. Darsih. 2013. Natural Dyes from Plants Extract and Its Applications in Indonesian Textile Small Medium Scale Enterprise. Technical Implementation Unit for Chemical Engineering Processes, 11(1): 16-22.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nTanziz, R. 2009. Laporan Teknis : Identifikasi Logam Berat dalam Zat Warna Tekstil, Balai Besar Tekstil, Bandung.\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nDuke, N., K. Kathiresan, S.G. Salmo III, E.S. Fernando, J.R. Peras, S. Sukardjo, dan T. Miyagi. 2010. Rhizophora mucronata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010: e.T178825A7618520. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T178825A7618520.en (11 April 2016).\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nSetyawan, A.D., Y.I. Ulumuddin, dan P. Ragavan. 2014. Review: Mangrove hybrid of Rhizophora and its parental species in Indo-Malayan region. Nusantara Bioscience, 6 (1): 69-81.\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nOrwa, C., A. Mutua, R. Kindt, R. Jamnadass, dan S. Anthony. 2009. Rhizophora mucronata.http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Rhizophora.\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nNoor, R.Y., M. Khazali, dan I.N.N. Suryadiputra. 1999. Panduan Pengenalan Mangrove di Indonesia. PHKA/WI-IP, Bogor.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nTan, R. 2001. Rhizophora mucronata. http://www.naturia.per.sg/buloh/plants/rhizophora%20mucronata.htm (12 Mei 2016).\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nKordi K, Guhufran H. 2012. Ekosistem Mangrove, Potensi, Fungsi, dan Pengelolaan. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nBunyapraphatsara, N., Srisukh, V., Jutiviboonsuk, A., Sornlek, P., Thongbainoi, W., Chuakul, W., Fong, H.H.S., Pezzuto, J.M. and Kosmeder, J. 2002. Vegetables from the mangrove areas. Thai Journal of Phytopharmacy 9(1): 1-12. (1) (PDF) Study of ripe Rhizophora mucronata fruit flour as functional food for antidiabetic.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nPradana, D., D. Suryanto, dan Yunasfi. 2014. Uji Daya Hambat Ekstrak Kulit kayu Rhizophora mucronata terhadap Pertumbuhan Bakteri Aeromonas hydrophila, Streptococcus agalactiae, dan Jamur Saprolegnia sp. Secara In Vitro. Aquacoastmarine, 2(1): 78-92.\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nYasmon, A. 2000. Sensitifitas Vibrio Parahaemolyticus terhadap Ekstrak Mangrove Rhizopora Apiculata di Dalam Lumpur dan Air Laut. Skripsi Sarjana Fakultas Perikanan dan IlmuKelautan Universitas Riau. 37p.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nSutjihati, R., S. Soetarno, dan S. Kusmardiyani. 1995. Pemeriksaan Senyawa Fenolik Daun Rhizophora mucronata lamk. (Rhizoporaceae), Suatu Tumbuhan Mangrove [Skripsi]. Sekolah Farmasi ITB. http://bahan-alam.fa.itb.ac.id (12 Mei 2016).\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nBabuselvam, M., K. Kathiresan, S. Ravikumar, M. Uthiraselvam, dan E. Rajabudeen. 2012. Scientific evaluation of aqueous extracts of fresh and dried leaves from Rhizophora mucronata lamk (Rhizophoracea) in Rats. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 6 (11): 814-817.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nRasolofo, M.V. 1997. Use of Mangroves by Traditional Fishermen in Madagascar. Mangroves and Salt Marshes Vol. 1(4): 243-253.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nArobaya, Agustina Y.S. dan Freddy Pattiselanno. 2010. Potensi mangrove dan Manfaatnya bagi Kelompok Etnik di Papua. Biota, 5(3): 494-500.\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nPremanathan, M., Arakaki, R, Izumi, Kandasamy, K. Nakano, Masatoshi, Yamamoto, N. Nakashima, H. (1999). Antiviral properties of a mangrove plant, Rhizophora apiculata Blume, against human immunodeficiency virus. Antiviral Research. 44. 113-122. 10.1016/S0166-3542(99)00058-3.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nMakabori, S. 1999. Teknik silvikultur jenis-jenis tanaman penghasil warna alam Irian Jaya. Seminar Menggali Potensi Warna Alam Irian Jaya. Departemen Kehutanan dan Perkebunan Propinsi Irian Jaya.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nWibowo, A. 2003. Identifikasi Jenis-jenis Tumbuhan Penghasil Warna Alami dan Pemanfaatannya dalam Kehidupan Suku Hatam di Kampung Mbenti Distrik Anggi Kabupaten Manokwari. [Skripsi]. Manokwari: Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Negeri Papua.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nHamidah, S. 2006. Rendemen dan Kadar Tanin Kulit Kayu Bakau (Rhizophora mucronata Lamck) dari daerah Takisung. Jurnal Hutan Tropis Borneo (18): 15-23..\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nPrabhu, K.H. dan A.S. Bhute. 2012. Plant based natural dyes and mordnats: A Review. J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour., 2(6): 649-664.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nPulungan, A.S.S. 2014. Pengaruh Fiksasi terhadap Ketuaan Warna dengan Menggunakan Pewarna Alami Batik dari Limbah Mangrove. Dalam: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Biologi dan Pembelajarannya di Medan tanggal 23 Agustus 2014. Medan, pp: 297 – 301.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nBudimarwanti, C. dan S. Handayani. 2010. Efektivitas Katalis Asam Basa pada Sintesis 2-hidroksikalkon, Senyawa yang Berpotensi sebagai Zat Warna. . Dalam: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Kimia dan Pendidikan Kimia Tanggal 30 Oktober 2010. Yogyakarta, pp.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nIsminingsih. 1978. Pengantar Kimia Zat Warna. Bandung: STTT Press.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nKusriniati, D. 2008. Pemanfaatan Daun Sengon (Albizia falcataria) sebagai Pewarna Kain Sutera menggunakan Mordan Tawas dengan Konsentrasi yang Berbeda. Teknobuga, 1 (1): 7-14..\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nManurung, M. 2012. Aplikasi Kulit Buah Manggis (Garcinia mangostana L.) sebagai Pewarna Alami pada Kain Katun secara Pre-Mordanting. Jurnal Kimia, 6(2): 183-190.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nThomas, M., M. Manurung, dan I.A.R.A. Asih. 2013. Pemanfaatan Zat Warna Alam dari Ekstrak Kulit Akar Mengkudu (Morinda citrifolia Linn) pada Kain Katun. Jurnal Kimia, 7(2): 119-126.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nWinarti, S., U. Sarofa, dan D. Anggrahini. 2008. Ekstraksi dan Stabilitas Ubi Jalar Ungu (Ipomoea batatas L.) sebagai Pewarna Alami. Jurnal Teknik Kimia, 3(1): 207-214.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nArtati, E.K. dan Fadilah. 2007. Pengaruh Kecepatan Putar Pengadukan dan Suhu Operasi pada Ekstraksi Tanin dari Jambu Mete dengan Pelarut Aseton. Ekuilibrium, 6(1): 33-38.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nAdriana, N., R. Batubara, dan E. Julianti. 2015. Nilai Kesukaan Konsumen terhadap The Daun Gaharu (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.) berdasarkan Letak Daun pada Batang. Peronema Forestry Science Journal, 4(4): 1-5.\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nHamidah, S. 2006. Rendemen dan Kadar Tanin Kulit Kayu Bakau (Rhizophora mucronata Lamck) dari daerah Takisung. Jurnal Hutan Tropis Borneo (18): 15-23.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nMusman, M. 2010. Tanin Rhizophora mucronata sebagai Moluskosida Keong Mas (Pomacea canaliculata). Bionatura, Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Hayati dan Fisik, 12(3): 184-189.\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nHandayani, P.A. dan I. Maulana. 2013. Pewarna Alami Batik dari Kulit Soga Tinggi (Ceriops tagal) dengan Metode Ekstraksi. Jurnal Bahan Alam Terbarukan, (2): 1-6.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nJansen, P.C.M dan D. Cardon. 2005. Dyes and Tannins. Volume 3. Backhuys Publishers, Wageningen, 215 p.\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nSastrohamidjojo, H., 2001, Spektroskopi, 3-4, 11, Liberty Press, Yogyakarta.\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nHutauruk, S. 2004. Uji Aktivitas Tanin pada Daun Jati Belanda (Guazuma ulmifolia Lamk.) sebagai Tabir Surya. [Skripsi]. Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang, 32 hlm.\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nParubak, Apriani Sulu. 2013. Senyawa Flavonoid yang Bersifat Antibakteri dari Akway (Drimys becarina Gibbs). Chemistry Progress, 6(1): 34-37.\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nDixon RA, Xie DY, and Sharma SB. 2005. Proanthocyanidins--a final frontier in flavonoid research?. New Phytol. 2005 Jan;165(1):9-28.\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nSultana, M., P.K. Verma, R. Raina, S. Prawez, dan M.A. Dar. 2012. Quantitative Analysis of Total Phenolic, Flavonoids, and Tannin Contents in Acetone and n-Hexane Extracts of Ageratum conyzoides. Journal of ChemTech Research, 4(3): 996-999.\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nBaba, S.A. dan S.A. Malik. 2015. Determination of Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Content, Antimicrobial, and Antioxidant Activity of A Root Extract of Arisaema jacquemontii Blume. Journal of Taibah University for Science, 9: 449-454.\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nPrayitno, R.E., S. Wijana, dan B.S. Diyah. 2014. Pengaruh Nahan FIksasi terhadap Ketahnan Luntur dan Intensitas Warna Kain Mori Batik Hasil Pewarnaan Daun Alpukat (Persea Americana Mill.). Jurnal Lulusan TIP FTP UB, 1-8.\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nMaerz, A.J. dan M.R. Paul. 1930. A Dictionary of Color. http://people.csail.mit.edu/jaffer/Color/M.htm (19 Agustus 2016).\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nRidgway, R. 1912. Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. http://people.csail.mit.edu/jaffer/Color/R.htm.\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nWidowati, T.B. dan G. Sutapa. 2012. Pemanfaatan Bagian Cabang dan Pucuk Cabang Dalbergia latifolia sebagai Pewarna Alami Kain Batik. Dalam: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Masyarakat Peneliti Kayu Indonesia (MAPEKI) XVI di Makassar Tanggal 6-7 November 2012.\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nYuliana, P. 2014. Ekstraksi Senyawa Tanin dan Saponin dari Tanaman serta Efeknya terhadap Fermentasi Rumen dan Metanogenesis In Vitro. [Tesis]. Sekolah Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, p.37.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Delianis Pringgenies",address:"delianispringgenies@lecturer.undip.ac.id",affiliation:'
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
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