Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2219",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wireless Mesh Networks - Efficient Link Scheduling, Channel Assignment and Network Planning Strategies",title:"Wireless Mesh Networks",subtitle:"Efficient Link Scheduling, Channel Assignment and Network Planning Strategies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides an in-depth look into recent advances in relation to novel design strategies and algorithms to improve performance and functionality of WMNs. 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\r\n\tTrauma surgery is a surgical specialty that utilizes both operative and non-operative management to treat traumatic injuries, typically in an acute setting. Emergency surgical patients often have complex and challenging problems, which may include major traumatic injury, sepsis, shock and serious abdominal conditions. For patients who have serious acute surgical or traumatic conditions inefficiencies in the system of retrieval, triage, diagnostic investigation, access to the operating theatre, and appropriate post-operative care may lead to an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Emergency surgery includes general emergency surgery, vascular emergency surgery, thoracic emergency surgery but also urologic, cardiac, paediatric, musculoskeletal, gynaecological, transplant emergency surgery and all surgical specialties. Largely performed by surgeons specializing in emergency medicine, this surgery can be conducted for many reasons but occurs most often in urgent or critical cases in response to trauma, cardiac events, poison episodes, brain injuries, and pediatric medicine.
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\r\n\tMortality rates are high for emergency surgeries. The most advanced surgical techniques are used (open surgery and laparoscopic surgery, damage control surgery for polytrauma patient management, advanced multidisciplinary management of acute and non-acute surgical patients). The Unit prides itself on the collaboration between multidisciplinary teams that make use of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic resources. General surgeons are assisted by physicians from the traditional radiology, interventional radiology, angiography and anaesthesiologists-resuscitators, to allow for a timely diagnosis and optimal treatment of urgent and non-urgent pathologies.
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He is an author of 105 publications including 5 book chapters, as well as a review board member of several journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Burhan Hakan Kanat is a member of the Turkish Surgical Society, International Pilonidal Society, and Turkish Society of Colon and Rectal Surgery. He is an author of more than 100 publications including 5 book chapters.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"90616",title:null,name:"Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"selim-sozen",fullName:"Selim Sözen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90616/images/system/90616.jpg",biography:"Dr. Selim Sözen was born on 01.01.1973. He graduated from the Faculty of Medicine, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey in 1998.\nHe trained in general surgery at Ankara Atatürk Education and Research Hospital in Turkey (2004). He worked as a specialist\nat different Government Hospitals in Turkey (2004-2013). He started to work as an Associate Professor at the Department of General Surgery of Medicine Faculty of Namık Kemal University (2013). He completed liver transplantation surgery at İnönü University (General Surgery Department, 2014–2015, Turkey) Fellowship Programs. From 2016, he has worked as a Specialist at his own clinic in İstanbul, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Surgical Association. His clinical interests include treatment, surgical procedures, surgical techniques, laparoscopic surgery, minimally invasive surgery, gastrointestinal surgery, hernia surgery, colorectal surgery, surgical oncology, hepatopancreatobilliary surgery, bariatric surgery for morbid obesity, bariatric medicine, endocrine surgery, esophageal diseases, breast surgery, and esophagectomy. 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He completed liver transplantation surgery at İnönü University (General Surgery Department, 2014–2015, Turkey) Fellowship Programs. He received training in breast-endocrine surgery in 2016.He became an associate professor in 2017 from Head of Inter-University Council. And He worked as an Associate Professor at the Department of General Surgery of Medicine Faculty of Health Sciences University (2018-2020). He is a member of the Turkish Surgical Society , International Pilonidal Society and Turkish Society of Colon and Rectal Surgery . He started to worked as an Associate Professor at the Department of General Surgery of Medicine Faculty of Malatya Turgut Özal University (From October 2020) Dr.Kanat is an author of about more than 100 publications including 5 book chapters, as well as a member of review boards of several journals.",institutionString:"Malatya Turgut Özal University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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1. Introduction
Triazole pesticides derivatives represent the most important category of fungicides that have excellent protective, curative and eradicant power towards a wide spectrum of crop diseases [1]. The fungicide group, demethylation inhibitors (DMI), which contain the triazole fungicides, was introduced in the mid-1970s. These fungicides are highly effective against many different fungal diseases, especially powdery mildews, rusts, and many leaf-spotting fungi. [2].
The number of pesticides registered for use increases every year and many pesticides that have been banned for health reasons are also still being used illegally. And introduction of new pesticides in the field of residue analysis also cause the laboratories involved in the analysis to face more challenging task. This leads to the development of many multi-residue methods by various researchers [3-7].
In the past, pesticides and their degradation products, which are generally thermolabile, non-volatile and exhibit medium to high polarity have been analysed using GC with specific detectors such as ECD, NPD and FPD [8-12]. Due to the drawbacks of the separation techniques such as sensitivity, insufficient number of analytes that can be analysed and the need for confirmation either with different column polarity or detectors, GC/MS has become the primary approach to analyse all classes of GC-amenable pesticides [3, 13-14]. Later, HPLC combined with a diode array UV detector was established as a complementary technique to GC to analyse pesticides and their degradation products [15]. However it is not sufficient to use only the UV spectrum for identification of the analytes. Robust atmospheric pressure ionization (API) ion source designs, which consist of electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) were developed and very powerful and reliable LC/MS instruments have been introduced commercially. The atmospheric pressure interfaces has been used to broaden the range of analytes to be analysed by liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry [16-17].
Solvents such as acetone, ethyl acetate and acetonitrile may be used for extraction. However, acetonitrile is the recommended solvent and is being used widely for QuEChERS method because when salts are added, it separates more easily from water than acetone. Ethyl acetate has the advantage of partial miscibility with water but it co-extracts with lipids and waxes giving lower recoveries for acid-base pesticides [6]. A study by Lehotay S.J et al in 2010 [18] showed that results using acetate-buffered MeCN gave more accurate (true and precise) results for all analytes in LC-MS/MS than EtOAc. On the contrary EtOAc is a better solvent for GC rather than MeCN as demonstrated by the slightly more consistent recoveries and reproducibility overall in GC-MS using EtOAc.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Equipment
LC/MS instrument
The chromatographic system used to analyse the extract is a Waters Alliance Separations Module 2695 equipped with a quaternary solvent delivery system, autosampler and column heater. A Waters ZQ 4000 single quadrupole Mass Spectrometer was used.
Chopper and Vortex mixer
Robot Coupe R5 V.V (Jackson, MS) and OMNI mixer homogenizer (OMNI International, USA) were used to cut the fruit and vegetable samples into smaller pieces. Genie II vortex mixer was used to swirl the tubes.
Centrifuge
Sorvall Legend RT Plus / Thermo Scientific were used for the centrifugation.
Balance
A Shimadzu top-loading balance Libror AEG-220 was used to weigh the chopped samples and solid reagents and a Shimadzu analytical balance Libror EB-3200 HU was used in the preparation of stock standard solutions.
Vials and tubes
For the extraction step, 50mL centrifuge tubes were employed. 15mL graduated centrifuge tubes were used for dispersive SPE in the method.
Solvent Evaporator
Zymark nitrogen evaporator Turbovap LP was used to concentrate the extracts and to facilitate solvent exchange when necessary.
2.2. Chemicals and reagents
The fungicides: cyproconazole, difenoconazole, fenbuconazole, hexaconazole, myclobutanil, propiconazole, tebuconazole, triadimefon and triadimenol were purchased from Pestanal, Riedel-de Haen (Seelze, Germany) with purity ranging from 95-100%. Acetonitrile, methanol, ethyl acetate of HPLC grade and residue analysis grade were obtained from Labscan and Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Formic acid which was added to the mobile-phase acetonitrile was purchased from Fluka.
Salts used for the dispersive clean-up were anhydrous magnesium sulfate and sodium acetate which were obtained from Merck and Mallinckrodt. The SPE sorbent used was Bondesil PSA, 40µm from Varian. Deionized water (<8cm MΏ resistivity) was obtained from the Milli-Q Advantage A10 Pure Water System (Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA). All solvents were filtered using a 0.45µm nylon membrane filter from Whatman (Maidstone, England).
2.2.1. Stock and working solutions
Stock solutions of 1000 µg/ml were prepared in methanol by dissolving approximately 0.020g of the individual standards in 20mL of methanol and stored at 4oC in a reagent bottle. Intermediate standard solution mixtures of 50 and 10 µg/ml were prepared in methanol and standard working solutions at various concentrations were prepared daily by appropriate dilution of the stock solution or the intermediate standard solution in methanol.
2.2. Methods
2.3.1. Extraction and clean-up
The extraction method used was based on QuEChERS method [6] and modified by Aysal et al., 2007 [7]. The samples were chopped into smaller pieces and homogenised using a food processor. 30g of the homogenised sample was placed in a 250ml borosilicate bottle and extracted with 60ml of ethyl acetate, 30g of anhydrous sodium sulfate and 5g of sodium hydrogen carbonate. 10 ml of the extract was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 2 min followed by clean-up with PSA sorbent and anhydrous magnesium sulfate. After clean-up, 5 mL of the extract was reduced to almost dryness under a stream of nitrogen and was redissolved in methanol.
2.3.2. Recovery studies
Four types of fruits and vegetables namely carrot, cabbage, tomato and orange were used for the recovery studies which represent root and tuber vegetables, brassica leafy vegetables, fruiting vegetables and citrus fruits according to the CODEX classification of commodities.
The samples for recovery determination were prepared by spiking with the standard solution. Each sample was fortified with nine triazole standards at 0.05, 0.5 and 1.0 µg/ml and five replicates at these fortification levels for each matrix. The fortified samples were allowed to stand for 30 min before extraction to allow the spiked solutions to penetrate the samples and attain the fungicide distribution in the samples.
2.3.3. Calibration
Quantification of triazoles were performed and compared by using calibration standards involving both matrix-matching by adding standards to blank extracts and non-matrix matching (standards in solutions) based on a calibration curve. For matrix matching, blank extracts were fortified with the pesticide working standard after dispersive clean-up. The calibration solutions were prepared daily at 7 levels of concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 2.0 µg/ml. The LOD’s and LOQ’s were calculated by multiplying the standard deviation of the calculated amount for each triazole by 3 and 10 respectively.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. High Performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
3.1.1. HPLC
A C18 reversed phase column (4.6mm x 75mm, 3.5 um particle size) was used in this study to generate less back pressure as it allows more flexibility to adjust the flow-rate. A short column was also used to obtain shorter separation times that produce narrower peaks because there is less time for diffusive broadening. The small particle size used helps to generate more pressure and generally give higher separation efficiencies. Smaller particle size column is necessary to maintain resolution in the short column used. The HPLC column had been run at different flow rates; 0.8 mL/min, 1 mL/min, 1.2 mL/min and 1.4 mL/min during optimization and it was found that it gives better resolution at a flow rate of 1.2 mL/min A common operating temperature is 40oC as higher temperature is better in producing sharp peaks and earlier elution [19]. For this study, the effects of column temperature were also evaluated at various temperatures; 20oC, 25oC, 30oC, 35oC and 40oC. Figure 1 showed that 25oC column temperature found to give better separation after running triazole standard mixture.
Figure 1.
Acetonitrile/ H2O mobile phase, column temperature 25oC
Figure 2.
Acetonitrile/ H2O mobile phase, column temperature 35oC
In this work, water and acetonitrile with 0.1% acetic acid were used for all liquid chromatographic separations. No buffers were used. Two types of additives have been added to the mobile phase that is acetic acid and formic acid during optimization and it was found that by adding 0.1% of acetic acid gives better resolution than formic acid. The results are also more stable. The additive was added to improve the chromatographic shape and to provide a source of protons in the reversed phase and to enhance and control the formation of ions. A study on water:methanol with both 0.1% acetic acid and formic acid was also done but it did not give good resolution and the results are not reproducible.
The reversed phase solvents are installed on the channels A and C. Channel A is the aqueous solvent (water) and channel C is the organic solvent (acetonitrile). Silica dissolves at high pH, therefore it is not recommended to use solvents that exceed pH7. The pH for acetonitrile was in the range of pH 2.5 – pH 3.5.
Figure 3.
Chromatogram of triazole standards mixture at 0.5 µg/mL
3.2. Mass spectrometry
Prior to triazole analysis, the chromatographic parameters including the heated nebuliser parameters were optimized. LCMS infusion was carried out to examine the ionization and fragmentation patterns of the analytes. The APCI source was used in the positive ion mode. A full scan was used for the MS optimization and a selected ion monitoring (SIM) was used for the monitoring of the selected ion. Table 1 showed the triazoles and quantitation ion.
Analyte
tR, min
Quantitation ion, m/z
Triadimenol
7.66
296.1
Cyproconazole
8.55
292.1
Myclobutanil
10.08
289.1
Triadimefon
10.48
294.1
Tebuconazole
10.96
308.1
Hexaconazole
11.85
314.1
Fenbuconazole
12.25
337.1
Propiconazole
12.82
342.1
Difenoconazole
13.14
406.2
Table 1.
List of Triazole, their retention time and Quantitation ions
Figure 4.
Mass spectra of triazoles; Fenbuconazole (337.1), Difenoconazole (406.1), Myclobutanil (289.1), Tebuconazole (308.1), Propiconazole (342.1), Triadimefon (294.1), Triadimenol (296.1), Hexaconazole (314.1) and Cyproconazole (292.1 ).
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2.1. Mass spectrometer tuning
Before the chromatographic method was established, the mass spectrometer was tuned to optimize the conditions of parameter for both the formation and detection of ions during an analysis. It is also done to increase the sensitivity and to optimize the mass peak resolution for the application. Optimization of both the ionization process and ion transportation in the mass spectrometer is important to achieve high sensitivity and selectivity and low detection limits in liquid chromatography / atmospheric pressure chemical ionization spectrometry (LC/APCI-MS) analysis. The optimization was done by changing one-variable-at-a time while the others are kept constant.
The mass spectrometer tuning was done using two methods; by infusing a sample with the syringe pump and also from the syringe pump into the LC flow line. This is to see the effect of mobile phase flow rate and composition on signal intensity and to allow optimization of the source parameters without making numerous injections in order to achieve parameters giving the highest sensitivity. Infusion experiments were carried out to examine the ionization and fragmentation patterns of the analytes. The instrument parameter; corona voltage, cone voltage, desolvation flow and temperature, cone flow and mass resolution were optimized to provide the best possible sensitivity by infusion. Corona voltage, was studied in the range from 3.5 V to 5 V and cone voltage studied in the range from 25 V to 35 V.
Figure 5.
Mass of triazoles after tuning; (308.1), Fenbuconazole (337.1), Hexaconazole (314.1), Propiconazole (342.1), Triadimenol (296.1), Cyproconazole (292.1), Myclobutanil (289.1), Triadimefon (294.1) and Difenoconazole (406.2).
3.3. Sample preparation and extraction
3.3.1. Sample preparation
The analysis is performed on a subsample of the laboratory sample, after appropriate comminution. This is to ensure the sub-sample is representative of the original laboratory samples.
In this study, 1-2 kg laboratory samples; cabbage, carrot, tomato and orange were used as representative samples. The laboratory samples were processed in a large chopper (Robot Coupe R5 V.V) and were blended to a consistent texture. Then 200g of the comminuted samples was transferred to another container and homogenized with the OMNI mixer homogenizer until homogeneous. This step is taken so that the 30 g samples taken for extraction are highly representative of the initial sample. Well comminuted samples can improve the shaking based extraction and less time is spent on the overall homogenization of the large initial laboratory samples [20]. An extremely homogeneous sample also maximizes surface area and ensures better extraction efficiencies.
30 g sub-sample was used by Aysal et al., 2007 [7] based on a study by Maestroni et al. 2000 [21-22] that showed results produced using the same chopper in the same laboratory gave representative results within generally ≤ 8% relative error of the mean concentration of the original sample.
3.3.2. Sample extraction
In contrast with acetone and acetonitrile-based methods, in which SPE is commonly employed, it has been reported only occasionally or no clean-up for ethyl acetate-based methods; however in this study dispersive-SPE clean-up was performed. Mol, H.G.J et al., 2007 [23] showed that laborious steps in multi residue analysis can be replaced by more efficient alternatives including the clean-up process. Solid-phase extraction previously used in the clean-up procedure which involves less dilution and is less laborious can be replaced by dispersive SPE, as described by Anastassiades et al., 20 [6].
SPE clean up used plastic cartridges containing various amounts of sorbent material and the procedures involve conditioning, sample transfer, elution, and evaporative re-concentration [23]. For this study, in the dispersive-SPE clean-up, 0.25 g primary secondary amine (PSA) and 1.5 g of anhydrous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) were added to a 10 mL aliquot of the sample extract and the mixture is mixed using a vortex mixer to evenly distribute the SPE material and facilitate the clean up process. The sorbent is then separated by centrifugation and the supernatant is ready for analysis. The function of the sorbent is to retain matrix components and not the analytes of interest. In some instances, other sorbents or mixed sorbents can be used depending on the samples and analytes.
A difficulty that was encountered by using ethyl acetate is that some of the most polar pesticides do not readily partition into ethyl acetate. It co-extracts with lipids and waxes, giving lower recoveries for the acid-base pesticides, it is sufficiently polar to penetrate into the cells of the matrix and it dissolves a great number of polar pesticides and their metabolites. On the other hand, ethyl acetate is partially miscible with water and the advantage is that it makes the addition of other non-polar solvents to separate water from the extract unnecessary. To increase the recoveries of polar compounds, large amounts of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) are usually added in the procedures using ethyl acetate to bind the water. Polar co-solvents, such as methanol and ethanol, have been used to increase the polarity of the organic phase [23-26].
Different types of samples have different pH values that can affect the recoveries of pH-susceptible pesticides and their stability in the extracts. Therefore the pH of the extracts for some samples must be controlled [6, 20, 27]. Most pesticides are more stable at lower pH. Problematic pesticides that are strongly protonated at low pH the extracts must be buffered in the range of pH 2-7 [28]. The pH at which the extraction is performed can also influence the co-extraction of matrix compounds and pesticide stability. The pH of the samples extracted in this study was between pH 2.5 – pH 4.0. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) was added in the method to give a consistent pH during extraction independent of the initial sample pH.
Aysal P. et al., 2007 [7] mixed the sample 1:1 (w:w) with anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and used a 2:1 (v:w) ethyl acetate : sample ratio because it had been evaluated previously to achieve high recoveries. It resulted in good extraction efficiency and is practical with regard to achieving phase separation and avoidance of emulsions. [23-25].
The two conditions most relevant to extraction efficiency are the sample-to-solvent ratio and the addition of salt, which in ethyl acetate-based multi-residue methods has always been sodium sulfate. A study done by Mol, H.G.J et al. in 2003 [23] showed that the addition of salt improves the extraction efficiency for polar pesticides.
3.3.4. Dispersive-SPE clean-up
The purpose of salt addition is to induce phase separation. The salting-out effect also influences analyte partition, which is dependent upon the solvent used for extraction. The concentration of salt can influence the percentage of water in the organic phase and can adjust its "polarity". In the QuEChERS method, acetonitrile alone is often sufficient to perform excellent extraction efficiency without the need to add non-polar co-solvents that dilute the extract and make the extracts too non-polar. By using deuterated solvents in the nuclear magnetic resonance studies, Anastassiades and colleagues [6] investigated the effect of various salt additions on the recovery and other extraction parameters. They studied the effect of polarity differences between the two immiscible layers. The use of magnesium sulfate as a drying salt to reduce the water phase helped to improve recoveries by promoting partitioning of the pesticides into the organic layer. To bind a significant fraction of water, the amount of magnesium sulfate exceeded the saturation concentration. The supplemental use of sodium chloride helps to control the polarity of the extraction solvents and thus influences the degree of matrix clean up of the QuEChERS method but too much of this salt will reduce the organic layer\'s ability to partition polar pesticides.
Dispersive solid-phase extraction is similar in some respects to matrix solid-phase dispersion developed by Barker [28-29] but in this instance, the sorbent is added to an aliquot of the extract rather than to the original solid sample as in matrix solid-phase extraction. In dispersive solid-phase extraction, a smaller amount of sorbent is used only because an aliquot of the sample is subjected to the clean up. Compared with SPE, dispersive solid-phase extraction takes less time and uses less labour and lower amounts of solvent without the extra steps such as channeling, analyte or matrix breakthrough, or preconditioning of SPE cartridges. Just as a drying agent is sometimes added to the top of an SPE cartridge, magnesium sulfate is added simultaneously with the SPE sorbent to remove much of the excess water and to improve the analyte partitioning to provide better clean up.
3.4. Quantitative determinations
All samples were quantified using the method of external standards. The linear concentration range was derived from the calibration graphs. Seven-point calibration curves for each compound were found to be linear ranging from 0.05 to 2.0 µg/ml, with 1/x weighting and with correlation coefficients (r2) of >0.995. SIM traces were integrated for quantitation purposes. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were estimated from the computer-generated software using a signal-to noise ratio (S/N) program. The LOD and LOQ were determined based on a signal to noise ratio of 3 and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was based on a signal to noise ratio of 10.
The internal standard was evaluated qualitatively only to confirm the injection of the sample extract. Normalization against the internal standard was not considered feasible because of unpredictable and varying matrix effects for several of the matrices studied in this work. A matrix-matched standard was also prepared by spiking the final extract; a fortification standard was added to the blank sample that had been extracted using the same procedure.
3.5. Pesticide recoveries
Recovery of pesticides from the fortified samples was calculated relative to that from a solvent standard and a matrix-matched standard. The acceptable percentage ranges for recovery (accuracy) and CV (precision) was based on CODEX criterion for method validation.
Recoveries and coefficients of variation of triazoles from fortified orange samples are shown in Table 2 and Fig. 6. Samples were spiked at 0.05mg/kg, 0.5mg/kg and 1mg/kg. The recoveries for these triazoles were from 60% to 145% with CV of 2.3 to 13.1% Most of the compound recoveries give more than 70% and fufills the codex acceptable recovery range. The recovery for Cyproconazole, tebuconazole and propiconazole at 1.0 mg/kg and myclobutanil at 0.05 mg/kg falls outside the acceptable range but the CV is within the acceptable range. Overall average recovery was 95% at all 3 fortification levels and all compounds met the CODEX CV acceptable range.
Orange
1.0 mg kg1
0.5 mg kg-1
0.05 mg kg-1
Triadimenol
9.3 (2.3)
59.6 (7)
89.1 (11.4)
Cyproconazole
128.8 (4.9)
88.9 (4.7)
75.2 (4.9)
Myclobutanil
103.0 (3.9)
83.9 (5.5)
144.9 (4.8)
Triadimefon
89.7 (2.7)
65.7 (7.1)
85.9 (3.1)
Tebuconazole
142.4 (5.5)
98.5 (4.0)
100.9 (5.3)
Fenbuconazole
111.4 (3.9)
73.1 (5.9)
91.84 (13.1)
Hexaconazole
117.0 (7)
87.0 (5.4)
74.8 (6.4)
Propiconazole
121.5 (3.2)
75.0 (4.7)
69.4 (9.8)
Difenoconazole
118.7 (4.3)
86.2 (5.9)
87.7 (9)
Table 2.
Recovery of Triazoles in orange (n=5)
Figure 6.
Recoveries fortified in Orange (n=5 at each level).
The recoveries and coefficients of variation of triazoles from fortified cabbage samples are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 7. Samples were spiked at 0.05mg/kg, 0.5mg/kg and 1mg/kg. The recoveries for 9 triazoles were within the acceptable range for 1 mg/kg fortification levels. They ranged between 98-120% (CV of 2.6% to 7.1%). Recoveries obtained at 0.5 mg/kg were in the range of 76-100% with CV of 4.1 to 18.9%). The recoveries for cyproconazole and fenbuconazole at 0.5 mg/kg were in the acceptable range but CV% was out of range. Recoveries for cabbage spiked at 0.05mg/kg were between 53-98%. A lower recovery was obtained for cyproconazole and tebuconazole while fenbuconazole was almost all lost (0.7%) and the CV was also so high (149.9%). The overall average recovery was 91%.
Cabbage
1.0 mg kg1
0.5 mg kg-1
0.05 mg kg1
Triadimenol
115.8 (2.6)
99.0 (4.1)
88.7 (2.5)
Cyproconazole
98.6 (7.1)
76.0 (16.8)
53.5 (13.0)
Myclobutanil
119.9 (2.7)
98.8 (6.3)
92.1 (4.1)
Triadimefon
112.9 (6.0)
100.3 (5.1)
101.9 (2.3)
Tebuconazole
98.9 (3.4)
77.8 (10.0)
58.9 (6.9)
Fenbuconazole
101.8 (6.1)
76.5 (18.9)
0.7 (149.4)
Hexaconazole
115.6 (2.7)
94.2 (8.3)
71.5 (3.8)
Propiconazole
113.15 (4.3)
96.6 (4.8)
96.4 (3.6)
Difenoconazole
112.4 (5.5)
95.6 (8.1)
98.3 (9.9)
Table 3.
Recovery of Triazoles in cabbage (n=5)
The recovery results obtained from spiked tomato at different levels was between 66-144% (see Table 4). The CV for all compounds at different fortification levels were in the range of 2.6 – 11.9% and met the CV acceptable range except for fenbuconazole (16.9%). The recovery for propiconazole at all the 3 concentrations of 0.05 mg/kg and 0.5 mg/kg spiked did not meet the acceptance limit but the CV’s met the acceptable limit. The overall average recovery was 105.3%.
Figure 7.
Recoveries fortified in Cabbage (n=5 at each level)
Tomato
1.0 mg kg1
0.5 mg kg-1
0.05 mg kg-1
Triadimenol
105.7(10.3)
95.7 (8.9)
87.8 (9.1)
Cyproconazole
97.1 (4.2)
88.8 (8.3)
92.6 (11.9)
Myclobutanil
91.9 (8.3)
88.0 (8.6)
66.2 (10.9)
Triadimefon
103.6 (9.1)
96.4 (6.3)
118.9 (10.7)
Tebuconazole
105.6 (8.8)
88.9 (8.9)
115.2 (10.3)
Fenbuconazole
104.0 (2.6)
93.8 (5.8)
103.4 (16.9)
Hexaconazole
108.3 (9.4)
86.6 (10.0)
84.9 (8.0)
Propiconazole
188.0(10.2)
144.7 (4.6)
175.6 (7.1)
Difenoconazole
107.1(15.7)
99.7 (9.7)
105.2 (10.7)
Table 4.
Recovery of Triazoles in tomato (n=5)
Figure 8.
Recoveries fortified in tomato (n=5 at each level)
The recoveries for all spiked triazoles at 3 concentration levels in carrot are shown in Table 5 and Figure 9. As shown in Table 5, the recoveries for carrot spiked at 0.05 mg/kg were quite low for most of the analytes, between 48-111% with CV in the range of 5.4 to 56.6%. The recovery spiked at 0.5 mg/kg was between 68-85% but difenoconazole recovery was very high at 151%. Contrary to the recovery spiked at 0.05 mg/kg, recoveries spiked at 1 mg/kg were very high (more than 100%) for most compounds between 86-142% and CV for all compounds did not meet the range. The overall average recovery was 90.7% for all fortification levels.
Carrot
1.0 mg kg-1
0.5 mg kg-1
1.0 mg kg-1
Triadimenol
86.0 (15.2)
69.8 (7.4)
48.3 (6.1)
Cyproconazole
113.0 (14.2)
72.9(11.0)
64.7 (8.6)
Myclobutanil
126.0 (14.4)
75.3 (8.2)
54.7 (5.4)
Triadimefon
121.0 (18.8)
68.6 (8.2)
50.4 (10.8)
Tebuconazole
142.0 (15.5)
75.5 (7.3)
73.9 (46.7)
Fenbuconazole
109.0 (14.3)
74.4 (8.0)
51.0 (7.4)
Hexaconazole
115.0 (16.2)
85.5 (8.6)
66.5 (6.6)
Propiconazole
137.0 (14.9)
72.3 (7.1)
110.6 (56.6)
Difenoconazole
121.0 (15.8)
151.0 (6.8)
111.4 (6.1)
Table 5.
Recovery of Triazoles in carrot (n=5)
Figure 9.
Recoveries fortified in Carrot (n=5 at each level)
4. Conclusion
Lower recoveries for some analytes in certain matrices and at certain concentrations in pesticide residue analysis could be due to the degradation of base sensitive pesticides in higher pH samples, or degradation of acid sensitive pesticides in lower pH samples. And protonization of basic pesticides in acidic conditions reduces partition into organic layer.
For consistent and higher recoveries, some considerations that we need to look into are the homogeneity of the samples, the choice of solvent, sorbent(s) and salt(s) used during clean-up process. The EtOAc modified QuEChERS method was demonstrated to provide consistent and reproducible recoveries for tomato, cabbage and orange for most triazole compounds but not for carrot. High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry by atmospheric pressure ionisation can be used for the identification of triazole fungicides in vegetables and additional confirmatory is not needed.
More sensitive analytical methods such as LC-QTof (Liquid chromatography high resolution time-of-flight), orbitrap mass analyzers (LC-HR-MS), LC-MS/MS that have higher sensitivity and specificity can also be used. LC-QTof, LC-MS/MS can be used for screening and confirmation work and need no additional confirmatory. Liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution time-of-flight or orbitrap mass analyzers (LC-HR-MS) seems to open new and attractive possibilities for residue analysis [30-31].
Acknowledgement
The author wish to thank the Director and Deputy Director of Health and Environmental Department, Kuala Lumpur City Hall for their support of this project and Mohd. Fairuz, Assistant Science Offcer of Food Quality Laboratory, Kuala Lumpur City Hall for the technical assistance.
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Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Equipment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Chemicals and reagents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Stock and working solutions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2. Methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.1. Extraction and clean-up",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.2. Recovery studies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.3. Calibration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. High Performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.1. HPLC",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2. Mass spectrometry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.1. Mass spectrometer tuning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3. Sample preparation and extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.3.1. Sample preparation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.3.2. Sample extraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.3.4. Dispersive-SPE clean-up",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.4. Quantitative determinations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.5. Pesticide recoveries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"4. Conclusion ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"Acknowledgement",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'WuY. SLeeH. Kand LiS. F. Y2001JChromatographyA., 912171179\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'Mueller, 2006]'},{id:"B3",body:'FillionJSauvéFand SelwynJ2000Multiresidue method for the determination of residues of 251 pesticides in fruits and vegetables by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection.J. AOAC Int. 83698713'},{id:"B4",body:'SNemotoKSasakiSEtoISaitoHSakaiTTakahashiYTonogaiTNagayamaSHorYMaekawaand MToyoda2000J.Food Hyg. Soc. Japan 41, 233-241 (in Japanese).'},{id:"B5",body:'HObanaKAkutsuMOkihashiand SHori2001Analyst 12615291534\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'AnastassiadesMLehotayS. JŠtajnbaherDand SchenckF. 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AOAC Int. 83680697'},{id:"B15",body:'WyliePand ChinK. M2001Labplus International- September/October'},{id:"B16",body:'AguilarC; Ferrer, I.; Borrul, F.; Marce, R.M. (1998J. Chromatography. A, 794 (1/2), 147-164'},{id:"B17",body:'AguilarC; Penalver, S.; Pocurull, E. Borrull, F.; Marce, R.M. (1998J. Chromatography. A, 795 (1), 105-116'},{id:"B18",body:'LehotayS. JKyungA. SKwonHKoeksukwiwatUFuWMastrovskaKHohEand LeepipatpiboonN2010Journal of Chromatography A. 121725482560'},{id:"B19",body:'GuzettaA2001Reverse Phase HPLC Basics for LC/MS, An Ion Source tutorial.'},{id:"B20",body:'LehotayS. JDe KokAHiemstraMand Van BodegravenP2005Journal of AOAC International. 882\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'MaestroniBGhodsAEl-BidaouiMRathorNTonTAmbrusA2000In Prin-ciples and Practices of Method Validation; Fajgelj, A., Ambrus, A.,Eds.; The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, England, 4958'},{id:"B22",body:'MaestroniBGhodsAEl-BidaouiMRathorNJarjuO. PTonTAmbrusA2000In Prin-ciples and Practices of Method Validation; Fajgelj, A., Ambrus, A.,Eds.; TheRoyal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, England. 5974\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'Mol HGJ et al2007'},{id:"B24",body:'KadenczkiLZoltanAGardiIAmbrusAGyorfiLReeseGEbingW1992JAoacInt., 75, (1), 53-61.'},{id:"B25",body:'HolstegeD. Met al1994'},{id:"B26",body:'HollandP. TBoydA. JMalcolmC. P2000In Prin-ciples and Practices of Method Validation; Fajgelj, A., Ambrus, A.,Eds.; The Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, England,;2940'},{id:"B27",body:'LehotayS. J2007JAoacmt. 90485520'},{id:"B28",body:'S. ABarkerLCGC, Special Supplement, Review on Modern Solid-Phase Extraction (May 8 EOF15 EOF1998'},{id:"B29",body:'S. ABarker2000JChromatogrA. 8806368\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'Thurman EM; Ferrer, I,; and Fernández-Alba A.R. (2005J Chromatogr A. 106712734\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'PicóYand BarcelóD2008Trends Anal. Chem. 27821835\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nor Haslinda Hanim Bt Khalil",address:null,affiliation:'
Food Quality Laboratory, Health And Environmental, Dept., Kuala Lumpur City Hall, Selayang, Kuala Lumpur
Dept. of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur
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Amorim",authors:[{id:"16970",title:"Prof.",name:"Zenilda",middleName:"L.",surname:"Cardeal",fullName:"Zenilda Cardeal",slug:"zenilda-cardeal"},{id:"16984",title:"Dr.",name:"Leiliane",middleName:"C.A.",surname:"Amorim",fullName:"Leiliane Amorim",slug:"leiliane-amorim"},{id:"16985",title:"Prof.",name:"Amauri",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Amauri Souza",slug:"amauri-souza"}]},{id:"13029",title:"Micropollutant Degradation Mechanism",slug:"micropollutant-degradation-mechanism",signatures:"Brigita Tepuš, Irena Petrinić and Marjana Simonič",authors:[{id:"15110",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Petrinic",fullName:"Irena Petrinic",slug:"irena-petrinic"},{id:"15704",title:"Dr.",name:"Brigita",middleName:null,surname:"Tepuš",fullName:"Brigita Tepuš",slug:"brigita-tepus"},{id:"16583",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjana",middleName:null,surname:"Simonič",fullName:"Marjana Simonič",slug:"marjana-simonic"}]},{id:"13030",title:"Bacterial-Degradation of Pesticides Residue in Vegetables during Fermentation",slug:"bacterial-degradation-of-pesticides-residue-in-vegetables-during-fermentation",signatures:"Aslan Azizi",authors:[{id:"15701",title:"Dr.",name:"Aslan",middleName:null,surname:"Azizi",fullName:"Aslan Azizi",slug:"aslan-azizi"}]},{id:"13107",title:"Interpretation and Modelling of Environmental Behaviour of Diverse Pesticides by Revealing Photodecomposition Mechanisms",slug:"interpretation-and-modelling-of-environmental-behaviour-of-diverse-pesticides-by-revealing-photodeco",signatures:"Attila Kiss and Diána Virág",authors:[{id:"14950",title:"Dr.",name:"Attila",middleName:null,surname:"Kiss",fullName:"Attila Kiss",slug:"attila-kiss"},{id:"14973",title:"Dr.",name:"Diána",middleName:null,surname:"Virág",fullName:"Diána Virág",slug:"diana-virag"}]},{id:"13031",title:"Degradation of Organochlorine and Organophosphorus Pesticides by Photocatalysis: Chlorpiryfos and Endosulfan Case Study",slug:"degradation-of-organochlorine-and-organophosphorus-pesticides-by-photocatalysis-chlorpiryfos-and-end",signatures:"Rosalina González Forero",authors:[{id:"14241",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Forero",fullName:"Rosalina Gonzalez Forero",slug:"rosalina-gonzalez-forero"}]},{id:"13032",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) for Removal of Pesticides from Aqueous Media",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-aops-for-removal-of-pesticides-from-aqueous-media",signatures:"Marco A. Quiroz, Erick R. Bandala and Carlos A. Martínez-Huitle",authors:[{id:"15324",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Quiroz Alfaro",fullName:"Marco Antonio Quiroz Alfaro",slug:"marco-antonio-quiroz-alfaro"},{id:"16897",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bandala González",fullName:"Erick Roberto Bandala González",slug:"erick-roberto-bandala-gonzalez"},{id:"16898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Huitle",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Martínez Huitle",slug:"carlos-alberto-martinez-huitle"}]},{id:"13033",title:"Low-Cost Sorbent for Removing Pesticides during Water Treatment",slug:"low-cost-sorbent-for-removing-pesticides-during-water-treatment",signatures:"Katarzyna Ignatowicz",authors:[{id:"15053",title:"Prof.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Ignatowicz",fullName:"Katarzyna Ignatowicz",slug:"katarzyna-ignatowicz"}]},{id:"13034",title:"Influence of the Activated Carbon Nature and the Aqueous Matrix on the Pesticides Adsorption",slug:"influence-of-the-activated-carbon-nature-and-the-aqueous-matrix-on-the-pesticides-adsorption",signatures:"Natividad Miguel, María P. Ormad, Rosa Mosteo, Jorge Rodríguez and José L. Ovelleiro",authors:[{id:"14648",title:"Dr.",name:"Natividad",middleName:null,surname:"Miguel",fullName:"Natividad Miguel",slug:"natividad-miguel"},{id:"14649",title:"Prof.",name:"María P.",middleName:null,surname:"Ormad",fullName:"María P. Ormad",slug:"maria-p.-ormad"},{id:"14650",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Mosteo",fullName:"Rosa Mosteo",slug:"rosa-mosteo"},{id:"14651",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",fullName:"Jorge Rodríguez",slug:"jorge-rodriguez"},{id:"14652",title:"Dr.",name:"José L.",middleName:null,surname:"Ovelleiro",fullName:"José L. Ovelleiro",slug:"jose-l.-ovelleiro"}]},{id:"13035",title:"Adsorption Properties of Sediments for Pesticides: Investigation with Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometry",slug:"adsorption-properties-of-sediments-for-pesticides-investigation-with-supercritical-fluid-extraction-",signatures:"Hiroaki Chikushi, Natsuko Yoshida and Kei Toda",authors:[{id:"14786",title:"Dr.",name:"Kei",middleName:null,surname:"Toda",fullName:"Kei Toda",slug:"kei-toda"},{id:"16534",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Chikushi",fullName:"Hiroaki Chikushi",slug:"hiroaki-chikushi"}]},{id:"13036",title:"Sorption of Pesticides on Natural Geosorbents",slug:"sorption-of-pesticides-on-natural-geosorbents",signatures:"Jean-Pierre Gagné, Bruno Gouteux, Youssouf Djibril Soubaneh, and Jean-Rock Brindle",authors:[{id:"14741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Gagné",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Gagné",slug:"jean-pierre-gagne"},{id:"14761",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Rock",middleName:null,surname:"Brindle",fullName:"Jean-Rock Brindle",slug:"jean-rock-brindle"},{id:"16683",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssouf Djibril",middleName:null,surname:"Soubaneh",fullName:"Youssouf Djibril Soubaneh",slug:"youssouf-djibril-soubaneh"},{id:"16684",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Gouteux",fullName:"Bruno Gouteux",slug:"bruno-gouteux"}]},{id:"13037",title:"Pesticides as a Waste Problem with Examples from Norway",slug:"pesticides-as-a-waste-problem-with-examples-from-norway",signatures:"Ketil Haarstad",authors:[{id:"16783",title:"Dr.",name:"Ketil",middleName:null,surname:"Haarstad",fullName:"Ketil Haarstad",slug:"ketil-haarstad"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67399",title:"Benefits of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Application to Crop Production under Water Scarcity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86595",slug:"benefits-of-arbuscular-mycorrhizal-fungi-application-to-crop-production-under-water-scarcity",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Water scarcity jeopardizes not only originally arid, semi-arid regions but also agricultural areas in which farmers obtain flourishing horticulture based on adequate water resources. Nonetheless, ongoing climate change supposed to amplify the frequency and severity of drought in different regions of the globe [1] can wipe out the so far achievements. Drought is the most devastating stress that remarkably diminishes crop productivity more than any other stress factor [2]. Water constraints provoke stomatal closure with a subsequent reduction of CO2 influx resulting in a decrease in photosynthetic activity and carbon partitioning [3]. Also, water scarcity has a negative influence on nutrient supply, reducing phosphate availability. Severe drought profoundly affects plant physiology, growth, development, and reproduction, and exerts substantial losses in crop yield as well as reduces crop quality. In fact, over the past 35 years, worldwide drought inflicted yield decrease by 40% in maize and 21% in wheat production [4]. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop strategies to make agriculture more resilient and to alleviate the adverse impacts of water scarcity on crop yield. Among these strategies, there has been an increasing interest in beneficial soil microbes including arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi.
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Notably, under natural conditions, plants frequently interact with microbes, which directly mediate plant responses to environmental adversities. Some microbe-plant interactions lead to a mitigation of stress-related damages and improvement of plant tolerance to stressful conditions [5]. As a crucial element of soils, microbes are an integral part of the agricultural ecosystem. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are ubiquitous soil microorganisms, which can form a symbiotic association with most terrestrial plants. These beneficial microbes have been proved to offer an array of benefits to host plants [6]. During mycorrhization, besides significant improvement of plant nutritional status, AMF can enhance plant performance and tolerance against several stresses, particularly drought stress [7]. The exploitation of AMF is considered as one of the most efficient practices to increase plant tolerance to environmental stresses [8]. Previous studies illustrate the substantial contribution of AM symbiosis to improved stress plant tolerance to water deficit by various mycorrhizal benefits such as strengthened water and nutrient uptake, alterations in host physiology, for example, photosynthesis, osmotic adjustment, phytohormones, and more efficient antioxidative systems [9, 10, 11]. This chapter presents the current knowledge on AMF application to crop production under water deficit. Variable benefits of AMF are also discussed to explain the reason why positive outcomes of AM colonization are not always the case. Finally, challenges of the fungal symbiont application are highlighted for practical use in crop production.
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2. General features of AMF
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AMF are obligate root symbionts inhabiting almost all terrestrial ecosystems. They can form a symbiotic association with around 80% of vascular plants and with approximately 90% of agricultural plants [12]. In this mutual association, the fungus receives 10–20% of total photosynthates [13] and lipids [14] from the host plant, whereas the plant is enhanced through uptake of water and mineral nutrient by the mycorrhizal partner [12]. AMF are the most common fungi in soils and represent 9–55% of the soil microbe biomass and 5–36% of the total soil biomass [15]. These fungi play a vital role in agricultural ecosystems, since they can improve plant nutrient, water status, and plant growth [12], enhance survival rate and development of seedlings, crop uniformity, and reproductive capacity [16], decrease the input of P and N fertilizer, and increase resistance or tolerance to environmental adversities [8, 17].
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Currently, AMF are classified as a member of phylum Glomeromycota including four orders (Archaeosporales, Diversisporales, Glomerales, and Paraglomerales), with 11 families, 25 genera, and nearly 250 species [18]. However, data based on next-generation sequencing of root samples [19] and recent results [20] suggest that its number may be an order of magnitude higher. Spores of AMF which are the major survival units of AMF have multi-nucleate, heterokaryotic structures [21], and are formed singly, in clusters or sporocarps in the soil, and within root tissue in some mycorrhiza species as well (Figure 1A–C). The development of AM symbiosis starts with signaling taking place before physical contact between the plant and the fungus. Both partners produce molecular signals triggering preparative responses in the other [22]. The mycorrhization process can be divided into distinct steps, consisting of germinating spores, hyphae differentiation, appressorium formation, penetration of the host root, intraradical hyphae formation, intercellular growth along with developed external mycelium (extraradical hyphae), and arbuscule formation, subsequently exchanging nutrients and carbohydrates between the host and fungus [23].
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Figure 1.
Tomato roots without (A) and with (B–D) staining showing AM fungal structures. The presence of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) structures (arbuscules, vesicles, intraradical hyphae, and spore) was assessed by means of an Olympus BX51 light microscope with Nomarski interference contrast optics, using an objective of 40×. Scale Bar representing 20 μm.
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The primary structures of AMF consist of coenocytic hyphae with unlimited growth in the rhizosphere called external hyphae, which penetrate the cortex layer of roots and form different organs. The extraradical hyphae merely in some species of Diversisporales [18] producing auxiliary cells could have functions in reproduction or nutrition and storage [24]. Mycelium outside the roots absorb mineral nutrients and water and subsequently transport them to the host plant via intraradical hyphae (Figure 1C,D) growing inside root cells [6]. Hyphae growing within roots form either the Paris-type or the Arum-type. The Paris-type is featured by intracellular mycelium development to shape coils, whereas the Arum-type is characterized by intercellular hyphae growth forming arbuscules [12] (Figure 1D), thereby establishing the nutrient exchange sites between AMF and the host plant [25]. Vesicles containing high quantity of lipids and glycogen are formed from intraradical hyphae at intercalary position (their terminal) in the root, functioning as nutrient storage, and propagules [23] but not all AMF produce vesicles.
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AMF species isolates differ in the ability to spread mycelia, the viability, structure, and possibility of anastomosis [26, 27]. Taxonomic variation in mycelium structure among AMF families was also observed [28]. Gigasporaceae are prone to possess vigorous, thickly aggregated mycelium with densities from 6 to 9 m cm−3, while Acaulosporaceae and Glomeraceae show a tendency to maintain thinly dispersed mycelium with densities from 1 to 2 m cm−3.
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3. Variable crop responses to AMF
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Although a majority of plants are responsive to AMF, plant species in families Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, and Urticaceae are rarely or never colonized by the symbiotic fungus [29]. How AMF evaluate the AM host and nonhost status of plant species is not well known. The current hypothesis proposes that nonmycorrhizal plant species lost orthologs of important putative genes, required for symbioses [30], and/or cannot synthesize or degrade strigolactones, essential signals for symbiosis establishment [31], and/or their root exudates constitute antifungal products [29]. Under certain conditions, some nonhost species develop rudimentary AM phenotypes described by Cosme et al. [30] giving a more in-depth explanation of this question.
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Utilization of AMF has become an appealing tool for sustainable agriculture due to the positive attributes of mycorrhizal symbiosis. Nevertheless, the opposite or neutral influence of AMF has also been found [32]. The obligate biotrophic life cycle of AMF which relies on photosynthates supplied by a nurturing autotrophic host is the key point; therefore, choosing the right partner (target plant) is crucial. Even though this widespread symbiont is thought to be a generalist due to low host specificity, each AMF species highly varies in the responsiveness to the host plant. Hence, the variable benefits of AM symbiosis exist among mycorrhiza species [10, 33]. The interaction between the host plant and AMF could range from mutualism to parasitism in which colonized plants exhibit a decrease in growth [34] owing to the carbon drainage in the host inflicted by the fungus [35]. Many factors that can affect the AM benefits to target plants include host plant genotypes, AMF species, and environmental conditions. Dissimilar plant responses to different AMF species under environmental adversities have been observed [11, 36]. Fascinatingly, AM benefits for plant fitness augment with adversity, supporting the concept of AM colonization as a ‘health insurance’ for host plants, in which the beneficial effects of AMF become more obvious under stressful environments [36]. Metabolites differentially accumulated in roots colonized by different fungal symbionts (Rhizophagus irregularis, Funneliformis mosseae, and Claroideoglomus etunicatum) under abiotic stresses, which may underlie their enhanced stress tolerance in host plants [36]. Cultivar differences in response to mycorrhizas have been reported in many crops such as tomato [37], pepper [38], wheat [39], maize [40], and some other crops [41]. For chickpea, only three of thirteen varieties with different genotypes and phenotypes were more positively responsive to AM mixed inoculation with Diversispora eburnea, Claroideoglomus etunicatum, and Glomus sp. [42]. More recently, twenty geographically different barrel clover (Medicago truncatula) accessions showed differences in their growth, stomatal conductance (gs), and AM colonization in response to Funneliformis mosseae treatment [43]. Also, root hydraulic conductivity, expression of the mycorrhiza-induced phosphate transporter gene (MtPT4), and five aquaporin genes (MtAQP1, MtPIP1, MtPIP2, MtNIP1, and MtNIP4) vary with mycorrhizal treatment during further analysis of five accessions. In the case of wheat, old accessions have been shown to be more responsive to AMF than new ones [39].
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Selection and breeding programs generally tend to maximize plant performance and crop yield under high-input production systems, which could cause the loss of genes, phytochemicals, and/or other plant traits which are necessary for the establishment of efficient symbioses. Modern cultivars could absorb phosphate without the AM assistance in soils with high phosphorus availability, decreasing the degree of AM dependence. As a consequence, AMF are less responsive to new lines. Recent research has proved that domestication decreased AM benefits for domesticated crops in exposure to high P supply [44]. However, in maize, which is highly mycorrhizal-dependent, modern breeding programs do not necessarily result in the less mycorrhizal colonization. Replicated field experiments with 225 genotypes consisting of hybrids, inbred lines, and landraces originating from different locations were conducted for two consecutive years to explore the variation in mycorrhizal colonization [40]. The findings showed that AM colonization differed profoundly and continuously among genotypes, with substantially greater values in modern hybrids than old landraces and inbred lines.
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4. Mechanisms of AMF mitigate drought stress in host plants
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It is well known that AMF offer indispensable advantages to the host plant subjected to water shortage, with two major strategies that mycorrhizal plants use to deal with water deficit: drought mitigation and drought tolerance. Drought mitigation strategy is involved in indirect AM benefits and enhanced water uptake through the extensive hyphae network, enabling host plants to suffer less stress than non-AM plants, whereas drought tolerance includes a combination of direct AM benefits that improve plant’s innate ability to cope with the stress (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Strategies of mycorrhizal plants to cope with water scarcity, that is, drought mitigation and drought tolerance. Multiple benefits/mechanisms could be simultaneously induced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the host plant exposed to water deficit. The blue arrows show increase/up-regulation, whereas the orange arrows indicate decrease/down-regulation, relative to control non-mycorrhizal plants. Italic words indicate genes. ABA, abscisic acid; AQP, aquaporin; Car, carotenoids; Chla, chlorophyll a; Chlb, chlorophyll b; Fv/Fm, maximum quantum efficiency of PSII; gs, stomatal conductance; IAA, indole-3-acetic acid; iWUE, intrinsic water use efficiency; JAs, jasmonates; LWP, leaf water potential; MDA, malondialdehyde; MeJA, methyl jasmonate; PN, net photosynthesis rate; ROS, reactive oxygen species; RWC, relative water content; SLs, strigolactones.
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4.1 Direct benefits of AM symbiosis for host plants under water deficit
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4.1.1 Improved water and nutrient uptake through the hyphal network of AMF
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An important benefit of AM colonization to the host plant under drought stress is a superior water allocation mediated by the fungal hyphal network, facilitating the colonized root access to water in a lower soil water potential [45]. Indeed, the host root system is extended by widespread extraradical mycelia, enabling colonized roots to reach more water and nutrient pools unavailable to uncolonized roots. Fungal hyphae diameters (3–7 μm) are much smaller than those of fine root hairs (5–20 μm); nevertheless, hyphal densities are ten-hundred times higher than root densities [46]. Hence, the absorption surface of mycorrhizal roots is improved substantially. It is calculated that the rate of water transport from external hyphae to the root ranged from 0.1 [47] to 0.76 μl H2O h−1 per hyphal infection point [48], which is adequate to alter plant water relations [47]. Lettuce plants pretreated by Rhizophagus irregularis, Funneliformis mosseae, Funneliformis coronatum (formerly Glomus coronatum), and Claroideoglomus claroideum (G. claroideum) obtained 3–4.75 ml H2O plant−1 day−1 higher than uncolonized plants, which might be related to the amount of extraradical mycelium and root colonization frequency [45]. Furthermore, AMF contribute approximately 20% to total plant water uptake [49], highlighting the role of the symbiosis in the water status of host plants.
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The widespread extraradical mycelia also enhance the absorption of mineral nutrients in soils, which is more critical for host plants under water-stress conditions where nutrient mobility is limited. As soon as external hyphae transport water to the host, mineral nutrients also follow the water flow to the plant from the soil-root interface [50]. AM colonization is well known to improve phosphorus (P) nutrient into the host plants particularly under low-nutrient conditions, increasing stress tolerance in plants. Interestingly, plants possess a symbiotic inorganic phosphate (Pi) uptake pathway, and AM symbiosis has been proved to specifically induce the expression of genes encoding plant Pi transporters to enhance P acquisition, for instance, LjPT4 in Lotus japonicus and MtPT4 in Medicago truncatula [51], recently LbPT3, LbPT4, and LbPT5 in Lycium barbarum [52]. Under water restrictions (moderate and severe), different expressions of five tomato PT genes (LePT1-LePT5) in the absence/presence of Rhizophagus irregularis or F. mosseae were observed [53]. LePT4 was overexpressed in R. irregularis-colonized plants exposed to both water-stress levels, while this upregulation was in F. mosseae-infected plants subjected to severe water stress. A role of PT4 genes in root tips, creating a connection among root branching, Pi-signaling mechanisms, and Pi-perception has been proposed [51]. In addition, on the fungal side, R. irregularis PT gene was up-regulated under moderate drought conditions [53]. Phosphate is taken up by mycorrhizal phosphate transporters and assimilated to polyphosphate translocated toward the plant. This process is facilitated by the activation of fungal aquaporins [54].
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Apart from that, AM colonization enhances the rate of nitrogen (N)-assimilation of plants under drought [55] as a result of the direct uptake of NO3− or NH4+ by fungal hyphae [56]. Several NO3− and NH4+ transporters and metal transporters in AMF [57, 58] while mycorrhiza-inducible ammonium transporters in some plants have been identified [59, 60]; therefore, AMF considerably contribute to the total N uptake of the host. Increased N nutrient could promote protein synthesis and higher levels of compatible osmolytes in stressed AM plants. Other studies also confirmed that inadequacy of necessary macro- and micro-nutrients could be alleviated in mycorrhizal plants under water deficit [61, 62]. Hydraulic conductivity of colonized roots was enhanced to absorb more N, P, and K, leading to a higher protein concentration in host plants under drought stress [63]. Thus, more vigorous uptake of water and nutrients may provide adequate necessary substances for better growth of mycorrhizal plants under such stress.
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4.1.2 AMF-induced changes in expression of aquaporin genes, transcriptional profiles
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The negative water potential in dried soils exerts the problem for plants to obtain adequate water amount, a process where aquaporins (AQPs) get involved in [64]. AQPs belonging to the large major intrinsic protein family of transmembrane proteins functioning as water channels are crucial in osmoregulation [64]. On top of that, their regulation of transcellular movement of many molecules such as small alcohols, boron, and osmolytes has been reported [65]. In AMF, the first AQP gene GintAQP1 of Rhizophagus irregularis was cloned, with evidence of a compensatory mechanism between GintAQP1 expressions and the host aquaporins under drought stress [66]. Furthermore, two AQP genes GintAQPF1 and GintAQPF2 present in Rhizophagus irregularis were upregulated under osmotic stress, assisting the fungus survival and contributing to the host plant tolerance to water stress [67, 68]. Upregulation of RiAQPF2 in Rhizophagus irregularis was also found under water deficit [10], suggesting its putative involvement in host plant tolerance in response to drought.
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On the plant side, AMF could induce changes in the expression of various AQP genes in the host in order to strengthen root hydraulic conductivity and host tolerance under water-stress conditions in several plants, such as maize [69, 70, 71], tomato [10, 11], black locust [72], trifoliate orange [73], olive [74], and Populus x canadensis plants [75]. AM-induced alterations in expression of plant AQPs could depend on stress duration as the observation in maize plants [69]. Under short-term water deficit, the AM symbiosis upregulated ten AQP genes with diverse aquaporin classes in roots inoculated with Rhizophagus intraradices, stimulating more water uptake in the host [69]. By contrast, under sustained water-stress conditions, AM-mediated downregulation of 6 different AQP genes was found, restricting plant water loss [69]. Intriguingly, drought-sensitive cultivars may gain higher physiological benefit from AM inoculation than drought-tolerant cultivars [71]. Downregulation of genes TIP1;1, TIP2;3, PIP1;1, PIP1;3, PIP1;4, PIP1;6, PIP2;2, and PIP2;4 whereas only upregulation of TIP4;1 were observed in drought-sensitive cultivar colonized by Rhizophagus irregularis, supporting the decrease in water loss in host plants subjected to drought stress [71]. Recent research also revealed a significant shift in the transcriptional regulation profiles with AQP genes as potential targets in mycorrhizal roots, in comparison to non-AM ones during a water stress event, which may influence some key metabolic pathways linked with drought response [76]. In parallel, it has been proposed that during drought stress a controlled mechanism mediated by the presence of arbuscules at cortical cells in roots fine-tuned the gene expression regulation in the host plant [76].
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In general, fungal and plant AQPs work together in mycorrhizal plants under water restrictions. The simultaneous induction of both fungal and plant AQP genes together with differential regulation of drought-responsive genes in host plant indicates that AMF mediate colonized plant responses to drought stress.
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4.1.3 Increased photosynthetic efficiency
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Numerous reports illustrate that AMF could increase photosynthetic activity or protect the photosynthetic apparatus under water stress conditions [77, 78]. In fact, AM colonization considerably influences the stomatal behavior in the leaves of host plants, determining the water vapor efflux, CO2 gas exchange, and thus photosynthetic activity [79]. Stomatal conductance changed by AM inoculation is closely connected to leaf water potential and relative water content in host plants. Under water restrictions, the first response of plants is stomatal closure to limit water loss through transpiration. Additionally, reduction of CO2 uptake and carbon assimilation whereas favoring photorespiration may occur in plants [80]. Upregulation of LeEPFL9 involved in the regulation of stomatal development together with greater stomatal density was found in tomato plants colonized by R. irregularis [10]. Inoculation of Septoglomus deserticola or S. constrictum sustained stomatal opening in host plants under drought conditions, substantially contributing to the carbon assimilation [11]. Improvement of stomatal conductance (gs) in mycorrhizal castor bean [78], black locust [72], and strawberry [81] plants exposed to water stress has been detected.
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One of the widely known benefits of mycorrhizal inoculation is the improvement of host water status under drought stress. Leaf water potential (LWP) and relative water content (RWC) of plants were substantially higher in the presence of mycorrhiza [11, 81]. Several studies illustrated a higher water use efficiency or intrinsic water use efficiency in AM plants during water stress [10, 81, 82]. It is believed that photosynthetic activity correlates with chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance, which have been enhanced by AMF. Drought stress changes photosynthetic pigments and damages chloroplasts. Nonetheless, AM inoculation alleviates the damage of these parameters caused by the stress [77]. Rhizophagus irregularis-colonized castor bean plants subjected to water restriction increased contents of chlorophyll a (by 26%), b (30%), carotenoid (by 28.5%), and total chlorophyll (25.5%) in comparison to counterparts of non-AM plants [78]. These increases in AM plants may be attributed to the improved nutrient uptake, particularly N and Mg that are structural components of chlorophyll.
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Mycorrhizal colonization has been found to alleviate the adverse impacts of drought stress on photochemical efficiency and photosystem II (PSII) reaction center [77, 83]. Under water deficit, application of AMF promoted a higher maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) [11], greater photosynthetic efficiency [84], transpiration rate, and net photosynthesis rate (PN) [10, 81]. Although mycorrhizal plants usually have higher photosynthetic capacities, environmental factors such as high atmospheric drought or low radiation can decide the beneficial effects of mycorrhiza on photosynthesis [85].
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4.1.4 Phytohormonal changes
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Phytohormones not only modulate a plethora of events during plant development but also are essential signaling molecules for interaction between plants and AMF [86]. Changes in plant hormone homeostasis also affect plant tolerance against abiotic stresses [87, 88]. During mycorrhization, changes in levels of several plant hormones have been reported [86], hence may contribute to the improved host plant tolerance to subsequent stresses.
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Abscisic acid (ABA) is the most fundamental stress hormonal signal, modulating transpiration rate, root hydraulic conductivity, and aquaporin expression [89]. The concentration of ABA is heightened in plant tissues under drought stress to induce stomatal closure for reduction of water loss and activate different stress-responsive genes, increasing plant tolerance to drought [90]. A lower ABA concentration was found in roots and leaves of mycorrhizal plants versus nonmycorrhizal plants under drought stress [9, 10, 91]. Downregulation of SlNCED gene, a critical ABA biosynthetic gene, in Septoglomus constrictum-infected roots under water stress concurred with the greater gs and higher water status of tomato plants, indicating a higher stress tolerance in colonized plants compared to uninoculated plants [11]. Nonetheless, an increase in ABA concentration in trifoliate orange plants colonized by F. mosseae was also observed under drought stress [73]. The reason for this remains poorly understood, which requires further research.
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The role of jasmonate (JA) in water uptake and transport, exerting influence on stomatal conductance, root hydraulic conductance, and regulating the expression and abundance of aquaporins in tomato plants has been revealed [91]. Tomato plants defective in JA synthesis altered the AM impacts on the host plant, interfering phytohormones and expression of AM-induced aquaporin genes. The content of JA and its precursors was higher in leaves of Digitaria eriantha plants infected by Rhizophagus irregularis under water deficit, relative to noninfected plants, which could enhance plant tolerance to the stress [92]. Likewise, mycorrhizal inoculation substantially increased methyl jasmonate (MeJA) in trifoliate orange plants exposed to drought stress [93]. Under water-stress conditions, significantly higher expression levels of JA-biosynthetic gene SlLOXD in roots and leaves of colonized tomato plants were detected, supporting plant response to drought stress by triggering a LOXD-mediated pathway [10, 11].
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Strigolactones (SLs), as phytohormones, not only modulate the coordinated development of plants exposed to nutrient shortages but are also host detection signals for AM establishment in the host plant [94]. Upregulation of the SL-biosynthesis gene SlCCD7 together with a greater content of SLs was found in Rhizophagus irregularis-inoculated tomato roots subjected to water-stress conditions, correlated with the increase in AM colonization rate [9]. The stimulated production of SLs promoting symbiosis establishment as a strategy of plants to cope with drought stress has been proposed.
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Auxin is a key regulator in root-hair initiation, growth, and developmental processes [95, 96]. In a recent study, an increased content of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) which is the dominant naturally occurring auxin was found in mycorrhizal tomato plants exposed to drought [91]. Similarly, stimulation of biosynthesis and transport of IAA in roots of trifoliate orange under water restrictions were demonstrated [97]. Under drought conditions, AM colonization overexpressed PtYUC3 and PtYUC8 involved in IAA biosynthesis, and downregulated auxin efflux carriers (PtPIN1 and PtPIN3), while up-regulated auxin-species influx carriers (PtABCB19 and PtLAX2) in roots, leading to significantly higher IAA accumulation in mycorrhizal roots versus non-AM roots [97]. Together with higher IAA, colonized trifoliate orange plants showed a significant increase in MeJA, nitric oxide, and calmodulin in roots, supporting greater root adaptation of morphology as a crucial strategy for drought adaptation [93].
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Although important roles of phytohormones are irrefragable in plant responses to water stress, little attention has been paid to them in mycorrhizal plants. Previous studies have just revealed changes in concentrations and expression of genes encoding biosynthesis of few hormones in colonized plants during drought stress; thereby, further research is required to understand it.
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4.1.5 Osmotic adjustment
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In response to drought stress, plants accumulate compatible solute compounds or osmolytes functioning for osmotic adjustment to maintain a favorable gradient for water uptake [98]. Osmotic adjustment is essential for water influx, turgor maintenance, sustaining physiological activity in plants such as stomatal opening, photosynthesis, cellular expansion, and growth during the stress [98]. Compatible solutes include a variety of sugars, proline, glycine betaine, polyamines, and organic acids such as oxalate and malate [99]. Interestingly, discrepant observations in osmolyte accumulation have been reported in a wide range of mycorrhizal plants [10, 83, 100, 101].
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Proline, an amino acid, plays a crucial role in osmoregulation and acts as an efficient scavenger of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [102] (discussed in Section 4.1.7). Enhanced drought tolerance with a higher proline concentration in mycorrhizal plants has been shown in many studies [10, 78, 100]; nevertheless, opposite results have also been reported [81, 83]. Inoculation of either F. mosseae or Paraglomus occultum in trifoliate orange plants substantially reduced leaf proline content but improved the host plant growth under water deficit [103]. These results suggest that AMF strongly altered leaf proline metabolism through regulating proline-metabolized enzymes, which is important for osmotic adjustment of the host plants.
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Sugars are osmoprotectants, which contribute up to 50% of osmotic potential in plants [104, 105]. In general, under water stress, the higher accumulation of total soluble sugars offers a defense mechanism in mycorrhizal plants such as watermelon [100] and flax [106]. Concentrations of sucrose, glucose, and fructose were significantly heightened in leaves of mycorrhizal trifoliate orange seedlings exposed to drought, which could function as osmolytes to stabilize and protect structures and macromolecules in plants from the stress, therefore improving host plant tolerance [103]. AMF-mediated increases in leaf sugar metabolism by modulating sugar-metabolized enzymes notably contribute to the osmotic adjustment of colonized plants. However, contrast observations have been shown in olive trees [101] and maize [107] colonized by AMF, which may be due to the fact that host plants suffer less stress. Noticeably, under severe drought inoculation with Rhizophagus clarus significantly reduced soluble sugars in leaves of strawberry plants, but this parameter was remarkably enhanced in roots in response to mild and severe water stress [81]. These changes together with an improved water status and plant biomass suggest different strategies for the enhanced water status triggered by AMF in roots and leaves of strawberry.
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In summary, increased accumulation of compatible solutes in AM-inoculated plants in exposure to water deficit is supposed to protect plants from the stress and curtail the plant osmotic potential, whereas the lower osmolyte accumulation in host plants is thought to be due to colonized plants successfully gaining drought mitigation.
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4.1.6 Enhanced plant tolerance to oxidative stress
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One of the consequences of water stress is the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydroxyl radicals (˙OH), superoxide radicals (O2˙–), singlet oxygen (1O2), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) mainly in chloroplasts and mitochondria. The excessive ROS results in unbalanced cellular homeostasis and then oxidative stress, damaging membrane lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids and even causing the death of cells [108]. To cope with oxidative stress, plants have evolved ROS scavengers in both nonenzymatic and enzymatic defense systems. Nonenzymatic antioxidants comprise phenolic compounds, glutathione, ascorbic acid, alkaloids, carotenoids, and tocopherol [109], which not only play a direct role in ROS removal but also serve as a substrate for the antioxidant enzymes in scavenging ROS [110]. Under water deficit, AMF ameliorate oxidative damage through augmented production of phenolic compounds and secondary metabolites detoxifying ROS in various plants [111, 112, 113]. AM inoculation also significantly increased the concentrations of anthocyanins and carotenoids [106] and ascorbic acid [82, 106] in plants in exposure to water constraints.
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Another important ROS scavenger system is enzymatic antioxidants which could be enhanced in mycorrhizal plants including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), guaiacol peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) [110]. The AM symbiosis has been reported to improve plant protection against oxidative stress by decreasing the level of lipid peroxidation (MDA) and H2O2 accumulation by strengthening significantly antioxidative enzymes SOD, POD, and CAT in roots and leaves under mild and severe drought [11, 81]. SOD and CAT are the most important ROS scavenging enzymes among the enzymatic antioxidants. These enzymes together with the cooperative enzymes (GR, MDHAR, DHAR, and APX) in the ascorbate-glutathione (ASA-GSH) cycle play pivotal roles in controlling overproduced ROS to maintain cellular homeostasis [114, 115, 116]. Remarkable increases in SOD, CAT, GR, APX, and MDHAR at transcription and enzymatic level correlated with lower O2˙−, H2O2, and MDA have been revealed in drought-stressed mycorrhizal plants versus counterparts of non-AM plants, improving host protection against oxidative damage [101].
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Higher nonenzymatic and enzymatic antioxidants in colonized plants help for the rapid and efficient elimination of excess ROS. Nevertheless, discrepant results, no change or decrease in ROS scavengers, have also been demonstrated [70, 117]. Results are not entirely consistent with all reports because of different ages of host plants [118] and/or the specific combination of mycorrhizal strains and plant species, even cultivars [11] (as discussed in Section 3) or successful drought mitigation in colonized plants.
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4.2 Indirect benefits of AM symbiosis for host plants under water deficit
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The hyphal network of AMF is believed to improve soil water retention properties in the mycorrhizosphere through its physical, biological, and chemical influences. It has been reported that AMF produce polysaccharides, glomalin, mucilages, and hydrophobins that act to bind soil particles, leading to soil aggregation with enhanced water-holding capacity in soil [119]. Glomalin, a stable glycoprotein, highly persists in the soil, defined as glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) [120]. The higher amounts of GRSP in the soil, the more enhanced capacity of water retention was found since soil aggregation increased protection of C-rich debris from the decomposition of soil microbes [120, 121]. Indeed, fungal hyphae coated by GRSP sharp a hydrophobic layer into the aggregate surface, hence decreasing water loss within soil aggregates [122]. When the fungal hyphae form branching structures with glomalin, they physically stick micro-aggregates with macro-aggregates [119]. The physical interaction of external hyphae on soil particles forms stable aggregates [123] in general and under water deficit [124]. Moreover, mycorrhizosphere also influences soil aggregation through alterations in the soil microbial food web, habitats for soil microbes, and biological activities in the host rhizosphere, which could result in an enhancement in microaggregate soil structure [125]. Thus, soils possess well-structured property in the presence of AMF, maintaining relatively higher available water than poorly structured soils without mycorrhizal presence under water stress [126]. Notably, in artificial substrates, an enhancement in water retention and water transport within substrates inoculated with AMF was observed under severe drought, suggesting that host plants perceive less stress at the root surface as reducing substrate moisture [127]. Hence, AMF postponed the physiological stress response in host plants.
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5. Altered plant growth, yield, and quality
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It is often found that AM symbiosis can improve plant growth in numerous plants, such as lettuce [9], tomato [9, 11], strawberry [81], maize [128], black locust [72], digitgrass (Digitaria eriantha), a source of forage [92], and damask rose [129]. The substantial improvement in the growth of mycorrhizal plants could be a result of a combination of AMF-induced mechanisms of plant tolerance under drought conditions, notably enhanced water and nutrient uptake in host plants [60, 117], and increased photosynthetic activity (as discussed in Section 4.1.3) since plant size closely links with measured physiological parameters [11]. It is important because nutrient supply may improve plant drought tolerance for better plant establishment. The increased plant biomass and nutrient uptake in AM plants could be more pronounced during seedling growth stages and in a longer stress duration. For instance, significant increases in shoot dry weight (by 128–242%) and root dry weight (185–328%) in French lavender (Lavandula dentata) plants treated by either single autochthonous AMF (Septoglomus contrictum, Diversispora aunantia, Archaespora trappei, Glomus versiforme, and Paraglomus occultum) or their mixture were recorded, compared to uninoculated plants after 6 months of growth under drought conditions [60].
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Besides positive mycorrhizal effects on plant growth, discrepant observations have also been reported. Four tomato recombinant inbred lines (RIL 20, 40, 66 and 100) and one commercial cultivar inoculated with Rhizophagus irregularis showed variable results under water stress [37]. AM application remarkably increased shoot dry weight of RIL 40 and RIL 60 lines under drought conditions while no changes were recognized in plants colonized by other AMF. Similar results were found in soybean using single isolates of Septoglomus constrictum, Glomus sp., Glomus aggregatum, or their mixture [130]. Taken together, the benefits of AMF application under water deficit are dependent on the specific combination of plant genotypes and AM isolates.
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Another significant benefit of mycorrhizal inoculation is to increase crop yield in exposure to water constraints compared to nonmycorrhizal plants. An array of observations shows a significantly higher yield, importantly marketable yield in mycorrhizal plants subjected to water scarcity in maize [128], tomato [82], flax [131], cowpea [132], and damask rose [129]. Furthermore, AM symbiosis has shown to accelerate flowering and fruit development [133]. Interestingly, re-inoculation of AMF after transplanting seedlings in the field appears to be necessary to strengthen mycorrhizal benefits. This could be seen in the field investigation which with twice application of AMF considerably heightened the marketable fruit yield (by 51–71%) in plants subjected to 50% water supply regime in comparison with those with mycorrhizal inoculation once at sowing and uninoculated ones [82]. The beneficial effect of AMF application on relative water content and nutritional status in plants as well as enhanced shoot accumulation of photoassimilates through higher photosynthetic activity, and improved stress tolerance in the presence of drought could result in higher productivity in colonized plants. Also, fruits are often the main sink for P; therefore, enhanced P nutrient in host plants promotes higher fruit yield.
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As a result of physiological changes during mycorrhization, both transcriptional and metabolic changes occur in host plants influencing crop quality as well. AM symbiosis not only modulates gene expression in tomato fruit, through a systemic impact, but also changes the phenology of flowering and fruit ripening as well as in the amino acid profile [133]. Under water shortage, AMF treatment has been explored to improve quality attributes including antioxidant compounds, carotenoids and anthocyanins [82, 134], essential oils [135], and alteration in seed quality of flax [131], hence highlighting the potential of using AMF in crop production, producing industrial and oil plants.
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6. Challenges of AMF application
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Microbial symbionts of plants such as AMF represent a huge, but an unrealized resource for improving yields, especially in the tropics [136]; however, lower benefits to plants than the potential of these microorganisms are often found. To predict real benefits as well as all potentials of the fungal inoculation, implementation of field trials before AMF application on a large scale is indispensable in order to choose suitable inoculum or appropriately tune the best AM combination for target crop production systems. Moreover, various environmental factors influence the success of AMF application into the field.
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Another critical issue is whether generic or tuned AM products should be utilized in sustainable crop production. One of the challenges of AMF inoculation under open field conditions is the native populations of AMF in soils, which are able to remarkably compete colonization niche with the introduced symbionts. Despite the fact that commercial AMF inoculants are usually advertised as compatible for a variety of host plants and field-cultivation conditions, the AM-induced benefits for crops are not always as expected [137]. The bridge between research and AM suppliers should be strengthened to recommend appropriate AM inocula for most benefits. Due to the specificity of AMF-host plant interaction as described in several places in the chapter, an attempt to exploit advantageous combinations is necessary. Fine-tuning commercial mycorrhizal products is vital to obtain optimum beneficial effects from mycorrhizal inoculation.
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Even in some circumstances, the symbiotic effectiveness and adaptability of the indigenous fungi are more dominant than non-native ones [138, 139]; therefore, introduced AMF isolates could be less profitable than native ones [140]. Besides, there is an existence of functional diversity among different AMF species [36]. Remarkable differences in performance even among different geographical isolates belonging to the same mycorrhizal species have been described [141]. In such cases, isolation of indigenous mycorrhizal strains for inoculum production, then large-scale reintroduction of these native fungi in the field could be a feasible solution for a useful AMF application [142]. It is worth mentioning that selection of specific AM taxa for particular crops is the best approach to improve crop growth, and there is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ AMF [143]. In controlled environments, application of a single AMF is more effective than using a mixture of different AM taxa [143].
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During the last decades, several molecular techniques have been used to characterize entire communities of mycorrhiza in soil [144, 145] and AMF inocula [146, 147, 148]. These techniques enable to monitor the introduced fungal symbiont both inside and outside the host during plant growth [149, 150]. Tracing the introduced AMF temporally and spatially could be implemented by high-throughput next-generation sequencing, which possibly verifies whether the introduced fungi favor substantial levels of colonization and explores how the inoculated AMF coexist and interact with the local community of AMF [136]. Advances in molecular techniques can further assist the adjustment or tuning of commercial inoculants to specific AMF combinations with host plants under crop production systems.
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Another major limitation of mycorrhizal inoculation in horticulture and agriculture is farmer’s awareness and acceptance and the relatively high cost of it. Furthermore, conventional breeding programs have overlooked plant characteristics facilitating mycorrhizal association, and plant breeders have selected varieties in favor of acquiring nutrients in high-input crop production systems without respect to the AMF role in soil nutrient management [151], resulting in the primary challenge to AMF application. Hence, modern breeding programs should consider AMF as an essential component of breeding traits in new cultivars, particularly those cultivated under environmental adversities such as drought stress in which AMF application has been proved to stimulate higher crop tolerance.
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7. Conclusion and future perspectives
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AM inoculation can offer multiple advantages to host plants in exposure to water scarcity, which could enable inoculated plants to avoid drought stress or tolerate water deficit better than nonmycorrhizal plants. Indeed, various direct and indirect AM-induced mechanisms in mycorrhizal plants could contribute to drought mitigation or tolerance. More importantly, improved crop yield and quality attribute in colonized plants under drought stress highlight the importance of AMF application in crop production as one of the promising practices under water constraints. However, variable plant responses to AMF and the discussed major challenges hinder possible fruitful outcomes of AM inoculation. Identification of the most appropriate combination of fungal inoculants and a given variety, cultivar, or accession grown under water scarcity, and understanding environmental factors deciding the positive results of the inoculation are crucial determinants for successful AMF application. Compatible combination of AMF with other beneficial microbes such as plant growth-promoting bacteria and/or Trichoderma offering synergistic effects on plant tolerance to stressful environments including drought stress is also a bright perspective [38, 106]. Besides that, further research is necessary to shed light on the specific functions of genes mediated by mycorrhiza, which could explore the exact AM-triggered mechanisms of plant adaptation under water deficit. Studies on quantitative trait loci (QTL) involved in mycorrhizal plant responses to drought stress are needed for breeding programs to create new cultivars with a combination of drought-tolerant traits and AM benefits.
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Acknowledgments
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This work was supported by 1783-3/2018/FEKUTSTRAT Program awarded by the Ministry of Human Capacities and by the National Research Development and Innovation Office (2017-1.3.1-VKE-2017-00022).
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Conflict of interest
We declare that we do not have any conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, drought stress, water relations, crop productivity, plant tolerance, drought mitigation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67399.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67399.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67399",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67399",totalDownloads:1255,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:4,dateSubmitted:"January 4th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 29th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 31st 2019",datePublished:"January 15th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Water deficit is one of the most severe abiotic stresses threatening crop growth and production on the globe. Water stress causes a series of morphological, biochemical, physiological, and molecular alterations that negatively influence plant productivity. However, in nature, plants are often associated with microbes that can modulate plant responses to water scarcity. Among beneficial microbes, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are one of the most widespread symbiotic fungi colonizing the majority of agricultural plants. Besides an enhancement in plant nutrition, AMF have been reported to improve plant performance under water restrictions. In this chapter, we emphasize the benefits of AMF inoculation to crop production under water deficit based on related laboratory and field experiments. Variable outcomes and challenges of AMF application are also discussed for practical use in crop production under water scarcity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67399",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67399",signatures:"Katalin Posta and Nguyen Hong Duc",book:{id:"8489",title:"Drought",subtitle:"Detection and Solutions",fullTitle:"Drought - Detection and Solutions",slug:"drought-detection-and-solutions",publishedDate:"January 15th 2020",bookSignature:"Gabrijel Ondrasek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8489.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46939",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabrijel",middleName:null,surname:"Ondrasek",slug:"gabrijel-ondrasek",fullName:"Gabrijel Ondrasek"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"290749",title:"Prof.",name:"Katalin",middleName:null,surname:"Posta",fullName:"Katalin Posta",slug:"katalin-posta",email:"posta.katalin@mkk.szie.hu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"298768",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",middleName:null,surname:"Hong Duc",fullName:"Nguyen Hong Duc",slug:"nguyen-hong-duc",email:"hongduc.real@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Szent István University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. General features of AMF",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Variable crop responses to AMF",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Mechanisms of AMF mitigate drought stress in host plants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Direct benefits of AM symbiosis for host plants under water deficit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1 Improved water and nutrient uptake through the hyphal network of AMF",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.2 AMF-induced changes in expression of aquaporin genes, transcriptional profiles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.3 Increased photosynthetic efficiency",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.4 Phytohormonal changes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.5 Osmotic adjustment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.6 Enhanced plant tolerance to oxidative stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Indirect benefits of AM symbiosis for host plants under water deficit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Altered plant growth, yield, and quality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Challenges of AMF application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Conclusion and future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sheffield J, Wood EF, Roderick ML. Little change in global drought over the past 60 years. Nature. 2012;491:435-438. DOI: 10.1038/nature11575\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Lambers H, Chapin FS, Pons TL. Plant Physiological Ecology. 2nd ed. New York: Springer; 2008\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Osakabe Y, Osakabe K, Shinozaki K, Tran L-SP. Response of plants to water stress. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2014;5:86. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00086\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Daryanto S, Wang L, Jacinthe PA. Global synthesis of drought effects on maize and wheat production. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0156362. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0156362\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Ngumbi E, Kloepper J. 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HortScience. 2012;47(5):603-606. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI.47.5.603\n'},{id:"B147",body:'Berruti A, Borriello R, Della Beffa MT, Scariot V, Bianciotto V. Application of non specific commercial AMF inocula results in poor mycorrhizationin Camellia japonica L. Symbiosis. 2013;61:63-76. DOI: 10.1007/s13199-013-0258-7\n'},{id:"B148",body:'Berruti A, Borriello R, Lumini E, Scariot V, Bianciotto V, Balestrini R. Application of laser microdissection to identify the mycorrhizal fungi that establish arbuscules inside root cells. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2013;4:135. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00135\n'},{id:"B149",body:'Thonar C, Erb A, Jansa J. Realtime PCR to quantify composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities-marker design, verification, calibration and field validation. Molecular Ecology Resources. 2012;12:219-232. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-0998.2011.03086.x\n'},{id:"B150",body:'Walder F, vanderHeijden MGA. Regulation of resource exchange in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. 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Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
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