Thermoset vs. thermoplastic.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"861",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanomaterials",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Nanomaterials" includes all aspects of metal-oxide nano-structures, nano-composites, and polymer materials instigating with materials survey and preparations, growth and characterizations, processing and fabrications, developments and potential applications. These topics have utilized innovative methods of preparation, improvement, and continuous changes in multidimensional ways. The innovative frontiers are branching out from time to time to advanced nanotechnology. It is an important booklet for scientific organizations, governmental research-centers, academic libraries, and the overall research and development of nano-materials in general. It has been created for widespread audience with diverse backgrounds and education.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-913-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4383-3",doi:"10.5772/1371",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"nanomaterials",numberOfPages:358,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"f32b97a9aa541939cb212373d471d477",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/861.jpg",numberOfDownloads:85880,numberOfWosCitations:126,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:127,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:293,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 20th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 24th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24438/images/system/24438.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammed Muzibur Rahman received his BSc and MSc from Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh, in 1999 and 2001, respectively. He received his Ph.D. from the Chonbuk National University, South Korea, in 2007. After completing his Ph.D., Dr. Rahman worked as a postdoctoral fellow and assistant professor at pioneer research centers and universities located in South Korea, Japan, and Saudi Arabia (2007 to 2011). Presently, he is an associate professor at the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) and the Chemistry Department at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, where he has been since 2011. He has published more than 300 international and domestic conferences and several book chapters and edited fourteen books. His research interests include composite materials, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, semiconductors, nanotechnology, nanomaterials, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, sensors, ionic liquids, surface chemistry, electrochemistry, self-assembled monolayers, and devices.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"25339",title:"Nucleation and Growth of TiO2 Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/25912",slug:"nucleation-and-growth-of-tio2-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:8954,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"H. Mehranpour, Masoud Askari and M. Sasani Ghamsari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25339",authors:[{id:"64949",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",surname:"Sasani Ghamsari",slug:"morteza-sasani-ghamsari",fullName:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari"},{id:"102433",title:"Mr.",name:"Hamed",surname:"Mehranpour",slug:"hamed-mehranpour",fullName:"Hamed Mehranpour"},{id:"136004",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoud",surname:"Askari",slug:"masoud-askari",fullName:"Masoud Askari"}],corrections:null},{id:"25340",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Biological Applications of Water-Soluble ZnO Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/27238",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-biological-applications-of-water-soluble-zno-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:6327,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"Raphaël Schneider, Lavinia Balan and Fadi Aldeek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25340",authors:[{id:"6855",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Balan",slug:"lavinia-balan",fullName:"Lavinia Balan"},{id:"69408",title:"Prof.",name:"Raphael",surname:"Schneider",slug:"raphael-schneider",fullName:"Raphael Schneider"}],corrections:null},{id:"25341",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/27698",slug:"iron-oxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:23192,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:33,signatures:"Mohammed M. Rahman, Sher Bahadar Khan, Aslam Jamal, Mohd Faisal and Abdullah M. Aisiri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25341",authors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"},{id:"118068",title:"Dr.",name:"Aslam",surname:"Jamal",slug:"aslam-jamal",fullName:"Aslam Jamal"},{id:"118069",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-khan",fullName:"Sher Khan"},{id:"118070",title:"Dr.",name:"M",surname:"Faisal",slug:"m-faisal",fullName:"M Faisal"}],corrections:null},{id:"25342",title:"Nanocomposite Materials with Oriented Functionalized Structure",doi:"10.5772/33104",slug:"nanocomposite-materials-with-oriented-functionalized-structure",totalDownloads:2881,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Petrişor Zamora Iordache, Nicoleta Petrea, Rodica Mihaela Lungu, Răzvan Petre, Ciprian Său and Ioan Safta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25342",authors:[{id:"94041",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Petrea",slug:"nicoleta-petrea",fullName:"Nicoleta Petrea"},{id:"118319",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodica Mihaela",surname:"Lungu",slug:"rodica-mihaela-lungu",fullName:"Rodica Mihaela Lungu"},{id:"118321",title:"BSc.",name:"Ciprian",surname:"Sau",slug:"ciprian-sau",fullName:"Ciprian Sau"},{id:"118325",title:"Dr.",name:"Petrisor",surname:"Iordache",slug:"petrisor-iordache",fullName:"Petrisor Iordache"},{id:"118367",title:"Mr.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Petre",slug:"razvan-petre",fullName:"Razvan Petre"},{id:"121342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan",surname:"Safta",slug:"ioan-safta",fullName:"Ioan Safta"}],corrections:null},{id:"25343",title:"Synthesis of Carbon Nanomaterials Using High-Voltage Electric Discharge Techniques",doi:"10.5772/25819",slug:"synthesis-of-carbon-nanomaterials-using-high-voltage-electric-discharge-techniques",totalDownloads:2650,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"A. D. Rud, N. I. Kuskova, L. I. Ivaschuk, L. Z. Boguslavskii and A. E. Perekos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25343",authors:[{id:"64659",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Rud",slug:"alexander-rud",fullName:"Alexander Rud"},{id:"69807",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalja",surname:"Kuskova",slug:"natalja-kuskova",fullName:"Natalja Kuskova"},{id:"69810",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyubov",surname:"Ivaschuk",slug:"lyubov-ivaschuk",fullName:"Lyubov Ivaschuk"},{id:"69813",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonid",surname:"Boguslavskii",slug:"leonid-boguslavskii",fullName:"Leonid Boguslavskii"},{id:"69814",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatolii",surname:"Perekos",slug:"anatolii-perekos",fullName:"Anatolii Perekos"}],corrections:null},{id:"25344",title:"New Methods and New Types of Functionalised Nanocomposites Intended for the Ecological Depollution of Waters",doi:"10.5772/34078",slug:"new-methods-and-new-types-of-functionalised-nanocomposites-intended-for-the-ecological-depollution-o",totalDownloads:2381,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Nicoleta Petrea, Petrişor Zamora Iordache,Rodica Mihaela Lungu, Ioan Safta, Razvan Petre and Andrada Pretorian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25344",authors:[{id:"94041",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Petrea",slug:"nicoleta-petrea",fullName:"Nicoleta Petrea"},{id:"118325",title:"Dr.",name:"Petrisor",surname:"Iordache",slug:"petrisor-iordache",fullName:"Petrisor Iordache"},{id:"121342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan",surname:"Safta",slug:"ioan-safta",fullName:"Ioan Safta"},{id:"118736",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodica Mihaela",surname:"Lungu",slug:"rodica-mihaela-lungu",fullName:"Rodica Mihaela Lungu"},{id:"118739",title:"BSc.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Petre",slug:"razvan-petre",fullName:"Razvan Petre"},{id:"119357",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrada",surname:"Pretorian",slug:"andrada-pretorian",fullName:"Andrada Pretorian"}],corrections:null},{id:"25345",title:"Review of Nanocomposite Thin Films and Coatings Deposited by PVD and CVD Technology",doi:"10.5772/25799",slug:"review-of-nanocomposite-thin-films-and-coatings-deposited-by-pvd-and-cvd-technology",totalDownloads:10086,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,signatures:"Krzysztof Lukaszkowicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25345",authors:[{id:"16860",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Lukaszkowicz",slug:"krzysztof-lukaszkowicz",fullName:"Krzysztof Lukaszkowicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"25346",title:"Polymer/Montmorillonite/Silver Nanocomposite Micro- and Nanoparticles Prepared by In-Situ Polymerization and Electrospraying Technique",doi:"10.5772/26212",slug:"polymer-montmorillonite-silver-nanocomposite-micro-and-nanoparticles-prepared-by-in-situ-polymerizat",totalDownloads:3943,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jeong Hyun Yeum, Jae Hyeung Park, Jae Young Choi Jong Won Kim, Sung Kyou Han and Weontae Oh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25346",authors:[{id:"18597",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeong Hyun",surname:"Yeum",slug:"jeong-hyun-yeum",fullName:"Jeong Hyun Yeum"}],corrections:null},{id:"25347",title:"Designing Nanostructured Carbon Xerogels",doi:"10.5772/17157",slug:"designing-nanostructured-carbon-xerogels",totalDownloads:3713,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:18,signatures:"Esther G. Calvo, J. Ángel Menéndez and Ana Arenillas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25347",authors:[{id:"14045",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Angel",surname:"Menéndez Díaz",slug:"j.-angel-menendez-diaz",fullName:"J. Angel Menéndez Díaz"},{id:"15134",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Arenillas",slug:"ana-arenillas",fullName:"Ana Arenillas"},{id:"27457",title:"Ms.",name:"Esther",surname:"G.Calvo",slug:"esther-g.calvo",fullName:"Esther G.Calvo"}],corrections:null},{id:"25348",title:"Carbon and Silicon Fluorescent Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/25809",slug:"carbon-and-silicon-fluorescent-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:4973,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Joaquim G. G. Esteves da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25348",authors:[{id:"16117",title:"Dr.",name:"Joaquim",surname:"Esteves da Silva",slug:"joaquim-esteves-da-silva",fullName:"Joaquim Esteves da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"25349",title:"Bioinspired Metal Nanoparticle: Synthesis, Properties and Application",doi:"10.5772/25305",slug:"bioinspired-metal-nanoparticle-synthesis-properties-and-application",totalDownloads:9451,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:22,signatures:"Sujoy K. Das and Enrico Marsili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25349",authors:[{id:"62940",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrico",surname:"Marsili",slug:"enrico-marsili",fullName:"Enrico Marsili"},{id:"62942",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujoy",surname:"Das",slug:"sujoy-das",fullName:"Sujoy Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"25350",title:"Biorecycling of Precious Metals and Rare Earth Elements",doi:"10.5772/25653",slug:"biorecycling-of-precious-metals-and-rare-earth-elements",totalDownloads:4541,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,signatures:"Kevin Deplanche, Angela Murray, Claire Mennan, Scott Taylor and Lynne Macaskie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25350",authors:[{id:"64033",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Deplanche",slug:"kevin-deplanche",fullName:"Kevin Deplanche"},{id:"68806",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynne",surname:"Macaskie",slug:"lynne-macaskie",fullName:"Lynne Macaskie"},{id:"68807",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",surname:"Mennan",slug:"claire-mennan",fullName:"Claire Mennan"},{id:"68809",title:"Ms.",name:"Angela",surname:"Murray",slug:"angela-murray",fullName:"Angela Murray"},{id:"68810",title:"Mr.",name:"Scott",surname:"Taylor",slug:"scott-taylor",fullName:"Scott Taylor"}],corrections:null},{id:"25351",title:"Molecular Design and Supramolecular Assemblies of Novel Amphiphiles with Special Molecular Structures in Organized Molecular Films",doi:"10.5772/25601",slug:"molecular-design-and-supramolecular-assemblies-of-novel-amphiphiles-with-special-molecular-structure",totalDownloads:2796,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tifeng Jiao, Sufeng Wang and Jingxin Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25351",authors:[{id:"63887",title:"Prof.",name:"Tifeng",surname:"Jiao",slug:"tifeng-jiao",fullName:"Tifeng Jiao"},{id:"101752",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jingxin",surname:"Zhou",slug:"jingxin-zhou",fullName:"Jingxin Zhou"},{id:"102745",title:"Dr.",name:"Sufeng",surname:"Wang",slug:"sufeng-wang",fullName:"Sufeng Wang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5308",title:"Nanofiber Research",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5d2ad58b1840ec81e587914d52f5e0b",slug:"nanofiber-research-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah M. Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5308.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5777",title:"Electrochemical Sensors Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c290f7095446d3908041a5185fded2e5",slug:"electrochemical-sensors-technology",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5777.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7230",title:"Recent Advances in Ionic Liquids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cebbba5d7b2b6c41fafebde32f87f90b",slug:"recent-advances-in-ionic-liquids",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7230.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6218",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f38af20209e9d816b7d57ecbba386b9",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5848",title:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa9478b98a858b7c57bf056ac5c6e197",slug:"recent-progress-in-organometallic-chemistry",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9206",title:"Importance of Selenium in the Environment and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e21bd2a386a2d078fe53a4d1658e44bf",slug:"importance-of-selenium-in-the-environment-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohamed Asiri, Anish Khan and Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9206.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7671",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549e8caa1b260cea0dd3fe688cd126f5",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman, Anish Khan, Abdullah Asiri and Inamuddin Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6856",title:"Gold Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23e172496e46e18712a901308d074cfb",slug:"gold-nanoparticles-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman and Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5403",title:"Advances in Colloid Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38413a6aefb978b024eac803fba6c354",slug:"advances-in-colloid-science",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5403.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66068",slug:"addendum-an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia",title:"Addendum - An Overview of PET Radiopharmaceuticals in Clinical Use: Regulatory, Quality and Pharmacopeia Monographs of the United States and Europe",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66068.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66068",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66068",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66068",chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"3198",leadTitle:null,title:"Digital Filters and Signal Processing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Digital filters, together with signal processing, are being employed in the new technologies and information systems, and are implemented in different areas and applications. Digital filters and signal processing are used with no costs and they can be adapted to different cases with great flexibility and reliability. This book presents advanced developments in digital filters and signal process methods covering different cases studies. They present the main essence of the subject, with the principal approaches to the most recent mathematical models that are being employed worldwide.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0871-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6289-6",doi:"10.5772/45654",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"digital-filters-and-signal-processing",numberOfPages:322,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad19128b3c5153cd5d30d16912ed89f3",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Noor Zaman",publishedDate:"January 16th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3198.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:21594,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfTotalCitations:36,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 9th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2012",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/22844/images/system/22844.jpeg",biography:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez has been accredited as Full Professor at UCLM, Spain since 2013. He also works as a Honorary Senior Research Fellow at Birmingham University, UK, Lecturer at the Postgraduate European Institute, and has worked as Senior Manager in Accenture (2013-2014). He obtained his European PhD with a maximum distinction. He is a holder of the Runner Prize for Management Science and Engineering Management Nominated Prize (2020), Advancement Prize (2018), First International Business Ideas Competition 2017 Award (2017), Runner (2015), Advancement (2013) and Silver (2012) by the International Society of Management Science and Engineering Management (ICMSEM), and Best Paper Award in the international journal of Renewable Energy (Impact Factor 3.5) (2015). He has published more than 150 papers (65 % ISI, 30% JCR, and 92% internationals), some recognized as follows: “Applied Energy” (Q1, as “Best Paper 2020”), “Renewable Energy” (Q1, as “Best Paper 2014”), “ICMSEM” (as “excellent”), “International Journal of Automation and Computing” and “IMechE Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit” (most downloaded), etc. He is an author and editor of 25 books (Elsevier, Springer, Pearson, Mc-GrawHill, IntechOpen, IGI, Marcombo, AlfaOmega, etc.), and 5 patents. He is also an Editor of 5 International Journals and Committee Member of more than 40 International Conferences. He has been a Principal Investigator in 4 European Projects, 6 National Projects, and more than 150 projects for universities, companies, etc. He is an European Union expert in AI4People (EISMD) and ESF. He is Director of www.ingeniumgroup.eu. His main interest are: artificial intelligence, maintenance, management, renewable energy, transport, advanced analytics, and data science.",institutionString:"University of Castile-La Mancha",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"University of Castile-La Mancha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"155714",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"noor-zaman",fullName:"Noor Zaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155714/images/5120_n.png",biography:"Dr. Noor Zaman acquired his degree in Engineering in 1998, and Master’s in Computer Science at the University of Agriculture at Faisalabad in 2000. His academic achievements further extended with Ph.D. in Information Technology at University Technology Petronas (UTP) Malaysia. He has vast experience of 16 years in the field of teaching and research. He is currently working as an Assistant Professor at the College of Computer Science and Information Technology, King Faisal University, in Saudi Arabia since 2008. He has contributed well in King Faisal University for achieving ABET Accreditation, by working as a member and Secretary for Accreditation and Quality cell for more than 08 years. He takes care of versatile operations including teaching, research activities, leading ERP projects, IT consultancy and IT management. He headed the department of IT, and administered the Prometric center in the Institute of Business and Technology (BIZTEK), in Karachi Pakistan. He has worked as a consultant for Network and Server Management remotely in Apex Canada USA base Software house and call center.\n\nDr. Noor Zaman has authored several research papers in indexed journals\\\\international conferences, and edited six international reputed Computer Science area books, has many publications to his credit. He is an associate Editor, Regional Editor and reviewer for reputed international journals and conferences around the world. He has completed several international research grants\\\\funded projects and currently involved in different courtiers. His areas of interest include Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Internet of Things IoT, Mobile Application Programming, Ad hoc Networks, Cloud Computing, Big Data, Mobile Computing, and Software Engineering.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"759",title:"System Modeling and Analysis",slug:"system-modeling-and-analysis"}],chapters:[{id:"40445",title:"Maintenance Management Based on Signal Processing",slug:"maintenance-management-based-on-signal-processing",totalDownloads:2773,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"},{id:"155699",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",surname:"Ruiz De La Hermosa Gonzalez-Carrato",slug:"raul-ruiz-de-la-hermosa-gonzalez-carrato",fullName:"Raul Ruiz De La Hermosa Gonzalez-Carrato"},{id:"155700",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús María",surname:"Pinar Perez",slug:"jesus-maria-pinar-perez",fullName:"Jesús María Pinar Perez"},{id:"156010",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",surname:"Zaman",slug:"noor-zaman",fullName:"Noor Zaman"}]},{id:"41076",title:"Spectral Analysis of Exons in DNA Signals",slug:"spectral-analysis-of-exons-in-dna-signals",totalDownloads:2042,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"},{id:"155714",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",surname:"Zaman",slug:"noor-zaman",fullName:"Noor Zaman"},{id:"155957",title:"Dr.",name:"Mnueer",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mnueer-ahmed",fullName:"Mnueer Ahmed"}]},{id:"41666",title:"Deterministic Sampling for Quantification of Modeling Uncertainty of Signals",slug:"deterministic-sampling-for-quantification-of-modeling-uncertainty-of-signals",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"20815",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan Peter",surname:"Hessling",slug:"jan-peter-hessling",fullName:"Jan Peter Hessling"}]},{id:"41868",title:"Direct Methods for Frequency Filter Performance Analysis",slug:"direct-methods-for-frequency-filter-performance-analysis",totalDownloads:1812,totalCrossrefCites:6,authors:[{id:"20067",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexey",surname:"Mokeev",slug:"alexey-mokeev",fullName:"Alexey Mokeev"}]},{id:"40459",title:"Frequency Transformation for Linear State-Space Systems and Its Application to High-Performance Analog/Digital Filters",slug:"frequency-transformation-for-linear-state-space-systems-and-its-application-to-high-performance-anal",totalDownloads:2741,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"154837",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Kawamata",slug:"masayuki-kawamata",fullName:"Masayuki Kawamata"}]},{id:"40133",title:"A Study on a Filter Bank Structure With Rational Scaling Factors and Its Applications",slug:"a-study-on-a-filter-bank-structure-with-rational-scaling-factors-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"154810",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumio",surname:"Itami",slug:"fumio-itami",fullName:"Fumio Itami"}]},{id:"41655",title:"Digital Filter Implementation of Orthogonal Moments",slug:"digital-filter-implementation-of-orthogonal-moments",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"153833",title:"Dr.",name:"Barmak",surname:"Honarvar Shakibaei Asli",slug:"barmak-honarvar-shakibaei-asli",fullName:"Barmak Honarvar Shakibaei Asli"},{id:"166106",title:"Prof.",name:"Raveendran",surname:"Paramesran",slug:"raveendran-paramesran",fullName:"Raveendran Paramesran"}]},{id:"40215",title:"Two-Rate Based Structures for Computationally Efficient Wide- Band FIR Systems",slug:"two-rate-based-structures-for-computationally-efficient-wide-band-fir-systems",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"23087",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Gustafsson",slug:"oscar-gustafsson",fullName:"Oscar Gustafsson"},{id:"89357",title:"Prof.",name:"Håkan",surname:"Johansson",slug:"hakan-johansson",fullName:"Håkan Johansson"}]},{id:"41503",title:"Analytical Approach for Synthesis of Minimum L2-Sensitivity Realizations for State-Space Digital Filters",slug:"analytical-approach-for-synthesis-of-minimum-l2-sensitivity-realizations-for-state-space-digital-fil",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"154681",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Kawamata",slug:"masayuki-kawamata",fullName:"Masayuki Kawamata"},{id:"164775",title:"Dr.",name:"Shunsuke",surname:"Yamaki",slug:"shunsuke-yamaki",fullName:"Shunsuke Yamaki"},{id:"164871",title:"Dr.",name:"Masahide",surname:"Abe",slug:"masahide-abe",fullName:"Masahide Abe"}]},{id:"40283",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization of Highly Selective Digital Filters over the Finite-Precision Multiplier Coefficient Space",slug:"particle-swarm-optimization-of-highly-selective-digital-filters-over-the-finite-precision-multiplier",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"154822",title:"Prof.",name:"Behrouz",surname:"Nowrouzian",slug:"behrouz-nowrouzian",fullName:"Behrouz Nowrouzian"},{id:"155063",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyyed Ali",surname:"Hashemi",slug:"seyyed-ali-hashemi",fullName:"Seyyed Ali Hashemi"}]},{id:"41630",title:"Analytical Design of Two-Dimensional Filters and Applications in Biomedical Image Processing",slug:"analytical-design-of-two-dimensional-filters-and-applications-in-biomedical-image-processing",totalDownloads:2433,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"20530",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu",surname:"Matei",slug:"radu-matei",fullName:"Radu Matei"},{id:"154993",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Matei",slug:"daniela-matei",fullName:"Daniela Matei"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"24368",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Pantar",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24368/images/4736_n.jpg",email:"ana.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"120",title:"Digital Filters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10692f498575728ddac136b0b327a83d",slug:"digital-filters",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5223",title:"Non-Destructive Testing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cd0602adf345e3f19f63dfbf81651d0",slug:"non-destructive-testing",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro Garcia Marquez, Mayorkinos Papaelias and Noor Zaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5223.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6593",title:"Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88cae11440930f7ba788d5cfedec5979",slug:"decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez, Alberto Pliego Marugán and Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6593.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6086",title:"Dependability Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8fbd4b0feef5494393639fa03a0f718",slug:"dependability-engineering",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6086.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3197",title:"Engineering Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52723a3454f918817d45845dde4e8458",slug:"engineering-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Benjamin Lev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3197.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9332",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72ccbc5aab28621bad2e810c4bd5bd53",slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8453",title:"Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma",subtitle:"Behind the Mask",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9342a056651f34acc565b467a71e1e27",slug:"lean-manufacturing-and-six-sigma-behind-the-mask",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez, Isaac Segovia Ramirez, Tamás Bányai and Péter Tamás",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8453.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7751",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d54796f7da58f58fa679b94a2b83af00",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8623",title:"Maintenance Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cc93ad76fdd6709b8c50c6ba7e4e0c",slug:"maintenance-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez and Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8623.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3158",title:"Design and Architectures for Digital Signal Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29151ebf095f6c31d6a4d29d265b1c24",slug:"design-and-architectures-for-digital-signal-processing",bookSignature:"Gustavo Ruiz and Juan A. Michell",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24430",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"gustavo-ruiz",fullName:"Gustavo Ruiz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40763",title:"When Whales Became Mammals: The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science",doi:"10.5772/50811",slug:"when-whales-became-mammals-the-scientific-journey-of-cetaceans-from-fish-to-mammals-in-the-history-o",body:'
Cetacea (whales and dolphins) is a natural group that has for centuries generated a great deal of misunderstanding and controversy regarding its proper place in natural classification. As late as 1945 Simpson wrote that “Because of their perfected adaptation to a completely aquatic life, with all its attendant conditions of respiration, circulation, dentition, locomotion, etc., the cetaceans are on the whole the most peculiar and aberrant of mammals.”
Although both molecular and paleontological data have provided a much better understanding of the placement of this group among mammals, there is no question that despite being studied and dissected by dozens of naturalists since Aristotle, these animals were always misclassified. This group provides an interesting case study for intellectual inertia in the history of science. In other words, why did so many scientists misplace this group in the natural classification despite the fact that they themselves were gathering critical information that showed the close relationship these animals had to what we know today as mammals?
The aim of this chapter is to explore this question. To that end I will (1) survey the naturalists who studied cetaceans providing clues of their true nature, (2) describe the intellectual environment in which their conclusions were made, and (3) discuss the factors behind this intellectual inertia.
For the purpose of this chapter I have only taken into consideration works that had some scientific basis and/or that in some ways influenced the process of placing cetaceans as mammals. Authors are enumerated based on the date of the major publication they produced on cetaceans. For synonyms in names of marine mammals through time see Artedi (1738) and Linnaeus (1758).
Aristotle[1] - was the son of Nicomachus, the personal physician of King Amyntas of Macedon and Phaestis, a wealthy woman[1] -. Nicomachus may have been involved in dissections (Ellwood 1938, p. 36), a key tool in Aristotle’s biological studies, particularly on marine mammals. Aristotle lost both his parents when he was about 10 and from then on he was raised of his uncle and/or guardian Proxenus, also a physician (Moseley 2010, p. 6). Early Greek physicians known as asclepiads usually taught their children reading, writing, and anatomy (Moseley 2010, p. 10).
In 367 BCE Aristotle moved to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy, and later travelled throughout Asia Minor and studied living organisms while at the island of Lesbos (344-342 BCE) where he collected a lot of information about marine mammals. He later created his own philosophical school, the Lyceum, in Athens where most of his written work was produced between 335 and 323 BCE.
Aristotle is the first natural historian from whom we have any extensive work. One of his surviving opuses is Historia Animalium (inquiry about animals)[1] -. There he classified animals as follows (beginning from the top): “blooded” animals (referring to those with red blood, vertebrates) with humans at the top, viviparous quadrupeds (what we would call terrestrial mammals), oviparous quadrupeds (legged reptiles and amphibians), birds, cetaceans, fishes, and then “bloodless” animals (invertebrates). He named each one of these groups a “genus.”
Humans
Viviparous quadrupeds (terrestrial mammals)
Oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians)
Birds
Cetaceans
FishMalacia (squids and octopuses)
Malacostraca (crustaceans)
Ostracoderma (bivalve mollusks)
Entoma (insects, spiders, etc.)
Zoophyta (jellyfishes, sponges, etc.)
Higher plants
Lower plants
Based on the “kinds” of animals and the varieties he described we can distinguish somewhere between 550 and 600 species. Most of them he had observed directly and even dissected but others were based on tales and he warned about the accuracy of those descriptions. For example, although he mentioned information in numerous occasions provided to him by fishers, many times (but not always) he debunks some of the fallacies he heard based on his own observations, particularly when it came to reproduction.
Of what we would consider today as mammals (including cetaceans) he described about 80 and about 130 species of fishes, which, again, underlines the extensive work, he did on marine creatures, mostly while living at Lesbos. Under the genus “Cetacea” he included at least three species: (1) “dolphins” probably a combination of striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba, the most frequent species in the Mediterranean), the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus); (2) the harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) which he described as “similar to dolphins but smaller and found in the Black Sea” (“Euxine”) (HA 566b9)[1] -; and, (3) the fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) another common species in the Mediterranean at that time.
The motives behind Aristotle classification system, particularly animals, were not biological in nature but rather philosophical. For him these creatures were evidence for rational order in the universe. This approach meant that species were rigid elements of the world and, thus, he never contemplated mutability or anything close to evolution, despite the fact that earlier Greek philosophers such as Anaximander envisioned the mutability of species. Furthermore, Aristotle’s motive for conducting this categorization was done in such a way that we can then identify the causes that explain why animals are organized the way they are. His investigation into those causes is carried out in other surviving biological works (e.g., Parts of Animals). When describing species he adhered to his teleological doctrine of purposiveness in nature.
Aristotle was able to distinguish between homology and analogy, recognizing cetaceans as a natural group with many similarities with other mammals (“viviparous quadrupeds”). He considered cetaceans as “blooded” animals, adding, “viviparous such as man, and the horse, and all those animals that have hair; and of the aquatic animals, the whale kind as the dolphin and cartilaginous fishes” (HA 489a34-489b3). He also wrote: “all creatures that have a blow-hole respire and inspire, for they are provided with lungs. The dolphin has been seen asleep with its nose above water as he snores (HA 566b14). All animals have breasts that are internally or externally viviparous, as for instance all animals that have hair, as man and the horse; and the cetaceans, as the dolphin, porpoise and the whale -for these animals have breasts and are supplied with milk” (HA 521b21-25). Among the species he described were dolphins, orcas, and baleen whales, noting that “the [whale] has no teeth but does have hair that resemble hog bristle” (HA 519b9-15). Thus, he was the first to separate whales and dolphins from fish.
However, Aristotle placed whales and dolphins below reptiles and amphibians, because their lack of legs, despite his physiological and behavioral observations that they were related more closely to “viviparous quadrupeds” than to fish.
Aristotle followed his teacher Plato in classifying animals by progressively dividing them based on shared characters. This is an embryonic form of today’s classification more fully developed by Linnaeus. The reason he ordered the different “genera” the way he did was because he considered “vital heat” (characterized by method of reproduction, respiration, state at birth, etc.) as an index of superiority placing humans at the very top. Men were superior to women because they had more “vital heat.” On this he followed Hippocrates’s ideas, since the Greek physician thought there was an association between temperature and soul.
Yet he was not fully satisfied by this approach given that a number of “genera” had characters that were shared across groups, particularly when compared with their habitats. For example, both fishes and cetaceans had fins, but they differ markedly on other characters such as reproduction (oviparous vs. viviparous) or organs (gills vs. lungs, respectively).
Many of Aristotle’s observations about cetaceans remain accurate. In terms of internal anatomy he mentioned that they have internal reproductive organs (HA 500a33-500b6), that dolphins, porpoises, and whales copulate and are viviparous, giving birth to between one and two offsprings having two breasts located near the genital openings that produce milk (HA 504b21), that dolphins reach full size at the age of 10 and their period of gestation is 10 months, show parental care, some may live up to 30 years and this is known because fishers can individually identify them by marks on their bodies (HA 566b24), and that dolphins have bones (HA 516b11).
Regarding behavior and sensory organs he said that dolphins have a sense of smell but he could not find the organ (HA 533b1), that dolphins can hear despite the lack of ears (HA 533b10-14), produce sounds when outside the water (HA 536a1), that dolphins and whales sleep with their blowhole above the surface of the water (HA 537a34), are carnivorous (HA 591b9-15), and swim fast (HA 591b29).
He held that cetaceans are not fishes because they have hair, lungs (HA 489a34), lack gills, suckle their young by means of mammae, they are viviparous (HA 489b4), and that their bones are analogous to the mammals, not fishes. Still they he calls them “fishes” (HA 566b2-5).
These basic Aristotelian biological descriptions persisted for good and for bad until Charles Darwin’s evolutionary work. On one hand his descriptions were so accurate that Darwin admired Aristotle, to the point that he said privately that the intellectual heroes of his own time “were mere schoolboys compared to old Aristotle.”[1] - Yet the fact that Aristotle saw the natural world as fixed in time with no room for evolution and that he kept calling cetaceans “fishes,” would delay intellectual progress for many centuries when it came to the classification of these animals.
Aristotle’s influence on naturalists’ classification of life would extend until Darwin’s times when evolutionary views replaced the fixity of species as elements in nature.
Pliny the Elder[1] - was the son of an equestrian (the lower of the two aristocratic classes in Rome) and was educated in Rome. After serving in the military he became a lawyer and then a government bureaucrat. In these positions he travelled not only throughout what is Italy today but also what it would later became Germany, France and Spain as well as North Africa (Reynolds 1986).
He wrote a 37-volume Naturalis\n\t\t\t\t\tHistoria[1] - http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+toc&redirect=true (ca. 77-79) in which according to himself he had compiled “20,000 important facts, extracted from about 2000 volumes by 100 authors” and was written for “the common people, the mass of peasants and artisans, and only then for those who devote themselves to their studies at leisure” (Preface 6). This is the earliest known encyclopedia of any kind, which has been interpreted as a Roman invention in order to compile information about the empire (Naas 2002, Murphy 2004). It was a rather disorganized book, whose prose has been criticized by many (Locher 1984). Pliny seemed to be more interested in what appeared to be curiousities than what were facts. This is a big collection of facts and fictions, based mostly said on things said by others.
He devoted 9 of the 37 volumes to animals and ordered them according to where they live. Volume IX (Historia Aquatilium) of Naturalis Historia is devoted to aquatic creatures, whether living in oceans, rivers or lakes, whether vertebrate or invertebrate, real or mythical. Based on their size he categorized as “monster” anything big, whether it is a whale, a sawfish or a tuna (IX 2,3).
He grouped together all known species of cetaceans (cete) but constantly mixed their descriptions with those of other marine mammals such as seals as well as with cartilaginous fishes, such as some sharks (pristis). Pliny mentioned the three species cited by Aristotle: dolphins (delphinus, probably a combination of striped dolphin [Stenella coeruleoalba] and the common dolphin [Delphinus delphis], IX 12-34), porpoises (porcus marinus, the harbor porpoise [Phocoena phocoena], IX 45) and whales (ballaena, possibly a combination of large toothless whales [mysticetes] IX 12-13). Then he added a few more: the thursio or tirsio (probably the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus IX 34), the physeter (probably the sperm whale [Physeter macrocephalus] IX 8) found in the “Gallic Ocean” (probably the Bay of Biscay, IX 3, 4), the orca (probably the killer whale [Orcinus orca] IX 12-14), and the river dolphin from India (possibly Platanista gangetica, IX 46). He also mentioned some mythical creatures such as Homo marinus (Sea-Man, IX 10) and the Scolopendra marina (IX, 145) a mythical organism whose legend may be based on polychaetes, marine annelids characterized by the presence of many legs (Leitner 1972, p. 218).
Pliny recognized that neither whales nor dolphins have gills, that they suckle from the teats of their mothers, and that they are viviparous. In addition to these true facts copied from Aristotle, he mentioned exaggerations such as whales of four jugera (ca. 288 m) in length that because of their large size “are quite unable to move” (IX 2,3). In addition to some of the biological facts mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny adorns his narrative with all kind of casual tales about interactions between cetaceans and humans.
By lumping together all kinds of aquatic organisms it is hard to distinguish what he called “fish” and what he did not (see for example IX 44-45). His classification took a step back from Aristotle because he did not try for a comprehensive classification of animals. He failed to compare organisms based on shared or divergent characters. Many times he ordered creatures based on size, from the largest to the smallest. Yet, his work had great influence for 1700 years, which was unfortunate because he was an uncritical compiler of other people’s writings (even if they were contradictory). Pliny also created a number of unfounded impressions about the reality of nature. His only positive contribution was that he established the norm of always citing the sources of his information (in actuality 437 authors, whose works, in some cases, are no longer available).
During the middle ages, little progress was made in the sciences. Students were urged to believe what they read and not to question conventional wisdom. Logic determined truth, not observation. Free thought was non-existent and minds were filled with mythological explanations for the unknown. Marine mammals were depicted as monsters and little new information was generated.
The Renaissance was a time of awakening and the religious ideology began to be questioned. The translations of the works of Aristotle and Pliny into Latin and the introduction of the printing press helped to spread the little knowledge accumulated until that time about natural history in the western world. For example, by 1500 about 12 editions of Aristotle’s Historia Animalium and 39 of Pliny’s Historia Naturalis had seen the light, which is evidence of the popularity of these works. During this age of discovery the finding of species that were never mentioned neither by Aristotle nor the Bible, opened up scientific curiosity about new creatures around the world. Thus, people once again began to seek new knowledge. However, in these times, naturalists were more compilers of information than investigators despite the fact that they were performing more dissections that in turn uncovered new taxonomic possibilities. Still, scientists relied on environmental aspects to classify animals. Collecting was a primary activity during this era (Alves 2010, p. 54).
Belon[1] - was the first author studying marine mammals in this historical period. Little is known about his family and early years. He traveled extensively throughout Europe and the Middle East, including the Arabian Peninsula and Egypt. Among the places he visited were Rome where he met two other ichthyologists, Rondelet and Salviani (see below). He studied medicine at the University of Paris and botany at the University of Wittenberg, Germany. He served as a doctor and apothecary for French kings, as well as a diplomat, traveler, and as a secret agent (he was murdered under strange circumstances) (Wong 1970).
His L\'Histoire Naturelle des Estranges Poissons Marins (1551) was the first printed scholarly work about marine animals. This book was expanded and published in French in 1555 as La Nature et diversité des poissons including 110 species with illustrations for 103 of them.
Belon not only reproduced information from Aristotle and Pliny but also added his own observations including comparative anatomy and embryology. For him “fish” was anything living in the water. He divided “fishes” in two large groups: the first was “fish with blood” (as Aristotle had done) that included not only actual fishes but also cetaceans, pinnipeds, marine monsters and mythical creatures such as the “monk fish,” as well as other aquatic vertebrates such as crocodiles, turtles, and the hippopotamus. He called a second group “fishes without blood” and consisted of aquatic invertebrates (see also Delaunay 1926).
He ordered what we know as cetaceans today in a vaguely descending order based on size: Le balene (mysticete whales, although in the illustration he depicted a cetacean with teeth), Le chauderon (sperm whale? although he mentions the sawfish), Le daulphin (common dolphins on which he devoted 38 pages of this 55-page book), Le marsouin (porpoise), and L’Oudre (bottlenose dolphin) (for a rationale on the identification of these species see Glardon 2011, p. 393-398). He dissected common dolphins (D. delphis) and porpoises (P. phocaena) acquired at the fish market in Paris brought in by Normandy fishers, and probably a bottlenose dolphin (T. truncatus) as well.
He described these marine mammals as having a placenta, mammae, and hair on the upper lip of their fetus. Belon wrote that apart from the presence of hind limbs, they conform to the human body plan with features such as the liver, the sternum, milk glands, lungs, heart, the skeleton in general, the brain, genitalia. He also dealt with issues of breathing and reproduction (although from the description it is clear that he never saw one of these animals giving birth, since he depicted the newborn surrounded with a membrane). He drew the embryo of a porpoise and the skull of a dolphin (Fig. 1). Despite all this he did not make the connection between cetaceans and “viviparous quadrupeds” and based his entire classification on environmental foundations, as he made clear in the introduction of his work.
Wotton[1] - was the son of a theologian who did general studies at Oxford and studied medicine and Greek at Padua (1524-6). He was a practicing physician who published De
Illustrations of marine mammals by Belon (1551): (a) and (b) are representations of the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis); (c) a porpoise (Phocaena phocaena); (d) a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus, although he uses the name of “Orca”) presumably giving birth; (e) the skull of a dolphin; (f) a porpoise fetus in a placenta, showing that he had actually dissected these animals.
Differentiis Animalium Libri Decem (1552), probably the first published book on natural history of the Renaissance. This was a 10-part (“books”) treatise that followed the classification structure by Aristotle while adding some comments from Pliny. In Book 8 (pp. 171-173) he placed Cete together with fishes because of the medium they inhabit. Except for entomology he did not conduct any original observations on animals nor include any illustrations. His contemporaries noted his lack of originality (Nutton 1985).
The list of cetacean species included Delphino (dolphins), Phocaena (porpoises), Balaena (mysticete whales), Orca (either the bottlenose dolphin or the killer whale) and Physeter (the sperm whale).
Rondelet[1] - was the son of a drug and spice merchant. He studied medicine at the University of Montpellier, one of the best medical schools in Europe at that time. While in Paris he studied anatomy under Johannes Guinther, who also taught Vesalius. Rondelet would later become Professor of medicine and Chancellor at Montpellier (Keller 1975). He probably acquired his interest in ichthyology at a young age while living in Montpellier (about 12 km from the coast) because his family owned a farm that was a stopping place for carts of fish from the Mediterranean (Oppenheimer 1936). During his trips as personal physician to Francois Cardinal Tournon (who was also the patron of Belon) to the Atlantic coasts of France, he became acquainted with the whaling industry. Rondelet met several contemporary ichthyologists while in Rome (1549-1550) such as Belon, Hippolyto Salviani, and Ulyssis Aldronvandi (Gudger 1934). Guillaume Pellicer, Bishop of Montpellier, who was also interested in fishes but never published on ichthyology, may have influenced Rondelet (Oppenheimer 1936, Dulieu, 1966).
He enjoyed dissecting and did so frequently for both teaching and research purposes. He published Libri de Piscibus Marinis in quibus verae Piscium effigies expressae sunt (1554) with a second part titled Universae Aquatilium Historiae pars altera (1555) about both marine and freshwater animals. Both were later translated into French as L’histoire entière des poissons (1558, 599), a monograph for teaching purposes.
After writing about food, habitat, morphology, and physiology, he described 145 freshwater and 190 marine species that included at least seven species of cetaceans: delphino (common dolphin), phocaena (porpoise), tursione (bottlenose dolphin, although the illustration more resembles a porpoise), balaena vulgo and balaena vera (two different species of mysticetes whose true identities are difficult to ascertain), orca (killer whale), and physetere (sperm whale) (Fig. 2). He also included among cetaceans the priste (sawfish) and mythical animals such as Pliny’s scolopendra cetacea, the monstruo leonino (a lion covered with scales and with a human face), the pisce monachi habitu (a fish that looks like a monk), and the pisce Episcopi habitu (a fish that looks like a bishop) of which he was skeptic. All together his book contained more species than previous published works. Each species description included the animal’s name in different languages, their morphology (external and internal), feeding habits, and use as food for humans. Species were differentiated similarly to Aristotle as blooded and non-blooded. Although Aristotle inspired the entire book, including teleological considerations in his discussions, Rondelet added some original ideas, especially concerning anatomy and descriptions of the small cetaceans he dissected. Rondelet made correlations between form, function, and environment.
Illustrations of marine mammals by Rondelet (1554): (a) a dolphin showing a fetus surrounded by a placenta indicating it was a viviparous animal; (b) a porpoise; (c) an unidentified species of mysticete, probably a right whale because may have been observed by Rondelet during a whaling operation in the Atlantic; (d) an unidentified species of mysticete that he never saw as evidenced by the depiction of barbels above the mouth; (e) orca (Orcinus orca); (f) a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus).
Despite noting differences, he grouped marine mammals with fish based on habitat. For example, he noted that fishes with scales lack lungs and have a three-chamber heart while what we know today as marine mammals have hearts with four chambers. He compared the anatomy of a dolphin to that of the pig and humans. Based on this and his descriptions of other internal organs, he considered marine mammals to be a type of aquatic quadruped. Yet, he did not propose a system of classification. He did not advance the notion of valid classification, but because of the quality of his descriptions his work remained as the main reference for about 100 years.
Gessner[1] - probably developed an interest in zoology after seeing the carcasses of furred animals at his father’s workshop where several furriers worked. He also lived with a great-uncle, an herbalist, who furthered his interest in natural history (Bay 1916, Gmelig-Nijboer 1977, p. 17, Wellisch 1984, p. 1). He was an avid traveler who studied theology and medicine in Bourges, Paris, Montpellier, and Basel (Fischer 1966) and had great facility for classical languages. During his travels Gessner met with Belon and Rondelet. He is considered as the “father of bibliography” because of his work on compiling information about books (Bay 1916). Gessner himself had a very large private library of more than 400 volumes (which was a very large private collection for his time) of which 19% of the volumes were on natural history and 13 of them were on zoology (Leu et al. 2008, pp. viii, 1, 13, 21). He published Historiae Animalium (1551-1558), an encyclopedic (4 volumes, 4,500 pages treatise) but uncritical compilation of information and bibliography in which he intended to itemize all of God’s creations. In addition to classic authors such as Aristotle and Pliny, Gessner obtained information from whomever he could correspond. He classified cetaceans among ‘aquatic animals,’ i.e., including fishes. The fourth volume (Piscium & Aquatilium) of 1297 pages was published in 1558 and was about the aquatic animals. A fifth volume on reptiles and arthropods was not published until 1587, posthumously. Historiae was added to the list of prohibited books because Gessner was Protestant. Yet, the 14 editions in different languages of this book reveal its popularity.
Gessner followed Aristotle’s classification of animals when it came to their grouping by volume (Vol. 1: viviparous quadrupeds; Vol. 2: oviparous quadrupeds; Vol. 3: birds; Vol. 4: aquatic animals; Vol. 5: serpents). He ordered them alphabetically, like a “Dictionarium,” in each volume, which did not provide a rational classification based on relationships of any kind; on the other hand this alphabetical order facilitated its use as an encyclopedic source. Gessner’s intention was to collect any piece of information ever written about each animal by any author in history, he cited nearly 250 authors including Rondelet (Libri de Piscibus Marinis, 1554), Belon (De Aquatilibus,1553), and Salviani (Aquatilium Animalium, 1554). The latter only mentioned marine mammals in passim.
Some of the “Cetis” described by Gessner (1558): (a) and (b) two examples of marine monsters; (c) a whale attacking a ship and another being flensed during whaling operations. Both show mysteces with teeth, which indicates that Gessner never saw these animals. This exemplifies that Gessner was an uncritical compiler of information.
Information included names of the animals in various languages (some times more than a dozen) comprising epithets and etymology (even inventing common names in other languages when those names were not available), physical features, geographic distribution, the animal’s way of living including diseases and their cures, behavior, utility towards man (e.g., for food or medical purposes), and tales. His work was full of illustrations: some were very accurate showing that he had first-hand knowledge of the animal in questions while other were bizarre or just invented, especially when dealing with mythical creatures.
Gessner included a 16-page-folio discussion about the dolphin very much along the lines of Aristotle and Pliny. As an uncritical compiler he included contradictory or totally false information such as mythical species and even “monsters.” In volume 4 he relied heavily on Belon and Rondelet. For example, Monachus marinus (sea monk, IV, p. 519) description was copied from Rondelet who, in turn, had received the description from Marguerite, Queen of Navarre, who heard it from Emperor Charles V’s ambassador, who had claimed to see the monster himself (Kusukawa 2010). He did not add much to what was already known. Among marine mammals he mentioned are the Balaena (mystecete whales, IV, p. 128) depicted more as sea monster than as an actual whale, Cetis diversis (IV, p. 207), an amalgam of marine monsters based on Olaus Magnus’s descriptions of sea monsters from seas from northern Europe, Hominis marinis (IV, p. 438), a collection of humanoid sea monsters such as the sea-monk and the sea-bishop. To certain extent he was skeptical of accuracy of some of these descriptions by other authors.
Many of the figures were made by others and copied directly from other books including those of “cetaceous” animals as was the case of a whale which was copied from Olaus Magnus’ map of the Northern Lands (IV, p. 176) (Fig. 3).
The last author who published anything of significance about marine mammals during the Renaissance was Aldrovandi[1] -. He was born to a noble and wealthy family, which allowed him to initially dedicate his life to his own pursuits. He was educated in Bologna, Padua, and Rome, receiving degrees in law and medicine although he never practiced those professions. He was appointed as the first professor of natural history in the University of Bologna. Although he was a pious Catholic, because of what he read he was charged with heresy. After producing himself in Rome, he was acquitted. While in Rome he met Rondelet and accompanied him to the fish markets where he became interested in ichthyology (which included the study of marine mammals) collecting specimens for his own museum. He traveled extensively throughout Italy and made a collection of about 11,000 animal specimens for pedagogical purposes; most of them can be found today at the Bologna Museum to which he bequeathed not only his specimens but also his library and unpublished manuscripts as well (Alves 2010, pp. 56-82). He also conducted dissections (Impey and McGregor 1985). He was a true encyclopedist following the tradition of the University of Bologna at that time (Tugnoli Pattaro 1994). He wrote extensively but the quality of his animal descriptions and illustrations were poor from the scientific viewpoint (Fig. 4). Aldrovandi was an uncritical compiler who included legends of mythical animals in his writings similar to the medieval bestiaries and in the tradition of Pliny.
Depiction of some marine animals by Aldrovandi (1613): Some show that he actually saw some of those skeletal pieces such as (a) a tooth possible from a sperm whale, (b) a baleen and the prominent tooth of a narwhal (Monodon monoceros), (c) a rib and a vertebra, possibly of a large whale, and (d) a scapula. In other cases he illustrated whales with human-like emotions (e); whales with feet (f); sawfishes with cetacean characteristics (g); and Pliny’s “Scolopendra cetacea” (h), which perpetuated the notion that such animal existed. Overall he was a very uncritical compiler when it came to marine mammals.
He published De piscibus libri V, et De cetis lib. vnus (1613) where he defined “Pisces” as animals covered with scales and “aquatilis” as “anything else that lives in the water” while recognizing that cetaceans are air-breathing creatures. The species that he mentioned were the ones cited by his predecessors: Balaena, Physeter, Orca, Delphino, Phocaena, and Tursione, while including the Manate Indorum, Phoca, Pristi (the sawfish), and the mythical Scolopendra Cetacea. From the illustrations (Fig. 4) it is clear he never saw any of these animals with the exception of some of their skeletal parts. As an uncritical compiler of information he did not add anything new to the knowledge of these creatures and, yet, was cited by later authors.
In this period, observation and experimentation moved to the forefront of science. Classification was based on similarities and differences in characters. During this time English physicians travelled to Padua, Bologna and Paris to be trained in human dissection since the status of medicine in England was still poor. People involved in these kind of activities had a background in either medicine (or “physic” as it was called then) and/or theology (Kruger 2004). During this time the center of gravity of science moved from the Mediterranean world to northern Europe, mostly England.
The first researcher of the biology of marine mammals in this period was Johann Jonston[1] -. Although born in Poland, Jonston’s father was Scottish and his mother German. He was educated in St Andrews, Frankfurt, Cambridge, and Leiden, receiving a medical degree from the last two institutions. He traveled extensively throughout Europe teaching, and despite offers for academic positions, he decided to make a living as an independent scholar (Miller 2008). He published Historiae naturalis de Piscibum Partem in 1657. Jonston was another encyclopedist who when it came to natural history was more a compiler than anything else, relying heavily on Gessner and Aldrovandi while adding some new information from New World creatures from George Marcgrave. Thus, he did not offer any significant critical view to his sources although his descriptions were briefer than those of his predecessors. He gave no hint of biological classification for marine mammals and also added further mistakes and legends (even ‘monsters’). He slightly modified Aldrovandi’s classification of fishes by adding ‘pelagic’ fishes. Yet his books were widely read and translated.
He dealt with cetaceans on pages 213-224 of his Historiae and included the same species as Aldrovandi: Balaena, Physetere, Orca, Delphino, Phocaena and the mythical scolopendra cetacea, the sawfish, pinnipeds, and the manatee among the cetaceans.
Charleton[1] - was the son of a church rector of modest means. He was educated at Oxford as a physician at that time when medical education in England emphasized scholastic approaches to knowledge and British colleges had inadequate anatomical staff and teaching facilities. The practical elements of practicing medicine were not acquired until after assisting a more experienced practicing medical doctor.
Charleton was a follower of epicurean atomism (materialism) (Kargon 1964) and an eclectic (Lewis 2001), whose interest in natural history was more or less theological because, as he said, men were obligated into “naming & looking into the nature of all Creatures” (Boot 2005, p. 119). In other words, just as Ray and Willoughby did later, natural science was the search a divine pattern in nature, part of the research agenda of the Royal Society – to which Charleton belonged (Rolleston 1940, Sharpe 1973). His publications showed him more as a compiler than as an innovator. His major contribution to science was the discovery that tadpoles turn into frogs (Booth 2005, p. 1).
He published two books dealing with animal classification: Onomasticon zoicon (1668) and Exercitationes de Differentiis & Nominibus Animalium (1677) works that listed the names of all known animals (including some fossils) in the western world in several languages with a somewhat taxonomy discussion, including remarks about these animals habits and habitats that contained anatomical descriptions of two animals that he had dissected. As Belon did over a century before, he divided “fishes” as either “with blood” (vertebrates) and “without blood” (invertebrates). He grouped under “Cetaceos” not only actual cetaceans but also the sawfish, seals, walruses, manatees, hippopotamus and the mythical “scolopendra cetacea.” The actual cetaceans described were Balaena vulgaris (probably the right whale), Physeter, & Physalus (probably the fin whale but also other species), Cetus dentatus (the sperm whale), Pustes (indeterminate species, maybe the beluga), Orca (the killer whale), Monoceros (the narwhal), Delphinus (probably a composite of delphinidae), and Phocaena (the porpoise).
Tyson[1] - was born into an affluent merchant family. He performed numerous dissections as a college student, obtained his medical degree at Oxford University and was a lecturer of Anatomy at the Barber-Surgeons Hall in London. Tyson was the first of the comparative anatomists in the modern sense. He did extensive dissections and was the first to use a microscope as part of his anatomical studies. His description of the highly convoluted cetacean brain as well as his recognition of the many homologies with "viviparous quadrupeds", rather than the fishes that they externally resembled, constituted a major landmark contribution to the history of biology (Kruger 2003).
In Phocaena, or, The anatomy of a porpess dissected at Gresham Colledge, with a preliminary discourse concerning anatomy and natural history of animals (1680), he noted that “What we have here is a signal Example of the same between Land-Quadrupeds and Fishes; for if we view a Porpess on the outside, there is nothing more than a fish; for if we view a Porpess on the inside, there is nothing less. (...) It is viviparous, does give suck, and hath all its Organs so contrieved according to the standard of them in Land-Quadrupeds; that one would almost think of it to be such, but it lives in the Sea, and hath but two fore-fins.” Adding later “The structure of the viscera and inward parts have so great an Analogy [sic] and resemblance to those of Quadrupeds, that we find them here almost the same. The greatest difference from them seems to be in the external shape, and wanting feet. But here too we observed that when the skin and flesh was taken off, the forefins did very well represent an Arm, there being the Scapula, an of Humeri, the Ulna, and Radius, and bone of the Carpus, the Metacarp, and 5 digiti curiously joynted. The Tayle too does very well supply the defect of feet both in swimming as also leaping in the water, as if both hinder feet were colligated into one, though it consisted not of articulated bones but rather Tendons and Cartilages.”
Tyson’s description of the internal anatomy of the porpoise is remarkable, particularly when it comes to its nervous system (Kruger 2003). In many ways he thought that the “porpess” was the transitional link between terrestrial mammals and fish.
In his monograph Tyson surveyed contributions from previous authors. He corresponded with John Ray (see below). Ray had also dissected a porpoise (an exercise on which he reported in a published form in 1671), nine years before Tyson but was far more superficial and added very little to what other authors such as Rondelet had done. Tyson met Ray around 1683 and the latter invited Tyson to contribute to Willughby’s De Historia Piscium (Montagu 1943, p. 103).
Tyson was critical of encyclopedic approaches and relying on classical authors when it came to natural history. He set new standards in terms of direct observation and comparative anatomy. He also established an understanding of homology not seen since Aristotle. He proved to be a very competent observer of internal anatomy and he saw comparative anatomy as a means to explain the Great Chain of Being (or scala naturae or ladder of nature) as proposed by Plato and Aristotle.
A contemporary of Tyson was Samuel Collins[1] -. The son of the rector of Rotherfield, Sussex, who got his education at Cambridge, Collins travelled to several universities in France, Italy and the Netherlands finally getting his medical degree at the University of Padua, later becoming physician of Charles II. He taught anatomy at the Royal College of Physicians[1] -. Collins published A Systeme of Anatomy (London 1685), which was the earliest attempts to illustrate the brains of a broad variety of mammals, birds, teleosts, and elasmobranchs in a remarkable two-volume folio edition of 1,263 pages. It included 73 full-page illustrations of very high quality. There he described a female porpoise. However, it seems that he had used Tyson’s previous descriptions and unfortunately says nothing about the brain of this cetacean. Had he had examined the brain of the porpoise he would have noted the great similarities of this organ with those among the “viviparous quadrupeds.” Collins did not discuss the similarities between the other internal organs of the porpoise and those called mammals today either. He acknowledged Tyson’ previous contributions in this matter.
In addition to Tyson, Collins\'s anatomy draws largely upon the works of Thomas Willis. In the opening Epistle-Dedicatory to James II he claimed that various chapters "are illustrated by the Dissection of other Animals (which I have performed with Care and Diligence, speaking the wonderous Works of the Glorious Maker) rendering the Parts of Man\'s Body more clear and more intelligible." In volume two of his huge work he described numerous folio copper plates containing the most extensive comparative anatomy of the brain then existing, an expansive account of the functional significance of his findings, as well as practical clinical commentary.
Ray[1] - was the first naturalist who truly represented this new era of careful observation. His father was a blacksmith and his mother was an herbal healer. He studied at the University of Cambridge, pursuing comparative anatomy although initially his main interest was botany. He taught Greek, mathematics and humanities at Cambridge but abandoned his teaching position after refusing to comply with the Act of Uniformity of 1662. He was a very religious person who undertook the study of nature to understand God’s creation (Raven 1950). Fairly early he developed a plan with his student and patron, Francis Willughby[1] - to produce a joint general natural history. To that end Ray and Willughby went on an extended tour of England and Europe (1662-1666), including the medical school at Montpellier. Although they did not always travel together both collected specimens, got involved in dissections and acquired books and illustrations (Kusukawa 2000), an endeavor bankrolled by Willughby. When Willughby died, Ray took over his parts of the general natural history. Willughby left him an annuity of £60 and Ray stayed on as tutor to Willughby’s children until 1675, when Willughby\'s mother, also his patron, died, and the widow immediately terminated the relationship. Ray inherited a small farm that also contributed to the family\'s maintenance while he earned money from his productive publishing. Therefore Ray had the financial freedom to pursue his intellectual interests.
Ray’s first published work on cetaceans was Dissection of a Porpess (1671). He does a much better job in describing the internal anatomy of this animal when compared with Rondelet but does not get into the detail that Tyson achieved later. During the narrative of his findings he keeps noticing that a porpoise has a lot in common with the “quadrupeds”. Yet he persisted calling them “fishes.”
Ray published Historia piscium (1686), under Willughby\'s name 14 years after his patron death, though Ray himself contributed the vast majority of the content. He carried out the first serious attempt to achieve a systematic arrangement, the success of which can be attributed by the fact that it served as a basis for the systematics work of the following century. His approach was based on direct observation, collaboration with other researchers, and critical reading of previous authors.
Historia Piscium is divided into two parts that were printed separatedly: the first is the narrative and the second, titled Ichthyographia, were the illustrations. Many libraries today have both bound together. As sources Ray used authors mentioned earlier in this chapter: Rondelet, Salviani, Gessner, Aldrovandi and Belon, among others. Yet, far from merely compiling information from them, Ray insisted in very comprehensive descriptions of species and discarded all monsters and mythical creatures mentioned by his predecessors. Ray not only removed narratives of marine invertebrates but also other aquatic animals such as the crocodile and the hippopotamus. He divided his subject matter into three groups: cetaceans, cartilaginous fishes, and bony fishes. He recognized that when it comes to reproduction and internal anatomy cetaceans are identical to the “viviparous quadrupeds.” Still, he kept cetaceans within the “piscium” despite the fact that he was well aware that they were biologically distinct from fishes.
In his narrative of species Ray moved away from in the practical aspects related to these animals. Aspects such as usage for medical purposes were very common among previous authors because of their medical background. Yet, Ray was very keen at compiling names on the belief that a universal language could be construct based on the knowledge of nature. As Kusukawa (2000) has argued convincingly, Ray believed that there was a need for “a construction of a universal language based on a table that properly expressed the natural order and relations between things.” Hence a precise description and classification was the route to achieve that goal. The final product counted not only on the intellectual support of the Royal Society’s members who provided constructive criticism and moral support but also their financial support. The cost of publishing Historia Piscium was not only very high, mostly because of the expense of the illustrations (187 plates), but also the 500 copies printed sold poorly. As a consequence the Society could not print Isaac Newton’s Principia.
Ray’s third publication related to marine mammals was Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis (1693). By then he was totally convinced that cetaceans were not fishes: “For except as to the place on which they live, the external form of the body, the hairless skin and progressive swimming motion, they have almost nothing in common with fishes, but remaining characters agree with the viviparous quadrupeds.” He placed today\'s terrestrial mammals (including the manatee) among the ‘hairy animals’ very close to the Cetaceum genus (cetaceans).
In Synopsis Ray included a section called Pisces Cetacei seu Belluae marinae where he expressed that these animals breath and give birth like the “oviparous quadrupeds.” He grouped them into two categories according to the presence of teeth much as we do today separating odontocetes from mysticetes. Ras was the first in doing so. The species he cited were Balaena vulgaris (Rondelet), Balaena (Fin-Fish), Physeter or Balaena physeteris, Orca (Rondelet & Belon), Cete (Sperm whale), Pot Walfish, Albus piscis cetaceus (white fish), Monoceros cetaceo (Narhual islandis), Delphino antiquorum (dolphin, from Rondelet), Phocaeno (Rondelet & Belon), dissecting a specimen of the latter in 1669.
Illustrations from Tyson’s (1680) description of the internal anatomy of a porpoise. Notice the remarkable accuracy of the depictions.
Ray developed a division of animals characterized by having blood, breathing by lungs, two ventricles in the heart, and being viviparous. Ray subdivided this group into aquatic (cetaceans) and terrestrial or quadruped including sirenians (manatees and dugongs). He rejected tales of fabulous animals while perfecting Aristotle’s classification by diving vertebrates into those having hearts with two ventricles (mammals and birds) from those with a single ventricle (reptiles, amphibians and fish). He also advanced the understanding of other groupings. He established the significance of the generic principle, defined species, and was a leading contributor to the gigantic task of classification.
Ray came close to recognizing mammals as a separate group based on “warm-blood,” vivipary, and hair. He conceded the relationship of cetaceans with viviparous quadrupeds; described genera and species; established ordinal classification of mammals; systematic phrases and names; used of descriptive phrases as well as monomial names (a taxonomic name consisting of a single word); a dichotomous (“A is B or not B”) classification of mammals. Yet, he lacked the vision or intellectual courage to reunite marine mammals with their terrestrial relatives and still placed the former with the fish “in accordance with common usage.” Still he was possibly the best naturalist of the seventeenth century.
Artedi[1] - was the son of a parish priest who developed an interest in fishes from an early age. He studied medicine at the University of Uppsala, devoting most of his time at studying natural history. At 29 years of age he went to London for a year to study natural history collections and described the sighting of a whale in November 1734, probably downstream of the London Bridge. He then moved to Leiden, The Netherlands, to complete his medical studies and there he met Linnaeus, whom he knew from their native Sweden, forging a lifelong personal and professional relationship. Linnaeus introduced him to an Amsterdam chemist, Albert Seba, and Artedi started working on Seba’s fish collection. Artedi died at the age of 30 by drowning in an Amsterdam canal. After his death, Linnaeus recovered his manuscripts and published Ichthyologia (1738) without amending Artedi’s original work. Despite the fact that this was an unfinished work, it was a fundamental publication that marked the origin of ichthyology as we know it today. After a long (96 pages) introduction describing previous authorities on ichthyology the second part deals with the taxonomic terminology he used, particularly regarding the concept of genus and distinguishing between species and varieties. His system set the basis for the modern systematic classification of living organisms later established by Linnaeus. In part three he went into the classification of species including detailed description of them, some of which he had dissected himself. For this Artedi is considered the father of ichthyology (Wheeler 1962, 1987, Broberg 1987).
Artedi separated actual fishes from cetaceans (which he called “plagiuri”) based on the plane of the caudal fin. He described 7 genera and 14 species including the manatee and the “siren” as follows:
Order:Plagiuri
Physeter
Balaena major (Ray, p. 15)
Balaena macrocephala (Ray, p. 16)
Delphinus
Delphinus (Phocaena) (Art. Syn. 104)
Delphinus (Delphin) (Art. Syn. 105)
Delphinus (Orca) (Art. Syn. 106)
Balaena
Balaena vulgaris (Ray p. 6, 16)
Balaena edentula Fin-Fish (Ray p. 6, 10)
Balaena tripinnis (Ray 16)
Balenae (Balaena tripinnis) (Ray 17)
Monodon
Monoceros pisces (Will. 42, Ray 11, Charleton 168)
Catodon
Balaena minor (Ray p. 15)
Balaena major (Ray p. 17, Will. P. 41)
Trichechus
Manatus (Rondelet p. 490, Gessner p. 213, Charleton 169, Aldrovandi 7
28, Jonston 223)
Siren
Homo marinus
Artedi established the basic classification of fishes that lasted for about 200 years and separated cetaceans into a totally different order than fishes; he apparently knew that they were different, but still tradition was difficult to break and thus he included them into his ichthyological treatise. He also established the basic branching of animal groups into Class, Maniples (Families), Genera, and Species, a system that was to be closely followed by Linnaeus (Wheeler 1987, Broberg 1987). His work set the foundations for what Linnaeus would culminate as the definitely recognition of cetaceans as distinct group within mammals.
Linnaeus (or Linné)[1] - had as a father a country person who loved plants. Linnaeus followed a medical career but was actually more interested in botany than in anything else. Linnaeus met Artedi in 1729 and their interests were complementary: Artedi, a zoologist interested mostly on fishes, and Linnaeus, interested in botany. He would later edit Artedi’s book in ichthyology that was published in 1738. What Linnaeus learned from Artedi set the basis for a better classification not only of plants but also animals in general.
Even some of Linnaeus students were developing a better understanding of cetaceans as being really close to “viviparous quadrupeds.” That was the case of Pehr Löfling[1] -, one of Linnaeus’ students who came very close to making major contributions to the true nature of dolphins and manatees based on his observations of these animals in South America. In his description of Amazon freshwater dolphin or boto, Löfling was clear about when writing that whales and dolphins were different from fishes: ”Pisces per pulmonibus spirantibus.” However, his early death and the fact that his manuscripts were never published prevented him from gaining recognition in the scientific community (Romero et al. 1997).
With all of this background, the botanist Linnaeus was ready to revolutionize biological classification and in the 10th Edition (1758) of his fundamental work Systema Naturae, he introduced the term Mammalia, and included Cete among them. For Linnaeus, mammals were united by having hair, being viviparous, and producing milk. He coined the term cetacea and separated them from fishes and grouped them with the rest of the viviparous quadrupeds based on the following characteristics: two-chamber heart, breathing by lungs, hollow ears, internal fertilization, and production of milk.
Thus, Linnaeus revolutionized the science of systematics by developing a fully natural system of classification, using consistently the binomial nomenclature, and designing species with Latinized names (genus and species). He developed a hierarchy (class, order, genus, species) as proposed by Artedi, with species defined as similar individuals bound together by reproduction, which also set the basis of the biological species concept. The use of telegraphic speech-like (very short sentences) diagnosis for species descriptions and the standardization of synonymies (same species with different names) in order to reach a taxonomic consensus made his classification even more useful since from now on one could find clarity on what a particular species was tracing its description to other authors. He also doubled the number of species described by Ray. Thus, despite the fact that he was not a zoologist per se nor was involved in dissection of animals, he was far from a compiler in that he applied critical thinking to the way he ordered nature.
This progress is even more remarkable when considering that Linnaeus was far from an evolutionist. For him species were fixed except for small variations due to climatic/local conditions. Yet, Linnaeus was, without question, the founder of systematics and the one who laid the foundations for the naturalists to become specialists and, therefore, opened the door for the first group of marine mammal specialists, now that these creatures were not longer considered “fishes.” It was not until Linnaeus that the science of taxonomy made the strides that have lead us to where we are today in our understanding of the natural world. Linnaeus understood biological principles and placed animals in groups based on homologies rather than using environment to drive classification, and this was what allowed him to recognized cetaceans as a distinct group within mammals.
Persuing at the information provided above there are a number of discernable patterns. One is the preponderance of pre-Linnean researchers interested in marine mammals who had a medical background of some sort. That is not surprising because medicine was the closest thing to science as a career existed until the eighteenth century. Also, being interested in medicine created more opportunities to dissect animals and, therefore, understanding of their internal anatomy that was particularly crucial in establishing the homology between cetaceans and the “viviparous quadrupeds.” Yet, this positive influence was marred by the proliferation of encyclopedists who, for the most part, were uncritical compilers of other authors’ information. However, the major impediment to any attempts to develop a natural classification for cetaceans was the insistence on classifying them by virtue of the environment in which they live, something that even diverted the thoughts of keen observers such as Ray and Artedi, despite of abundant evidence to the contrary having been collected since Aristotle.
Finally, we should not overlook the role played by intellectual inertia in the development of science. As Horder (1998) clearly demonstrated, scientists need to know the history of their field to avoid errors of the past, something that has also been argued for specific fields of biology (see Romero 2009, Chapter 1).
Composites exist in nature. A piece of wood is a composite, with long cellulose fibres held together by a substance called lignin. Composite materials are formed by combining two or more materials that have quite different properties, and they do not dissolve or blend into each other. The different materials in the composite work together to give the composite unique properties. Humans have been using composite materials for thousands of years in different areas. The first uses of composites date back to the 1500 BC, when early Egyptians and Mesopotamian settlers used a mixture of mud and straw to create strong and durable buildings. The combination of mud and straw in a block of brick provides it a strong property against both squeezing and tearing or bending. The straw continued to provide reinforcement to ancient composite products, including pottery and boats [1]. In 1200 AD, the Mongols invented the first composite bow using a combination of “animal glue”, bone, and wood. The bows were pressed and wrapped with birch bark. These bows were powerful and accurate. Composite Mongolian bows helped to ensure Genghis Khan’s military dominance. Due to their advantages such as being light weight and strong, many of the greatest advancements in composites were the result of wartime needs. During World War II, many composite materials were developed and moved from the laboratory into actual production [1, 2].
\nThe development and need for composite materials also result in the fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP) industry. By 1945, more than 7 million pounds of glass fibres were used for various products, primarily for military applications. Composite materials continued to take off after the war and grew rapidly through the 1950s. The composite innovators were ambitiously trying to introduce composites into other markets such as aerospace, construction, and transportation. Soon the benefits of FRP composites, especially its corrosion resistance, became known to the public sector. Boats were one obvious product that benefited. The first composite commercial boat hull was introduced in 1946. A full automobile body was made from composite and tested in 1947 [1, 2]. This led to the development of the 1953 Chevrolet Corvette. The advent of the automobile age gave rise to several new methods for moulding such as compression moulding of bulk moulding compound (BMC) and sheet moulding compound (SMC). The two techniques emerged as the dominant method of moulding for the automotive industry and other industries. In the early 1950s, manufacturing methods such as large-scale filament winding, pultrusion, and vacuum bag moulding were developed. In the 1960s, the marine market became the largest consumer of composite materials [1, 2]. In 1961, the first carbon fibre was patented and several years later became commercially available. In the 1970s the composites industry began to mature. Many better resins and improved reinforcing fibres were developed during this period for composite applications. In the 1970s, the automotive market surpassed marine as the number one market—a position it retains today. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, composites were first used in infrastructure applications in Asia and Europe. The first all-composites pedestrian bridge was installed in Aberfeldy, Scotland, in the 1990s. In this period, the first FRP-reinforced concrete bridge deck was built in McKinleyville, West Virginia, and the first all-composites vehicular bridge deck was built in Russell, Kansas. Composites continue to find applications today [1, 2, 3]. Nanomaterials are incorporated into improved fibres and resins used in new composites. Nanotechnology began to be used in commercial products in the early 2000s. Bulk carbon nanotubes can be used as composite reinforcement in polymers to improve the mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of the bulk product [3].
\nNowadays, the composite industry is still evolving, with much of the growth now focused around renewable energy. Wind turbine blades, especially, are constantly pushing the limits on size and require advanced composite materials, for example, the engineers can design to tailor the composite based on the performant requirements, making the composite sheet very strong in one direction by aligning the fibres that way, but weaker in another direction where strength is not so important. The engineers can also select properties such as resistance to heat, chemicals, and weathering by choosing an appropriate matrix material. In recent years, an increasing environmental consciousness and awareness of the need for sustainable development have raised interest in using natural fibres as reinforcements in composites to replace synthetic fibres [4, 5, 6, 7]. This chapter seeks to provide an overview of the science and technology in relation to the composite material, manufacturing process, and utilisation.
\nIn general, a composite consists of three components: (i) the matrix as the continuous phase; (ii) the reinforcements as the discontinuous or dispersed phase, including fibre and particles; and (iii) the fine interphase region, also known as the interface [8, 9]. By carefully choosing the matrix, the reinforcement, and the manufacturing process that brings them together, the engineers can tailor the properties to meet specific requirements [10]. Over the recent decades, many new composites have been developed, some with very valuable properties.
\nAny material can serve as a matrix material for composite. However, matrix materials are generally ceramics, metals, and polymers. In reality, the majority of matrix materials that exist on the composites market are polymer. There are several different polymer matrices which can be utilised in composite materials. Among the polymer matrix composites, thermoset matrix composites are more predominant than thermoplastic composites. Though thermoset and thermoplastics sound similar, they have very different properties and applications. Understanding the performance differences can help to make better sourcing decisions and the product designs as composites [11].
\nThermosets are materials that undergo a chemical reaction or curing and normally transform from a liquid to a solid. In its uncured form, the material has small, unlinked molecules known as monomers. The addition of a second material as a cross-linker, curing agent, catalyst, and/or the presence of heat or some other activating influences will initiate the chemical reaction or curing reaction. During this reaction, the molecules cross-link and form significantly longer molecular chains and cross-link network, causing the material to solidify. The change of the thermoset state is permanent and irreversible. Subsequently, exposure to high heat after solidifying will cause the material to degrade, not melt. This is because these materials typically degrade at a temperature below where it would be able to melt.
\nThermoplastics are melt-process able plastics. The thermoplastic materials are processed with heat. When enough heat is added to bring the temperature of the plastic above its melting point, the plastic melts, liquefies, or softens enough to be processed. When the heat source is removed and the temperature of the plastic drops below its melting point, the plastic solidifies back into a glasslike solid. This process can be repeated, with the plastic melting and solidifying as the temperature climbs above and drops below the melting temperature, respectively. However, the material can be increasingly subject to deterioration in its molten state, so there is a practical limit to the number of times that this reprocessing can take place before the material properties begin to suffer. Many thermoplastic polymers are addition-type, capable of yielding very long molecular chain lengths or very high molecular weights [12].
\nBoth thermoset and thermoplastic materials have its place in the market. In broad generalities, thermosets tend to have been around for a long time and have a well-established place in the market, frequently have lower raw material costs, and often provide easy wetting of reinforcing fibre and easy forming to final part geometries. In other words, thermosets are often easier to process than thermoplastic. Thermoplastics tend to be tougher or less brittle than thermoset. They can have better chemical resistance, do not need refrigeration as uncured thermosets (prepreg materials) frequently do, and can be more easily recycled and repaired. Table 1 presents a comparison between thermoset and thermoplastic. This table is not providing all but rather some information for the researchers and manufacturers when considering the utilisation of these materials.
\n\n | Thermoset | \nThermoplastic | \n
---|---|---|
Processing | \nContain monomers that cross-link together during the curing process to form an irreversible chemical bond. The cross-linking process eliminates the risk of the product remelting when heat is applied, making thermosets ideal for high-heat applications such as electronics and appliances | \nPellets soften when heated and become more fluid as additional heat is applied. This characteristic allows thermoplastics to be remoulded and recycled without negatively affecting the material’s physical properties | \n
Features and benefits | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Thermoset vs. thermoplastic.
Thermosets are classified into polyester resins, epoxy resins, vinyl ester resins, phenolic, polyurethane, and other high-temperature resins such as cyanate esters, etc. The rapid industrialisation in developing economies the world over is one of the major boosting factors for the thermoset market. The demand for high-performance and lightweight materials from various end-use industries such as automotive, chemical tanks, and water tanks is expected to expand the global market for thermosets over the next 6 years. The growing demand for thermosets from emerging economies like Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRIC) is expected to drive the market. BRIC nations are the four fastest-growing economies in the world with their GDP growth rates higher than the global GDP growth rate. However, frequent fluctuation in raw material prices acts as one of the major factors inhibiting the market growth. Asia-Pacific accounts for the biggest market for thermosets owing to the growth of the automobile market, primarily in China and India. Japan is a mature market and is expected to remain stagnant over the next years. China is the biggest automobile market in the world, and India also lists itself in the top five automobile markets in the world. Asia, along with being the largest market, is also the fastest-growing market for thermosets. The North American market for thermosets is primarily driven by the regulatory initiative to reduce automobile weight by 50% by 2020 in the USA in order to cut fuel consumption. Polyester resins and polyurethane account for the two most popular types of thermosets in the global market. The global market for thermosets is dominated by big multinational corporations which are present across the value chain. Some of the major companies operating in the thermosets market include Arkema, BASF, Asahi Kasei Chemical Corp, Bayer AG, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LLC, Sinopec, Dow Chemical Company, Eastman Chemical Company, and Lyondell Basell Industries, among others [13]. To date, thermosets have been used predominantly in the industry. Thermosets are generally favoured for a variety of reasons, especially on commercial aircraft. Thermoset composites have been used for 30–40 years in aerospace. For example, the fuselage of the Boeing 787 is an epoxy-based polymer [14].
\nOn the other hand, the use of thermoplastic polymers (acrylic, polyolefin, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), etc.), the more easily moldable and resettable composite material relative to thermoset polymers, is a growing material trend in the fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) industry. According to the American Composites Manufacturers Association (ACMA), the thermoplastic industry is expected to grow 4.9% over the next years and reach an estimated $8.2 billion by 2017, with even larger opportunities in emerging economies. Thermoplastic polymers also offer an easy solution to recycling composite components, a concern when it comes to adopting composite materials. Thermoplastic composites can repeat the heating and cooling cycle many times, thus giving the product an almost indefinite shelf life and adding more value for industries concerned with composite recyclability. This is especially the case for the growth of natural fibre thermoplastics in the USA and Western Europe. For example, wood-plastic composites, used for decking material and other wood substitutions, have grown by 35–40% in the past 5 years. According to Lucintel (the premier global management consulting and market research firm), countries in Asia and Eastern Europe will lead the growth for thermoplastic adoption because automotive production and thermoplastic automotive component production are quickly growing in those regions. However, the automotive sectors in the USA and Western Europe may not experience the same high rate of growth but are expected to develop steadily in the next 5 years, mainly due to the acceptance of new composite application. The study indicates that although gains will be limited by rising energy costs and competition from lower cost materials, there is significant opportunity in emerging economies such as China, Russia, Brazil, and India [15]. Recently, a major trend in the aerospace industry is a move toward greater use of thermoplastics vs. “traditional” thermoset epoxies. This also opens an opportunity for thermoplastics.
\nThermoplastic are the dominant plastic materials overall, especially in non-reinforced applications. Thermosets are used in non-reinforced applications for a specific purpose where they have an advantage because of some unique property. However, within the reinforced or composites marketplace, thermoset dominant and thermoplastic are used only in applications where their unique advantages are important. Within the composite market, thermoset represents about 80% of the total material used [16]. The global composite resin market size by end-use applications, in terms of value, was USD 9317.4 Million in 2014 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 5.6% between 2015 and 2020 [17].
\nAs mentioned above, thermoplastics are capable of being repeatedly softened by the application of heat and hardened by cooling and have the potential to be the most easily recycled, which has seen them most favoured in recent commercial uptake, whereas better realisation of the fibre properties is generally achieved using thermosets. There are several types of polymers in the market. The most common polymers are summarized in Table 2 [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
\n\n | Polymers | \nDensity (g/cm3) | \nElongation (%) | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nYoung’s modulus (GPa) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thermoplastic | \nAcrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA) | \n1.0–1.1 | \n30.0 | \n43.5 | \n2.2 | \n
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) | \n1.0–1.1 | \n270.0 | \n47.0 | \n2.1 | \n|
Cross-linked polyethylene (PE) | \n0.9 | \n350.0 | \n18.0 | \n0.5 | \n|
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) | \n0.9–1.0 | \n750.0 | \n17.0 | \n0.02 | \n|
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) | \n0.9–1.0 | \n150.0 | \n32.0–38.2 | \n1.3 | \n|
High-impact polystyrene (HIPS) | \n1.0 | \n2.5 | \n42.0 | \n2.1 | \n|
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) | \n0.9 | \n400.0 | \n10.0–11.6 | \n0.2–0.3 | \n|
Nylon 6 (PA 6) | \n1.1 | \n60.0 | \n81.4 | \n2.8 | \n|
Nylon 66 (PA 66) | \n1.1 | \n60.0 | \n82.7 | \n2.8 | \n|
Perfluoroalkoxy (vinyl ether) | \n2.15 | \n260.0–300.0 | \n28.0–31.0 | \n0.50–0.60 | \n|
Polybutylene (PB) | \n0.95 | \n220–300 | \n29.0–35.0 | \n0.29–0.30 | \n|
Polylactic acid (PLA) | \n1.2–1.3 | \n2.1–30.7 | \n5.9–72.0 | \n1.1–3.6 | \n|
Polycarbonate (PC) | \n1.2 | \n200.0 | \n69.0 | \n2.3 | \n|
Polycaprolactone (PCL) | \n1.1 | \n700.0 | \n16.0–23.0 | \n0.4 | \n|
Polyethylene cross-linked (PEX) | \n0.92 | \n\n | 20.0 | \n\n | |
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) | \n1.5–1.6 | \n300.0 | \n55.0–159.0 | \n2.3–9.0 | \n|
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) | \n1.3–1.5 | \n1.6–50.0 | \n92.0–95.0 | \n3.7–24.0 | \n|
Polyether ketone (PEK) | \n1.2–1.4 | \n20.0 | \n100.0–110.0 | \n3.5 | \n|
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) | \n1.2–1.3 | \n2.0–1200.0 | \n10.0–39.0 | \n0.3–3.8 | \n|
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) | \n1.2 | \n1.56–6.0 | \n24.0–40.0 | \n3.5–7.7 | \n|
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P-3-HB) | \n1.3 | \n0.4–6.0 | \n40.0 | \n3.5 | \n|
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate (P-3-HB-3 HV) | \n0.2–0.3 | \n1.6–20.0 | \n23.0–40.0 | \n3.5 | \n|
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P-3-HB) | \n1.2 | \n1000.0 | \n104.0 | \n— | \n|
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) | \n1.1–1.2 | \n2.5 | \n72.4 | \n3.0 | \n|
Polypropylene (PP) | \n0.9–1.3 | \n80.0 | \n35.8 | \n1.6 | \n|
Polystyrene (PS) | \n1.04 | \n1.6 | \n34.0 | \n3.0 | \n|
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) | \n2.20 | \n40.0–650.0 | \n0.862–41.4 | \n0.392–2.25 | \n|
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) | \n1.3–1.5 | \n50.0–80.0 | \n52.0–90.0 | \n3.0–4.0 | \n|
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) | \n1.8 | \n50.0 | \n43.0 | \n2.0 | \n|
Rigid thermoplastic Polyurethane (RTPU, PUR-RT) | \n1.1 | \n5.0 | \n75.0 | \n4.0 | \n|
Thermoset | \nEpoxy (EP) | \n1.2–1.3 | \n1.3 | \n55.0–130.0 | \n2.7–4.1 | \n
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) | \n1.5–1.6 | \n0.6 | \n65.0 | \n12.0 | \n|
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) | \n1.2 | \n1.2 | \n45.0–60.0 | \n4.0–7.0 | \n|
Rigid thermoset polyurethane (RPU) | \n1.2 | \n90.0 | \n60.0 | \n2.2 | \n|
Unsaturated polyester (UPE) | \n1.1 | \n2.0 | \n34.0–105.0 | \n2.1–3.5 | \n|
Urea formaldehyde (UF) | \n1.5–1.6 | \n0.8 | \n65.0 | \n9.0 | \n|
Polyurethane rubber | \n1.2–1.3 | \n300.0–580.0 | \n39.0 | \n2.0–10.0 | \n|
\n | Vinyl ester (VE) | \n1.23 | \n2.0–12.0 | \n73.0–81.0 | \n3.0–3.5 | \n
Properties of some polymers.
Composite reinforcements can be in various forms such as fibres, flakes, or particles. Each of these has its own properties which can be contributed to the composites, and therefore, each has its own area of applications. Among the forms, fibres are the most commonly used in composite applications, and they have the most influence on the properties of the composite materials. These reasons are that the fibres have the high aspect ratio between length and diameter, which can provide effective shear stress transfer between the matrix and the fibres, and the ability to process and manufacture the composites part in various shapes using different techniques.
\nVarious types of fibres have been utilised to reinforce polymer matrix composites. The most common are carbon fibres (AS4, IM7, etc.), glass fibre (E-glass, S-glass, etc.), aramid fibres (Kevlar® and Twaron®), and boron fibres. Glass fibres have been used as reinforcement for centuries, notably by Renaissance Venetian glass workers. Commercially important continuous-glass fibre filaments were manufactured in 1937 by a joint venture between Owens-Illinois and Corning Glass. A variety of glass fibre compositions are available for different purposes as presented below. Table 3 shows compositions of some commonly used glass fibres for composite materials.
Grade A is high alkali grade glass, originally made from window glass.
Grade C is chemical-resistant grade glass for acid environments or corrosion.
Grade D is low dielectric grade glass, good transparency to radar (quartz glass).
Grade E is electrical insulation grade; this is the most common reinforcement grade.
Grade M is high modulus grade glass.
Grade R is reinforcement grade glass; this is the European equivalent of S-glass.
Grade S is high strength grade glass, a common variant is S2-glass. This fibre has higher Young’s modulus and temperature resistance than E-glass. It is also significantly more expensive.
Oxide | \nE-glass with boron | \nE-glass without boron | \nECR-glass | \nS-2 glass | \nR-glass | \nEffect on fibre properties | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SiO2\n | \n52–56 | \n59 | \n54–62 | \n64–66 | \n60–65 | \nVery low thermal expansion | \n
Al2O3\n | \n12–16 | \n12.1–13.2 | \n9–15 | \n24–26 | \n17–24 | \nImproved chemical durability | \n
B2O3\n | \n5–10 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \nLow thermal expansion | \n
CaO | \n16–25 | \n22–23 | \n17–25 | \n— | \n5–11 | \nResistance to water, acids, and alkalis | \n
MgO | \n0–5 | \n3.1–3.4 | \n0–5 | \n8–12 | \n6–12 | \nResistance to water, acids, and alkalis | \n
ZnO | \n— | \n— | \n2.9 | \n— | \n— | \nChemical durability | \n
Na2O | \n0–1 | \n0.6–0.9 | \n1.0 | \n0–0.1 | \n0–2 | \nHigh thermal expansion, moisture sensitivity | \n
K2O | \nTrace | \n0–0.2 | \n0.2 | \n— | \n0–2 | \nHigh thermal expansion, moisture sensitivity | \n
TiO2\n | \n0.2–0.5 | \n0.5–1.5 | \n2.5 | \n— | \n— | \nImproved chemical durability especially alkali resistance | \n
Zr2O3\n | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n0–1 | \n— | \n— | \n
Li2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \nHigh thermal expansion, moisture sensitivity | \n
Fe2O3\n | \n0.2–0.4 | \n0.2 | \n0.1 | \n0–0.1 | \n— | \nGreen colouration | \n
F2\n | \n0.2–0.7 | \n0–0.1 | \nTrace | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
\nTable 4 presents the mechanical properties of the main grades of glass fibre for composite materials.
\nFibre | \nDensity (kg/m3) | \nYoung’s modulus (GPa) | \nVirgin filament strength (MPa) | \nRoving strength (MPa) | \nStrain to failure (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A (alkali) | \n2460 | \n73 | \n3100 | \n2760 | \n3.6 | \n
C (chemical) | \n2460 | \n74 | \n3100 | \n2350 | \n∼ | \n
D (dielectric) | \n2140 | \n55 | \n2500 | \n∼ | \n∼ | \n
E (electrical) | \n2550 | \n71 | \n3400 | \n2400 | \n3.37 | \n
R (reinforcement) | \n2550 | \n86 | \n4400 | \n3100 | \n5.2 | \n
S (strength) | \n2500 | \n85 | \n4580 | \n3910 | \n4.6 | \n
S2\n | \n2460 | \n90 | \n3623 | \n∼ | \n∼ | \n
S3\n | \n2830 | \n99 | \n3283 | \n∼ | \n∼ | \n
Mechanical properties of the main grades of glass fibre [24].
Carbon fibre was first invented near Cleveland, Ohio, in 1958. It wasn’t until a new manufacturing process was developed at a British research centre in 1963 that carbon fibre’s strength potential was realised [27]. The principle precursors for carbon fibres are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch, cellulose (Rayon), and some other potential precursors such as lignin and polyethylene. Carbon fibres are manufactured by stretching PAN polymer precursor, melt spinning of molten pitch, and graphitization under tensile stress [28].
\nThe modulus of carbon fibres depends on the degree of perfection of the alignment. Imperfections in alignment results in complex shaped voids elongated parallel to the fibre axis, which act as stress raisers and points of weakness. The alignment varies considerably with the manufacturing route and conditions. High-modulus fibres are those which have been subjected to heat treatment in excess of 1650°C, possess three-dimensional ordering of the atoms, have carbon contents above 99% (although their graphitic structure is still less than 75%), and have a tensile modulus above 350 GPa. High-modulus, high-strength carbon fibres have diameters of 7–8 μm and consist of small crystallites of “turbostratic” graphite. The layers have no regular stacking sequence, and the average spacing between the planes is 0.34 nm. To obtain high modulus and strength, the layer planes of the graphite must be aligned parallel to the fibre axis [29]. Carbon fibres have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, and high temperature. The carbon fibres can be utilised in various applications such as aerospace, automotive, sporting goods, and consumer goods. Table 5 shows properties for the different grades of carbon fibre.
\nPrecursor | \nPAN | \nPAN | \nPitch | \nPitch | \nRayon | \nPitch (K13D2U) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Modulus | \nLow | \nHigh | \nLow | \nHigh | \nLow | \nUltrahigh | \n
Tensile modulus (GPa) | \n231 | \n392 | \n161 | \n385 | \n41 | \n931 | \n
Tensile strength (GPa) | \n3.4 | \n2.5 | \n1.4 | \n1.8 | \n1.1 | \n3.7 | \n
Strain to failure (%) | \n1.4 | \n0.6 | \n0.9 | \n0.4 | \n2.5 | \n0.4 | \n
Relative density | \n1.8 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n2.0 | \n1.6 | \n2.2 | \n
Carbon assay (%) | \n94 | \n100 | \n97 | \n99 | \n99 | \n>99 | \n
Indicative properties for the different grades of carbon fibre [27].
Kwolek is a DuPont chemist who in 1965 invented an aramid fibre known as Kevlar, the lightweight, stronger-than-steel fibre used in bulletproof vests and other body armour around the world. The chemical structure of the materials is being alternated aromatic (aryl) benzene rings and the amide (CONH) group. The commercial name of the reinforcement’s fibres is Kevlar from DuPont and Twaron from AkzoNobel, which are believed to be poly-(para-phenylene terephthalamide). The polymer is produced by the elimination of hydrogen chloride from terephthaloyl chloride and para-phenylene diamine. The polymer is washed and dissolved in sulphuric acid to form a partially oriented liquid crystal solution. The solution is spun through small die holes, orientation taking place in the spinnerette, and the solvent is evaporated. Hull suggests that the solution is maintained between −80°C and −50°C before spinning and is extruded into a hot-walled cylinder at 200°C. Kevlar was introduced for commercial products in 1971. There are three principal types of Kevlar fibre as shown in Table 6.
\nFibre type | \n\n | E (GPa) | \nσ’ (GPa) | \nε’ (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Kevlar 29 | \nHigh-toughness, high-strength, intermediate modulus for tyre cord reinforcements | \n83 | \n3.6 | \n4.0 | \n
Kevlar 49 | \nHigh modulus high-strength for composite reinforcement | \n131 | \n3.6 | \n2.8 | \n
Kevlar 149 | \nUltra-high modulus recently introduced | \n186 | \n3.4 | \n2.0 | \n
Characteristics of the different grades of aramid fibre [27].
Recently, with advantages of reasonable mechanical properties, low density, environmental benefits, renewability, and economic feasibility, natural fibres have been paid more attention to in composite applications. The natural fibres in simple definition are fibres that are not synthetic or man-made and are categorized based on their origin from animals, mineral, or plant sources [30]. Natural fibres are one such proficient material which would be utilised to replace the synthetic materials and their related products for the applications requiring less weight and energy conservation. Natural plant fibres are entirely derived from vegetative sources and are fully biodegradable in nature. Fibre-reinforced polymer matrix got considerable attention in numerous applications because of its good properties. The current indicators are that interest in natural fibre composites by the industry will keep growing quickly around the world. The application of natural fibre-reinforced polymer composites and natural-based resins for replacing existing synthetic polymer or glass fibre-reinforced materials is huge. However, natural fibre quality is influenced significantly by the age of the plant, species, growing environment, harvesting, humidity, quality of soil, temperature, and processing steps, and there is a move to reduce the on-field processing to improve consistency and reduce costs. The properties of several natural fibres and commonly used synthetic fibres are shown in Table 7 [31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
\nFibre | \nDensity (g/cm3) | \nElongation (%) | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nYoung’s modulus (GPa) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Abaca | \n1.5 | \n— | \n511.0–1051.0 | \n13.5–29.8 | \n
Alfa | \n0.89 | \n— | \n350.0 | \n22.0 | \n
Bagasse | \n1.2 | \n1.1 | \n20.0–290.0 | \n19.7–27.1 | \n
Banana | \n1.3–1.4 | \n2.0–7.0 | \n54.0–789.0 | \n3.4–32.0 | \n
Bamboo | \n1.5 | \n— | \n575.0 | \n27.0 | \n
Coconut | \n1.4–3.8 | \n— | \n120.0–200.0 | \n19.0–26.0 | \n
Coir | \n1.2 | \n15.0–30.0 | \n175.0–220.0 | \n4.0–6.0 | \n
Cotton | \n1.5–1.6 | \n3.0–10.0 | \n287.0–597.0 | \n5.5–12.6 | \n
Curaua | \n1.4 | \n— | \n825.0 | \n9.0 | \n
Flax | \n1.4–1.5 | \n1.2–3.2 | \n345.0–1500.0 | \n27.6–80.0 | \n
Hemp | \n1.4–1.5 | \n1.6 | \n550.0–900.0 | \n70.0 | \n
Henequen | \n1.4 | \n3.0–4.7 | \n430.0–580.0 | \n— | \n
Isora | \n1.2 | \n— | \n550.0 | \n— | \n
Jute | \n1.3–1.5 | \n1.5–1.8 | \n393.0–800.0 | \n10.0–30.0 | \n
Kapok | \n0.4 | \n— | \n93.3 | \n41.0 | \n
Kenaf | \n1.2 | \n2.7–6.9 | \n295.0 | \n— | \n
Palf | \n1.4 | \n3.0 | \n170.0–635.0 | \n6.2–24.6 | \n
Piassava | \n1.4 | \n— | \n138.5 | \n2.8 | \n
Pineapple | \n1.5 | \n1.0–3.0 | \n170.0–1672.0 | \n82.0 | \n
Ramie | \n1.5 | \n2.0–3.8 | \n220.0–938.0 | \n44.0–128.0 | \n
Silk | \n1.3–1.4 | \n— | \n650.0–750.0 | \n16.0 | \n
Sisal | \n1.3–1.5 | \n2.0–14.0 | \n400.0–700.0 | \n9.0–38.0 | \n
Softwood Kraft | \n1.5 | \n— | \n1000.0 | \n40.0 | \n
Wool | \n\n | \n | 120.0–174.0 | \n5.0–10.9 | \n
Properties of several natural fibres and commonly used synthetic fibres.
Increasingly, the fibres have replaced parts formerly made of steel. The fibres used in composite materials appear at different forms and scales as shown in Figure 1.
\nVarious fibre forms.
There are several methods for fabricating composite materials. The selection of a method for a part will depend on the materials, the part design, the performance, and the end-use or application.
\nHand lay-up is an open contact moulding technique for fabricating composite materials. Resins are impregnated by the hand into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched, or bonded fabrics. In this technique, the mould is first treated with mould release, dry fibres or dry fabrics are laid on a mould, and liquid resin is then poured and spread onto the fibre beds [36]. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of nip-roller-type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. A roller or brush is used to wet the fibres and remove air trapped into the lay-ups. A few layers of fibres are wetted, and laminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions. After these layers are cured, more layers are added, as shown in Figure 2.
\nHand lay-up process.
Spray-up is also an open-mould application technique for composite. The spray lay-up technique is considered an extension of the hand lay-up method. In this process, the mould is first treated with mould release. If a gel coat is used, it is sprayed into the mould at a certain thickness after the mould release has been applied. The gel coat then is cured, and the mould is ready for process. The fibre and catalysed resin at a viscosity of 500–1000 cps are sprayed into the mould using a chopper spray gun. The gun chops continuous fibre tow into short-fibre bundle lengths and then blows the short fibres directly into the sprayed resin stream so that both materials are applied simultaneously on the surface of the mould, as shown in Figure 3. In the final steps of the spray-up process, the workers compact the laminate by hand with rollers. The composite part is then cured, cooled, and removed from the mould [37, 38].
\nThe schematic of the spray lay-up process.
Hand lay-up and spray-up methods are often used in tandem to reduce labour cost. This is a common process for making glass fibre composite products such as bathtubs, boat hulls and decks, fenders, RV components, shower stalls, spas, truck cabs, and other relatively large and noncomplex shapes.
\nWith the ever-increasing demand for faster production rates, the industry has used alternative fabrication processes to replace hand lay-up as well as encouraged fabricators to automate those processes wherever possible.
\nResin transfer moulding (RTM), sometimes referred to as liquid moulding, is a fairly simple process. In this technique, the mould is first treated with mould release. The dry reinforcement, typically a preform, is then placed into the mould and the mould is closed. Low viscosity resin and catalyst are metered and mixed and then pumped into the mould under low-to-moderate pressure through injection ports, following predesigned paths through the preform. Low-viscosity resin is used in RTM technique to ensure that the resin permeates through the preform quickly and thoroughly before gel and cure, especially with thick composite parts.
\nReaction injection moulding (RIM) injects a rapid cure resin and a catalyst into the mould in two separate streams. Mixing and chemical reaction occur in the mould instead of in a dispensing head. Automotive industry suppliers have combined structural RIM (SRIM) with rapid preforming methods to fabricate structural parts that do not require a class A finish. Figure 4 describes the schematic of the RTM process [39, 40].
\nThe schematic of the RTM process.
Representing the fastest-growing moulding technology is vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM), as shown in Figure 5. The difference between VARTM and RTM is that in VARTM, resin is drawn into a preform use a vacuum only, rather than pumped in under pressure as RTM. VARTM technique does not require high heat or pressure. VARTM usually operates with low-cost tooling, making it possible to inexpensively produce large, complex parts in one shot [41, 42, 43].
\nThe schematic of the VARTM process.
Resin film infusion (RFI) is a hybrid process in which a dry preform is placed in a mould on top of a layer, or interleaved with multiple layers, of high-viscosity resin film. Under applied heat, vacuum, and pressure, the resin liquefies and is drawn into the preform, resulting in uniform resin distribution, even with high-viscosity, toughened resins, because of the short flow distance. Using the resin infusion techniques, the fibre volumes can be up to 70%, and automated controls ensure low voids and consistent preform reproduction, without the need for trimming. Resin infusion has found significant application in boatbuilding. This method has been employed by The Boeing Co. (Chicago, IL, USA) and NASA, as well as small fabricating firms, to produce aerospace-quality laminates without an autoclave [36, 44]. Figure 6 presents the schematic of the resin film infusion process.
\nThe schematic of the resin film infusion process.
Compression moulding is a precise and potentially rapid process for producing high-quality composite parts in a wide range of volumes. The material is manually or robotically placed in the mould. The mould halves are closed, and pressure is applied using hydraulic presses. Cycle time ranges depending on the part size and thickness. This process produces high-strength, complex parts in a wide variety of sizes. The composites are commonly processed by compression moulding and include thermosetting prepregs, fibre-reinforced thermoplastic, moulding compounds such as sheet moulding compound (SMC), bulk moulding compounds (BMC), and chopped thermoplastic tapes. Figure 7 shows the schematic of the compression moulding process.
\nThe schematic of compression moulding process.
Injection moulding is a closed process as shown in Figure 8. This is fast, high-volume, low-pressure, and most commonly used for filled thermoplastics, such as nylon with chopped glass fibre. The injection-moulding process has been in use for nearly 150 years. Reciprocating screw injection-moulding machines were introduced in the 1960s and are still used today [45]. Injection speeds are typically one to a few seconds, and many parts can be produced per hour in some multiple cavity moulds.
\nSimplified diagram of moulding process.
Filament winding is a continuous fabrication method that can be highly automated and repeatable, with relatively low material costs as shown in Figure 9. A long, cylindrical tool called a mandrel is suspended horizontally between end supports. Dry fibres are run through a bath of resin to be wetted. The fibre application instrument moves back and forth along the length of a rotating mandrel with the traverse carriage, placing fibre onto the tool in a predetermined configuration. Computer-controlled filament-winding machines are used to arrange the axes of motion [46, 47, 48]. Filament winding is one example of aerospace composite materials.
\nThe schematic of the filament winding process.
Composite pultrusion is a processing method for producing continuous lengths of fibre-reinforced polymer structural shapes with constant cross-sections. This is a continuous fabrication method that can be highly automated. In this process, a continuous bundle of dry fibre is pulled through a heated resin-wetting station. The wetted bundle is pulled into heated dies, and the cross-sectional shape of the pulled fibre is formed by these dies. The resin is cured, and the composites are formed. Parts are then made by slicing the long-cured piece. This process is limited to straight parts with a constant cross-section, such as I-beams, T-beams, or frame sections and ladder rails. Figure 10 shows the schematic of the pultrusion process [49, 50]. Pultrusion is used in the manufacture of linear components such as ladders and mouldings.
\nThe schematic of the pultrusion process.
Automated fibre placement (AFP) is one of the most advanced methods for fabricating and manufacturing of composite materials as presented in Figure 11. This method is used almost exclusively with continuous fibre-reinforced tape. A robot is utilised to place fibre-reinforced tape and build a structure one ply (layer) at a time. A band of material comprised of multiple narrow strips of tape (tows) is placed where these tows are commonly 0.125 and 0.25 inches wide. The use of robotics gives the operator active control over all the processes critical variables, making the process highly controllable and repeatable. This method allows the fabrication of highly customised parts as each ply can be placed at different angles to best carry the required loads [51, 52].
\nThe schematic of the automated fibre placement process.
Advantages of fibre placement are processing speed and reduced material scrap and labour costs. Often, the process is utilised to fabricate large thermoset parts with complex shapes. Similar to ATP process, automated tape laying (ATL) is an even speedier automated process in which prepreg tape, rather than single tows, is laid down continuously to form parts.
\nAdditive manufacturing is also known as 3D printing technique. Additive manufacturing is a step change in the development of rapid prototyping concepts that were introduced more than 20 years ago. This is a process for making a solid object from a three-dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many successive thin layers of a material. Manufacturing a composite structure with a single nozzle uses polymer composite filament and contains polymer and additives such as rubber microspheres, particles of glass or carbon fibre, wood flour, etc. as shown in Figure 12. This more recent form of composite part production grew out of efforts to reduce the costs in the design-to-prototype phase of product development, taking aim particularly at the material-, labour-, and time-intensive area of toolmaking [53, 54, 55, 56].
\nThe schematic of the 3D printing process for polymer composites.
The polymer composite materials are lightweight, which increases the fuel efficiency of vehicles manufactured from composites and gives them structural stability. In addition, they offer a high strength-to-weight ratio and increased heat resistance. Composites have very different properties and applications depending on the type of matrix, reinforcement, ratio between them, formulations, processing etc. The bonding strength between fibre and polymer matrix in the composite is considered one of the major factors in order to obtain superior fibre reinforcement polymer composite properties. Typical properties of several polymer composites are presented in Table 8 [57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71].
\nComposite | \nDensity (g/cm3) | \nElongation (%) | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nYoung’s modulus (GPa) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
ABS + 30% glass fibre | \n— | \n2.0 | \n60.0 | \n9.0 | \n
Acetal copolymer + 30% glass fibre | \n— | \n3.0 | \n110.0 | \n9.5 | \n
Epoxy + 40–60% carbon fibre | \n1.15–2.25 | \n0.4–11.0 | \n4.6–3220.0 | \n2.6–520.0 | \n
Epoxy + 45% flax yarn-aligned | \n— | \n— | \n133.0 | \n28.0 | \n
Epoxy + 40% glass fibre | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
Epoxy + 52% jute fibre | \n— | \n— | \n216.0 | \n31.0 | \n
Epoxy + 52% kevlar fibre | \n— | \n— | \n434.0 | \n28.2 | \n
PEEK + 62% carbon fibre | \n1.60 | \n— | \n750.0 | \n50.0 | \n
PEEK + kevlar fibre | \n1.31–1.50 | \n1.0–6.0 | \n75.0–193.0 | \n4.0–20.7 | \n
Nylon 66 + 25–30% carbon fibre | \n1.20–1.57 | \n0.90–4.0 | \n193.0–261.0 | \n16.0–33.1 | \n
Nylon 6 + 40% glass fibre | \n1.45 | \n2.0–3.0 | \n235.0 | \n12.9 | \n
Nylon + kevlar fibre | \n1.16 | \n4.0 | \n110.0 | \n9.0 | \n
PLA + 30% abaca fibre | \n— | \n— | \n74.0 | \n8.0 | \n
PLA + 20% bamboo fibre | \n— | \n— | \n90.0 | \n1.8 | \n
PLA + 30% flax fibre | \n— | \n— | \n53.0–100.0 | \n8.0 | \n
PF + E glass fibre | \n1.5–1.65 | \n— | \n85.0–330.0 | \n5.0–17.0 | \n
Polycarbonate + 5–40% carbon fibre | \n1.15–1.43 | \n0.9–118.0 | \n46.0–186.0 | \n2.1–25.5 | \n
Polycarbonate + 30–40% glass fibre | \n1.44–1.52 | \n4.0 | \n107.0–159.0 | \n10.0–11.6 | \n
Polycarbonate-ABS + 30% glass fibre | \n1.29 | \n— | \n82.7 | \n— | \n
Polyimide + 20–30% carbon fibre | \n1.38–1.68 | \n0.8–5.5 | \n36.5–241.0 | \n4.5–29.0 | \n
Polyimide + glass fibre | \n— | \n2.0 | \n150.0 | \n12.0 | \n
PP + 30% carbon fibre | \n1.07 | \n1.0 | \n117.0 | \n16.2 | \n
PP + 30% cotton fibre | \n— | \n— | \n58.5 | \n4.1 | \n
PP + 20% glass-chopped strand mat | \n— | \n— | \n77.0 | \n5.4 | \n
PP + 20% glass fibre | \n1.03 | \n3.0–4.0 | \n100.0 | \n4.3 | \n
PP + 40% glass fibre | \n1.22 | \n2.0 | \n127.0 | \n7.6 | \n
PP-MAgPP + 40% hemp fibre | \n— | \n— | \n52.0 | \n4.0 | \n
UPE + 35% jute fibre | \n— | \n— | \n50.0 | \n8.0 | \n
UPE + 47% glass fibre | \n— | \n— | \n201.0 | \n13.0 | \n
Vinylester + carbon fibre | \n1.50–1.65 | \n1.4 | \n900.0–1200.0 | \n136.0 | \n
Vinylester + 24% flax fibre | \n— | \n— | \n248.0 | \n24.0 | \n
Vinylester + 59% glass fibre | \n— | \n— | \n483.0 | \n33.0 | \n
Vinylester + kevlar fibre | \n1.35 | \n— | \n500.0 | \n40.0 | \n
Properties of several fibre-reinforced polymer composites.
The growth of the composites market can be attributed to increased uses in the aerospace, defence, and transportation applications. The global composite materials market is expected to reach an estimated $40.2 billion by 2024, and it is forecasted to grow at a CAGR of 3.3% from 2019 to 2024. The global composite product market is expected to reach an estimated $114.7 billion by 2024 [72].
\nThe most widely used form of fibre-reinforced polymer is a laminar structure, made by stacking and bonding thin layers of fibre and polymer until the desired thickness is obtained. By changing the fibre orientation among layers in the laminate structures, a specified level of anisotropy in composite properties can be achieved. Composites offer many benefits such as corrosion resistance, light weight, strength, lower material costs, improved productivity, design flexibility, and durability. Therefore, the wide range of industries uses composite materials and some of their common applications [3, 15].
\nThe major original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) such as Airbus and Boeing have shown the potential of using composite materials for large-scale applications in aviation. NASA is continually looking to composite manufacturers for innovative approaches and space solutions for rockets and other spacecrafts. Composites with thermoset are being specified for bulkheads, fuselages, wings, and other applications in commercial, civilian, and military aerospace applications. There are several other applications of composites in the areas such as air-foil surfaces, antenna structures, compressor blades, engine bay doors, fan blades, flywheels, helicopter transmission structures, jet engines, radar, rocket engines, solar reflectors, satellite structures, turbine blades, turbine shafts, rotor shafts in helicopters, wing box structures, etc. [3, 15, 26, 37]
\nComposite materials offer flexibility in design and processing; therefore composite materials can be used as alternatives for metal alloys in appliances. Unlike most other industries, trends within the appliance segment move quite quickly. In addition, design and function are subject to both technology advancements and changing consumer taste. Composite materials are being used in appliance and business equipment such as equipment panels, frames, handles and trims in appliances, power tools, and many other applications. Composites are being utilised for the appliance industry in dishwashers, dryers, freezers, ovens, ranges, refrigerators, and washers. The components in the equipment that were utilised composites include consoles, control panels, handles, kick plates, knobs, motor housings, shelf brackets, side trims, vent trims, and many others [3, 73].
\nWith their aesthetic qualities, functionality, and versatility, the composite materials are becoming the material of choice for architectural applications. Composite materials allow architects to create designs that are impractical or impossible with traditional materials, improve thermal performance and energy efficiency of building materials, and meet building code requirements. Composite materials also offer design flexibility and can be moulded into complex shapes. They can be corrugated, curved, ribbed, or contoured in a variety of ways with varying thickness. Further, a traditional look such as copper, chrome or gold, marble, and stone can be achieved at a fraction of the cost using composite materials. Therefore, the architecture community is experiencing substantial growth in the understanding and use of composites in commercial and residential buildings [15].
\nThe automotive industry is no stranger to composites. This is one of the largest markets for composite materials. Weight reduction is the greatest advantage of composite material usage. A lower-weight vehicle or truck is more fuel-efficient because it requires less fuel to propel itself forward. In addition to enabling ground breaking vehicle designs, composites help make vehicles lighter and more fuel efficient. The composite materials are used in bearing materials, bodies, connecting rod, crankshafts, cylinder, engines, piston, etc. While fibre-reinforced polymers such as CFRP in cars get most of the attention, composites also play a big role in increasing fuel efficiency in trucks and transport systems. A number of US state Departments of Transportation are also using composite to reinforce the bridges those trucks travel on [3, 26, 37].
\nConstruction is one of the largest markets for composites globally. The composites can be made to have a very high strength and ideal construction materials. Thermoset composites are replacing many traditional materials for home and offices’ architectural components including doors, fixtures, moulding, roofing, shower stalls, swimming pools, vanity sinks, wall panels, and window frames. Composites are used all over the world to help construct and repair a wide variety of infrastructure applications, from buildings and bridges to roads, railways, and pilings [3, 74].
\nProducts made from composite materials provide long-term resistance to severe chemical conditions and temperature environments. Composites are often the material of choice for applications in chemical handling applications, corrosive environments, outdoor exposure, and other severe environments such as chemical processing plants, oil and gas refineries, pulp and paper converting, and water treatment facilities. Common applications include cabinets, ducts, fans, grating, hoods, pumps, and tanks [3, 37, 73]. Fibre-reinforced polymer composite pipes are used for everything from sewer upgrades and wastewater projects to desalination, oil, and gas applications. When corrosion becomes a problem with pipes made with traditional materials, fibre-reinforced polymer is a solution [3, 73].
\nWith the rapid growth of the electronics industry, and with strong dielectric properties including arc and track resistance, the composite materials are finding more and more in electronic applications. With strong dielectric properties including arc and track resistance, thermoset components include. Applications and components include arc chutes, arc shields, bus supports and lighting components, circuit breakers, control system components, metering devices, microwave antennas, motor controls, standoff insulators, standoffs and pole line hardware and printed wiring boards, substation equipment, switchgear, terminal blocks, and terminal boards [3, 75].
\nMaterial technology has grown from the early days of glass fibres as major reinforcements for composite material to carbon fibres which are lighter and stronger. The advancements in composites, particularly those from the US Department of Energy, are redefining the energy industry. Composites help enable the use of wind and solar power and improve the efficiency of traditional energy suppliers. Composite materials offer wind manufacturers strength and flexibility in processing with the added benefit of a lightweight components and products [3, 76]. The wind industry has set installation records over the last couple years. According to the Global Wind Energy Council, the trend for this industry may continue with global wind capacity predicted to double in the next few years. Composites play a vital role in the manufacture of structures such as wind turbine blades [3, 77].
\nJust like in the other engineering areas, the main struggle of naval architecture is to achieve a structure as light as possible. The marine industry uses composites to help make hulls lighter and more damage-resistant. With their corrosion resistance and light-weighting attributes, marine composite applications include boat hulls, bulkheads, deck, mast, propeller, and other components for military, commercial, and recreational boats and ships. Composites can be found in many more areas of a maritime vessel, including interior mouldings and furniture on super yachts [3, 78, 79].
\nThe fibre-reinforced composite materials possess some excellent characteristics, including easy moulding, high elastic modulus, high strength, light in weight, good corrosion resistance, and so on. Therefore, fibre-reinforced composite materials have extensive applications in production the manufacturing of sports equipment. From bicycle frames, bobsleds fishing poles, football helmets, hockey sticks, horizontal bars, jumping board, kayaks, parallel bars, props, tennis rackets, to rowing, carbon fibres, and fibreglass composite materials help athletes reach their highest performance capabilities and provide durable and lightweight equipment [3, 80].
\nComposites have many advantages; a wide range of material combinations can be used in composites, which allows for design flexibility. The composites also can be easily moulded into complicated shapes. The materials can be custom tailored to fit unique specifications. Composites are light in weight compared to most woods and metals and lower density as compared to many metals. They are stronger than some other materials. The materials resist damage from weather and harsh chemicals. Composites have a long service life and require little maintenance. Due to the wide variety of available reinforcement, matrix, and their forms, manufacturing processes, and each resulting in their own characteristic composite products, the design possibilities for composite products are numerous. Therefore, a composite and its manufacturing process can be chosen to best fit the developing rural societies in which the products will be made and applied. Composite materials’ research continues. The areas of interest are nanomaterials—materials with extremely small molecular structures and bio-based polymers. To facilitate the advantages of the composites, several aspects must be considered: (a) concept development, (b) material selection and formulation, (c) material design, (d) product manufacturing, (e) market, and (f) regulations.
\nThe author acknowledges Mrs. Marian Parslow and Mrs. Laura Parslow for helping in editing of the chapter.
\nAdvertising and sponsorship opportunities are available on intechopen.com for quality companies offering patients, caregivers, and healthcare professional’s relevant products and services. We only partner with leading and trusted brands in the patient care, healthcare, and pharmaceutical market.
",metaTitle:"Advertising",metaDescription:"Advertising",metaKeywords:"Advertising",canonicalURL:"/page/advertising",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen is exclusively represented by eHealthcare Solutions. For additional information on advertising and sponsor partnerships please contact:
\\n\\neHealthcare Solutions
2093 Philadelphia Pike #8370
Claymont, DE 19703
email: sales@ehsmail.comPhone: (609) 882-8887Web: eHealthcareSolutions.com
\\n\\nIntechOpen is exclusively represented by eHealthcare Solutions. For additional information on advertising and sponsor partnerships please contact:
\n\neHealthcare Solutions
2093 Philadelphia Pike #8370
Claymont, DE 19703
email: sales@ehsmail.comPhone: (609) 882-8887Web: eHealthcareSolutions.com
\n\n