Specific energy consumed and methane yield with various chemo-mechanical pretreatment.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10548",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Lean Manufacturing",title:"Lean Manufacturing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Lean manufacturing is a process used in production to maximize efficiency and minimize waste by considering sustainability and the environment. This book presents a comprehensive overview of lean manufacturing in various enterprises, including manufacturing, construction, and the fabric and textile industry, among others. Chapters cover such topics as barriers to lean manufacturing, enterprise modeling, lean practices and circular economies, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83969-150-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-149-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-151-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92922",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"lean-manufacturing",numberOfPages:244,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7409b2acd5150a93004300800918b736",bookSignature:"Karmen Pažek",publishedDate:"November 3rd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10548.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3732,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 20th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 6th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 5th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179642/images/system/179642.jpg",biography:"Karmen Pažek was born in 1976. She graduated from the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Maribor, Slovenia, in 2000. In 2001 she was employed at the same faculty as an assistant for the field of grassland management. Between 2000 and 2003, she enrolled in the master\\'s study program in Agriculture Economics at the same faculty, and in 2003 she received her master\\'s degree. In the same year, she enrolled in a doctoral study in Agriculture Economics at the Faculty of Agriculture and obtained the status of a research assistant. In 2006 she successfully completed her Ph.D. in Agriculture Economics.\n\n\n\nSince 2006 she has been habilitated at the University of Maribor, and Life Sciences (she has been a full professor since 2016) for the field of Farm management. She holds several courses at all levels of study. She is currently the head of the 1st-degree study Agriculture Economics and Rural Development and the Vice Dean for Education.\n\n\n\nHer research includes the development of decision support tools and systems for farm management (simulation modeling, multicriteria decision analysis, option models, risk management), the economics of agricultural production, and other modern methods of operational research.",institutionString:"University of Maribor",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1360",title:"Production Engineering",slug:"technology-industrial-engineering-production-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"76130",title:"Application of Lean in a Small and Medium Enterprise",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97059",slug:"application-of-lean-in-a-small-and-medium-enterprise",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Application of lean principles in manufacturing as well as services has been revolutionizing the operations for more than five decades. Many large as well as small enterprises have implemented lean and reported benefits in both direct and indirect activities of business. Due to advent of digital technologies and better understanding of process improvement approaches made lean much more effective across many sectors. In this chapter, we highlight various elements of lean and its application to a small enterprise in food processing sector in India. We draw some useful insights based on the implementation of lean and challenges faced by SMEs.",signatures:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti, Saketh Saddikuti Venkat and Ganesh Babu Shanmugam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76130",authors:[{id:"292211",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Venkataramanaiah",surname:"Saddikuti",slug:"venkataramanaiah-saddikuti",fullName:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti"},{id:"337430",title:"Mr.",name:"Saketh",surname:"Saddikuti Venkat",slug:"saketh-saddikuti-venkat",fullName:"Saketh Saddikuti Venkat"},{id:"349737",title:"Mr.",name:"Ganesh Babu",surname:"Shanmugam",slug:"ganesh-babu-shanmugam",fullName:"Ganesh Babu Shanmugam"}],corrections:null},{id:"75200",title:"Lean and Kaizen: The Past and the Future of the Methodologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96169",slug:"lean-and-kaizen-the-past-and-the-future-of-the-methodologies",totalDownloads:384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lean and Kaizen improvement methodologies have been in the entrepreneurship spotlight for a long time. They can be adopted by any kind of enterprise, and they succeed in producing better long-term results, improving their performance, but most important, influencing the philosophy of the organizations implemented. In this research, many case studies and success stories of companies implementing Kaizen or/and Lean methodologies, or even the new Lean Kaizen methodology, will be introduced. We attempt to evaluate the performance of Lean and Kaizen implemented companies and distinguish the elements that made the difference. Maybe, it is some specific tool, or an aspect in the culture that was enhanced, since the implementation of these business process improvement methodologies. Finally, thoughts and estimations will be presented, regarding the future of these methodologies, in the unstable and rapidly changing economic environment.",signatures:"Vasileios Ismyrlis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75200",authors:[{id:"190036",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasileios",surname:"Ismyrlis",slug:"vasileios-ismyrlis",fullName:"Vasileios Ismyrlis"}],corrections:null},{id:"76432",title:"Introduction to Lean Waste and Lean Tools",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97573",slug:"introduction-to-lean-waste-and-lean-tools",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the turbulent and complex business environments, many Indian SMEs are facing stiff competition in the domestic as well as in the global market from their multinational counterpart. The concept of lean has gained prominence due to the fact that the resource based competitive advantages are no longer sufficient in this economy. Hence, lean is no longer merely an option but rather a core necessity for engineering industries situated in any part of the globe, if they have to compete successfully. Lean Manufacturing (LM) which provides new opportunities to create and retain greater value from the employee of the industry based on their core business competencies. The challenge of capturing, organizing, and disseminating throughout the aggregate business unit is a huge responsibility of the top management. The success of any industry depends on how well it can manage its resources and translate in to action. The adoption of lean manufacturing through effective lean practices depends on interpretations of past experiences and present information resides in the industry. Generally, in an industry, some tangible and intangible factors exist in the form of non-value adding activities which hinder the smooth lean implementation are known as lean manufacturing barriers (LMBs).",signatures:"Shyam Sunder Sharma and Rahul Khatri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76432",authors:[{id:"311981",title:"Dr.",name:"Shyam Sunder",surname:"Sharma",slug:"shyam-sunder-sharma",fullName:"Shyam Sunder Sharma"},{id:"338090",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Khatri",slug:"rahul-khatri",fullName:"Rahul Khatri"}],corrections:null},{id:"76093",title:"Effect of Lean Practices on Organizational Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96482",slug:"effect-of-lean-practices-on-organizational-performance",totalDownloads:138,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study focuses on the analysis of the direct effect of Lean Manufacturing (LM) practices on operational performance in manufacturing industry. A model for evaluating the effect of LM is developed taking into consideration as a fundamental variable that affects the causal relationship between LM practices and operational performance. A structural equation model was proposed and investigated across the manufacturing industry in India. A structured survey questionnaire was used to collect empirical data from 400 Indian companies. A total of 203 usable responses were obtained giving a response rate of 53%. The data was analyzed using SPSS- AMOS software. The results revealed that LM practices directly and positively affected operational performance. The results indicated that the structural equation model remained invariant across the Industry. The study provides further evidence to managers and practitioner on the effect of LM practices on operational performance in developing countries like India.",signatures:"Lokpriya Mohanrao Gaikwad and Vivek K. Sunnapwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76093",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76093",authors:[{id:"246830",title:"Prof.",name:"Lokpriya Mohanrao",surname:"Gaikwad",slug:"lokpriya-mohanrao-gaikwad",fullName:"Lokpriya Mohanrao Gaikwad"},{id:"251857",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek K.",surname:"Sunnapwar",slug:"vivek-k.-sunnapwar",fullName:"Vivek K. Sunnapwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"75353",title:"Enhancement of Textile Supply Chain Performance through Optimal Capacity Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96292",slug:"enhancement-of-textile-supply-chain-performance-through-optimal-capacity-planning",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Manufacturing companies in the textile and apparel field face stiff competition due to the globalization of trade between suppliers, producers and customers. To meet this challenge, they need to be efficient by adopting new lean manufacturing approaches and new analysis and management tools leading to more flexible and agile production and distribution processes. For the textile and apparel industry, where products’ life cycle is short due to fashion changes, a new integrated approach of production and distribution planning is needed. Based on linear programming techniques and integrating subcontracting activities, our approach takes into account the characteristics of demand, including its short life cycle, seasonality and fashion effect. For these reasons, a sequential approach is adopted, combining tactical and operational decision levels for production and distribution activities, in order to satisfy customer needs at lower cost by reacting quickly to changes and delivering on time. The deployed approach is structured according to the DMAIC lean tool. Validated on real instances, this approach proves its efficiency by achieving cost reduction when internal production capacity is adequately and efficiently planned.",signatures:"Imen Safra and Kaouther Ghachem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75353",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75353",authors:[{id:"336845",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"safra",surname:"Imen",slug:"safra-imen",fullName:"safra Imen"},{id:"345868",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaouther",surname:"Ghachem",slug:"kaouther-ghachem",fullName:"Kaouther Ghachem"}],corrections:null},{id:"75657",title:"From Lean Manufacturing to Lean Construction: How Principles, Tools, and Techniques Evolved",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96191",slug:"from-lean-manufacturing-to-lean-construction-how-principles-tools-and-techniques-evolved",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lean manufacturing first emerged in the automotive industry. However, low productivity and low efficiency in production are major problems for the majority of industries relying on a heavy workforce. Being one of these, the construction industry suffers from low productivity rates along with inefficient work practices. To prevent those, the industry has shifted its focus from the traditional approach to a more innovative one, which is called Lean construction. Lean construction aims to maximize value while minimizing waste. Therefore, it intends to create safer, smoother, and more efficient processes to eliminate waste. This chapter focuses on Lean construction and highlights the generic Lean tools and techniques practiced in the construction industry indicating its historical journey from Lean manufacturing. The chapter aims to raise awareness towards the efficiency of Lean methods in the construction industry with respect to practices observed in manufacturing.",signatures:"Sevilay Demirkesen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75657",authors:[{id:"338001",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sevilay",surname:"Demirkesen",slug:"sevilay-demirkesen",fullName:"Sevilay Demirkesen"}],corrections:null},{id:"75939",title:"Model-Based Enterprise Continuous Improvement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96856",slug:"model-based-enterprise-continuous-improvement",totalDownloads:237,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The enterprise reengineering based on enterprise modelling is usually carried out within the framework of conventional projects. This leads to relatively long projects that are not compatible with a highly variable economic environment. The objective of the evolution management presented here is to use enterprise modelling and all the benefits it brings in a framework that allows for more continuous improvement than is generally observed. The proposed architecture is made up of three levels: a strategic level based on performance measurement, a tactical level that manages system migration and is based on enterprise models, and an operational level consisting of managing a portfolio of evolution projects. Together, these allow a shorter set of projects to be carried out, while remaining coherent and aligned with the company’s strategy. This approach puts enterprise modelling methods and continuous improvement/Lean management approaches into perspective, allowing complementarities and opening up interesting perspectives concerning enterprise re-engineering methods.",signatures:"Bruno Vallespir and Anne Zouggar-Amrani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75939",authors:[{id:"345188",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Vallespir",slug:"bruno-vallespir",fullName:"Bruno Vallespir"},{id:"348617",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",surname:"Zougar-Amrani",slug:"anne-zougar-amrani",fullName:"Anne Zougar-Amrani"}],corrections:null},{id:"75617",title:"Single Minute Exchange of Dies: Classical Tool of Lean Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96665",slug:"single-minute-exchange-of-dies-classical-tool-of-lean-manufacturing",totalDownloads:272,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Effective utilization of the resources is the need of an hour particularly when it comes to the manufacturing industry. It is having a paramount importance to have a proper utilization of the resources, on the same line in any manufacturing industries to reduce the setup time is also one of the ways to do so. Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) is one of the classical method which is normally used to reduce the setup time. In this technique complete videography of the existing changeover is done and then by analyzing it waste activities identified and other improvement plant has been done in each iteration. The chapter also showcases the SMED technique applications in a gear industry. Remarkable resources and results have been achieved through the implementation of classical tool of Lean manufacturing is made.",signatures:"Yash Dave",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75617",authors:[{id:"338618",title:"Dr.",name:"Yash",surname:"Dave",slug:"yash-dave",fullName:"Yash Dave"}],corrections:null},{id:"75408",title:"Lean Manufacturing as a Strategy for Continuous Improvement in Organizations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96427",slug:"lean-manufacturing-as-a-strategy-for-continuous-improvement-in-organizations",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The implementation of lean manufacturing is one of the most discussed and studied topics in management; references are at the business, educational and public levels. However, the changes faced in the fourth industrial revolution generate challenges that will only encounter solution through innovative efforts and industrial improvements as well as a radical change in our way of interacting. In the current revolution, there are digital changes that cause ruptures in social, economic and political aspects, and the administrative process is part of it, this chapter proposes to analyze the implementation of lean manufacturing in the process of continuous improvement in business organizations through a literary review of the implementation of tools.",signatures:"María Marcela Solís-Quinteros, Carolina Zayas-Márquez, Luis Alfredo Ávila-López and Teresa Carrillo-Gutirrez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75408",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75408",authors:[{id:"281004",title:"Dr.",name:"María Marcela",surname:"Solís-Quinteros",slug:"maria-marcela-solis-quinteros",fullName:"María Marcela Solís-Quinteros"},{id:"343581",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Alfredo",surname:"Avila-Lopez",slug:"luis-alfredo-avila-lopez",fullName:"Luis Alfredo Avila-Lopez"},{id:"343697",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Zayas-Márquez",slug:"carolina-zayas-marquez",fullName:"Carolina Zayas-Márquez"},{id:"343698",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Carrillo-Gutiérrez",slug:"teresa-carrillo-gutierrez",fullName:"Teresa Carrillo-Gutiérrez"}],corrections:null},{id:"74769",title:"Development of Integrated Lean Six Sigma-Baldrige Framework for Manufacturing Waste Minimization: A Case of NAS Foods Plc",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95279",slug:"development-of-integrated-lean-six-sigma-baldrige-framework-for-manufacturing-waste-minimization-a-c",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The aim of this study objective is to develop an integrated constant quality improvement model so as to minimize unwanted biscuit processing industry wastes. The method used was lean- six- sigma elements to define measure and improve unwanted process company wastes. In other word, Baldrige with six-sigma were created to define, measure and improve management perspectives. The tasks were integrated using both quantitative and qualitative analyzing tools implementing mixed strategies. The result was improved by using FMEA analysis was carried out at each stage of the existing process used to determine the failure of the process and to analyses and improve the production quality. The SPSS software was also used. In the finding section, the correlation and regression analysis has shown that there is strong relationship between each variance. There are different wastes that identified in six sigma (DMAIC) on NAS food Plc as a result; the value of waste ratio indicated is 36.7%. This show non-lean of the food industry is practiced. The defect of the company also calculated and defect per million are 67,308. This shows that the biscuit production has a production capability with a failure of 67,308 every 1000,000 productions it high failure rate. The contribution of the paper has indicated that there are limited studies were conducted so far to implement waste minimization tools like six-sigma, lean and MBNQA framework approach integration for food processing industry.",signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew and Selamawit Gebreyohanis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74769",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74769",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"},{id:"338417",title:"Ms.",name:"Selamawit",surname:"Gebreyohanis",slug:"selamawit-gebreyohanis",fullName:"Selamawit Gebreyohanis"}],corrections:null},{id:"75149",title:"Analysis, an Anathema: Is That a Fervent Diatribe of Lean?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96166",slug:"analysis-an-anathema-is-that-a-fervent-diatribe-of-lean-",totalDownloads:228,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Should there be an understanding that rigor in analysis must be out-of-bounds for Lean initiatives? Will this rigor not facilitate a benchmarking of Lean initiatives? Why not a Lean initiative cause-consequence assessment not performed for building future fault tolerance? The effectiveness of a company’s strategy is critical to its success or failure. Lean strategy seems to be claimed as a widely recognized factor for business success and competitive advantage. However, empirical evidences do not promote the idea that Lean has delivered results every time. Study results indicate that success or failure of lean initiatives strongly depends on how companies approach it and on whether company has created their own curated philosophy towards Lean. Then, success is not dependent alone on a strategy, but on how daily operations are aligned to strategy. This chapter aims to address the above questions and a greater number of questions that we experience on a day-to-day basis with regard to Lean applications in the real world. Chapter Learning Objectives: Understanding Lean, Lean failure modes, and Lean initiative precautions.",signatures:"Sajit Jacob and Krishnamurthy Kothandaraman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75149",authors:[{id:"299036",title:"Mr.",name:"Sajit",surname:"Jacob",slug:"sajit-jacob",fullName:"Sajit Jacob"},{id:"299213",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishnamurthy",surname:"Kothandaraman",slug:"krishnamurthy-kothandaraman",fullName:"Krishnamurthy Kothandaraman"}],corrections:null},{id:"76883",title:"Lean Manufacturing towards Green Manufacturing Practices and Its Implementation in SME’s",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97389",slug:"lean-manufacturing-towards-green-manufacturing-practices-and-its-implementation-in-sme-s",totalDownloads:188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The manufacturing SMEs are facing the burden of non-equilibrium of the supply–demand chain along with the global change in the climate. Several SMEs are looking for a substitute that can create a balance between performance and the environment. In spite of numerous studies related to green and lean that has been evolved, none of them is able to clearly define the spheres of green and lean. Here in this chapter, there is an exploration of advancement of lean and green manufacturing and its impact on other sectors. It also highlights the methodology adopted in implementing the same. This chapter recognizes the commonalities between lean and green approaches, the collaboration and impact, techniques involved. Also, the impediments and perplexities confronted by the manufacturing sector are examined. Further, this gives a better understanding of the challenges before implementing lean with green. This chapter also recognizes possible gaps in the literature that will help to eliminate the barrier toward this Neo manufacturing.",signatures:"J.P. Rishi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76883",authors:[{id:"339553",title:"Dr.",name:"J.P.",surname:"Rishi",slug:"j.p.-rishi",fullName:"J.P. Rishi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75839",title:"Lean Manufacturing Practices and Environmental Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96973",slug:"lean-manufacturing-practices-and-environmental-performance",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lean manufacturing is considered a rewarding production strategy due to its positive effects on organizational and economic efficiency in various industries. Given the growing ecological consciousness, environmental achievements of lean manufacturing also incorporate a strong economic relevance. The main objective of this chapter is, therefore, to investigate the impact of lean manufacturing practices on environmental performance and the existing coherences between Lean and ecologically oriented variables such as resource usage, energy consumption, and air pollution. The methodology is literature review evaluating the findings of research in this sphere. Besides the discussion of its principles and methods, current trends and challenges regarding lean production as a business model that supports eco-efficiency are presented. The implications of this study will allow executives to better recognize and simultaneously solve both the economic and environmental problems posed by their companies.",signatures:"Ruhet Genç",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75839",authors:[{id:"340234",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruhet",surname:"Genç",slug:"ruhet-genc",fullName:"Ruhet Genç"}],corrections:null},{id:"78284",title:"Circular and Lean Food Supply Chains",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99769",slug:"circular-and-lean-food-supply-chains",totalDownloads:177,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Circular economy (CE) refers to the industrial economy that aims to achieve enriched sustainability through restorative objects and supply chain design. Many governments have put in place different initiatives in line with the CE. On the other hand, the term Lean operations refers to the reduction of the non-value adding activities and waste in a supply chain. The food sector has been criticized for its sustainability and circularity due to the high levels of food and packaging waste and at the same time the increasing costs. Although food supply chain entities have started to implement circular economy and lean practices, the current efforts do not seem to be sufficient to achieve a circular and lean food system. The aim of this chapter is to explore the possibility of a circular and at the same lean food supply chain.",signatures:"Stella Despoudi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78284",authors:[{id:"338855",title:"Dr.",name:"Stella",surname:"Despoudi",slug:"stella-despoudi",fullName:"Stella Despoudi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2020",title:"New Technologies",subtitle:"Trends, Innovations and Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"170d84903f390df23023d0623d8577d3",slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"64730",slug:"erratum-spectrum-decision-framework-to-support-cognitive-radio-based-iot-in-5g",title:"Erratum - 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Perspectives and Application",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tWireless power transfer is the process of transmitting electrical energy using electromagnetic waves. With the advent of wireless power transfer, energy can therefore be collected without the physical need of connecting a device to a power source. This technology certainly provides great convenience to mankind, since the hassle of using wires to connect a load to the power grid can be saved. The advantage of wireless power transfer is particularly evident in desolated rural areas where electricity is a scarce luxury to the residents. In general, electrical energy can be transmitted wireless via near-field and far-field mechanisms. The near-field or non-radiative method employs inductive coupling between coils of wires or capacitive coupling between metallic electrodes to realize the purpose of energy charging. The far-field or radiative method, on the other hand, transfers electrical energy via wave radiation. The concept is somewhat similar to that of a wireless telecommunication device. Instead of transmitting and receiving information, however, the far-field approach makes use of antennas to harvest energy. Despite the prevailing advancement of wireless power transfer technology, there are still open issues yet to be solved.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will give a detailed elucidation of some of the latest technologies used for wireless power transfer. The challenges faced by researchers working in this field and ways to overcome them are also discussed.
\r\n\t
Rapidly increasing energy demands worldwide has resulted in tremendous depletion of fossil fuel resources. This makes it necessary to find alternative energy sources which have a minimum impact on the environment. In this context, biogas is one of the sustainable energy sources that can be produced from many types of biomass including waste. AD technology is one of the most promising technologies, having the potential to convert various biomass into methane-rich biogas, a carbon-neutral alternative to fossil fuels. In addition, AD technology has a number of benefits including solids reduction, decreased odor, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and increased income from non-market benefits compared to conventional waste treatment systems [1, 2]. In Germany, which is the leading country in this field, greater than 50% of the biogas potential results from energy crops treated in over 7000 biogas plants [3]. AD has wide application in sludge stabilization due to its low cost, energy recovery and minimized biosolids production.
\nAD system utilizes anaerobic microorganisms to convert the organic matter in the biomass, into biogas in an oxygen free environment. Biogas is the main byproduct of AD and contains about 60% methane by volume. Digestate is produced as a byproduct, which after an appropriate treatment can have agricultural applications as fertilizer [4]. It reduces organic matter to more stable solids by complex biochemical reactions. There are three consecutive steps of biological process in AD. The first step involves hydrolysis of complex organic matter into simpler compounds. The second step is the acidogenesis, which involves conversion of these organics to form organic acids and hydrogen. The final step is methane and carbon dioxide production from organic acids and hydrogen, by
AD process is mediated through four main steps—hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. These are carried out by a consortium of microorganisms: acidogenic bacteria, acetogenic bacteria and methanogenic bacteria [23]. The microbial community of the anaerobic process is very complex. There are two prokaryotic kingdoms that closely interact with each other:
Figure 1 summarizes the overall process of AD. Organic matter consists of particulate, water-insoluble polymers such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Insoluble polymers cannot penetrate cellular membranes and are therefore not directly available to the microorganisms. During hydrolysis, appropriate strains of hydrolytic bacteria excrete hydrolytic enzymes [23] which break up the insoluble polymers to soluble mono and oligomers. Carbohydrates are converted to sugars, lipids are broken down to long-chain fatty acids and proteins are split into amino acids [24]. These soluble molecules are converted by acidogens to acetic acid and other longer volatile fatty acids, alcohols, carbon dioxide and hydrogen on acidogenesis. The foremost acids produced are acetic acid (CH3COOH), propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH), and ethanol (C2H5OH). Other acid formers are C
Schematic representation of anaerobic digestion (source:
In the last step of the process, methanogens use acetic acid or carbon dioxide and hydrogen, to produce methane and carbon dioxide. For mesophilic bacteria, the optimal methane production rate is mostly reached at 35–37°C. The thermophilic methanogens differ from the mesophilic one and their maximum methanogenic activity is reached at about 55°C. A thermophilic digestion process can sustain a higher organic loading compared to a mesophilic one. But the thermophilic process produces gas with a lower methane concentration [25] and is more sensitive to toxicants [26]. Methanogens are also sensitive towards changes in temperature than the other species, because of their slower growth rate in the reactor environment. Methanogenesis occurs at neutral pH- in the range of 6.5–7.5, although optimum lies at pH 7.0–7.2 [26]. If, for example, a temperature shift affects the methanogens negatively, there can be a build-up of volatile fatty acids (VFAs). This lowers the pH which further affects the methanogens in a negative way which leads to a vicious circle of negative feedback. The methanogenesis reactions can be expressed as follows [27] in Eqs. (2)–(4):
\nThe digestion efficiency and its stability can vary significantly depending upon the wastewater characteristics and type and design of the treatment system. The longer a substrate is kept under proper reaction conditions, the more complete its degradation will become. Longer retention time demands the provision of reactor with large volume for a given amount of substrate to be treated. On the other hand, with shorter retention time washout of microorganism takes place with a lower overall degradation [25]. Therefore, these two effects have to be balanced in the design of AD for the efficient and proper operation of the full scale reactor. This needs operation of AD through skilled supervision for optimal performance.
\nSeveral renewable matters have been tried for biogas production which are classified into crop biomass such as maize, wheat, barley, sweet sorghum, etc.; organic wastes such as municipal solid waste, municipal and industrial wastewater sludge, animal manure, and residues from various processing; energy crops like sunflower, rape, jatropha, etc.; crop residues which include banana stem, barley straw, rice straw, softwood spruce, etc.; and non-conventional biomass like glycerol, microalgae, etc. [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Figures 2
Effect of pretreatment on lignocellulosic biomass (source:
Effect of pretreatment on sludge biomass.
Effect of pretreatment of macroalgal biomass.
The diverse composition of lignocellulose biomass and the interactions between fractions make its structure very complex and resistant to deconstruction. Cellulose and hemicellulose are polysaccharides that can be hydrolyzed to simple sugars. Lignin which acts as a support to the cell structure, embedding cellulose and hemicellulose, hinders the susceptibility to microbial attack during hydrolysis process [35]. The aim of pretreatment is to break the lignin layer that protects the cellulose and hemicellulose, in order to make the biomass more accessible for digestion [6]. Pretreatment also helps to decrease the crystallinity of cellulose and to increase the porosity. Furthermore, biomass such as fruit wastes is easily degraded but result in low yield due to the presence of inhibitors.
\nKeratin, which is present in horns and feathers, is an insoluble protein in which the polypeptides chain is tightly packed and highly cross-linked with disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions [36]. This insoluble protein is extremely resistive to the proteolytic enzyme action, which is a major hindrance in the biological processing of these wastes. For such biomass, if the crosslinking between the polypeptides chain breaks, the keratin becomes more accessible and easier to digest. Contrarily, while keratin-rich waste is pretreated using a strong acid, alkali, or other harsh physicochemical methods, severe degradation and destruction of the keratin occurs [37].
\nActivated sludge, a bio product of aerobic wastewater treatment, can be a better raw material for generating energy because of its high organic content [38]. Secondary wastewater sludge consists of numerous microbial cells, the cell walls of which act as barriers against exo-enzyme degradation. Besides microbial cells, exocellular polymeric substances (EPS) comprise a major organic fraction in activated sludge floc structure and binding mechanisms of EPS to cations appear to be a significant factor determining the digestibility of activated sludge. Hence hydrolysis becomes the rate-limiting step and degree of degradation achieved is limited to 30–35% chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction in conventional anaerobic sludge treatment [23]. Pretreatment of sludge is required to rupture the cell wall and to facilitate the release of intracellular matter into the aqueous phase, which improves the biodegradability thereby enhancing the AD with lower retention time and with higher biogas production [20].
\nThe macroalgal cell envelope made of thick and hard layer composed of complex proteins and carbohydrates with more mechanical power and high chemical resistance, restricts the attack of the biopolymers by methanogenic bacteria during AD [39]. Pretreatment leads to improvement in the liquefaction process, enhancing the biopolymer release [28]. Several pretreatment methods have been reported in detail, aiming to make these biomass viable to digestion by microorganisms, and increase the biogas yield. It is necessary to carry out the pretreatment at mild conditions to prevent excessive sugar degradation.
\nSeveral pretreatment processes such as ball mill [40], microwave irradiation [2], sodium hydroxide [13], steam explosion [41], ultrasonic [42], biological [43], ozonation [14] have been shown to enhance biodegradability of biomass by promoting the hydrolysis process. Since most available articles are addressed based on pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass, this chapter is mainly focused towards sludge pretreatment.
\nThe lower hydrolysis rates during conventional AD process, results in higher hydraulic retention time (HRT) in the digester and larger digester volume, constitutes the prime drawbacks of the conventional AD [6]. The non-availability of the readily biodegradable, soluble organic matters and lower digestion rate constantly necessitates the pretreatment of sludge. Pretreatment of biomass enhances the AD, with lower retention time and with higher biogas production [17]. With the advancements in various pretreatment techniques like thermal, chemical, mechanical, biological and physical and several combinations such as physicochemical, biological–physicochemical, mechanical–chemical and thermal–chemical, biodegradability of sludge can be enhanced by several orders. Extensive research has been carried throughout the world to establish the best economically feasible pretreatment technology to enhance the digestibility of biomass [12]. Tables 1 and 2 show the specific energy consumed and methane yield with various chemo-mechanical and physico-chemical pretreatment.
\nS. No. | \nName of the pretreatment | \nSpecific energy consumed (KJ/kg TS) | \nSolubilization achieved (%) | \nBiomethane yield | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nDisperser + alkali | \n4544 | \n24 | \n1391 ml | \nRani et al. [21] | \n
2 | \nThermo chemo disperser | \n3360.94 | \n18.6 | \n0.455 L/g VS | \nKavitha et al. [44] | \n
3 | \nChemo disperser | \n5013 | \n20 | \n0.522 L/g VS | \nPoornima Devi et al. [45] | \n
4 | \nSono alkaline | \n4172 | \n59 | \n0.108 ml/g VS removed | \nRani et al. [46] | \n
5 | \nThermo chemo sonic | \n5290.5 | \n27 | \n0.413 g COD/g COD | \nKavitha et al. [47] | \n
6 | \nCitric acid + ultrasonic | \n171.9 | \n22.7 | \n0.435 L/g VS | \nGayathri et al. [29] | \n
7 | \nFenton + ultrasonic | \n641 | \n34.4 | \n0.3 g COD/g COD | \nKavitha et al. [48] | \n
8 | \nThermo chemo sonic | \n5500 | \n35 | \n0.60 g COD/g COD | \nKavitha et al. [49] | \n
9 | \nDisperser + microwave | \n18,000 | \n22 | \n0.28 g COD/g COD | \nKavitha et al. [50] | \n
10 | \nChemo mechanical | \n7377 | \n38 | \n50 ml/g VS removed | \nKavitha et al. [51] | \n
11 | \nSonic mediated biological | \n2.45 | \n23 | \n0.19 d1 | \nKavitha et al. [52] | \n
12 | \nChemo thermo disperser | \n174 | \n60 | \n0.84 g COD/g COD | \nKavitha et al. [43] | \n
13 | \nSurfactant sonic | \n5120 | \n24.7 | \n0.24 g/g COD | \nUshani et al. [53] | \n
14 | \nChemo disperser | \n3312.6 | \n15 | \n0.14 g COD/g COD | \nTamilarasan et al. [28] | \n
15 | \nSurfactant + sonic | \n5400 | \n26 | \n0.6 g/g COD | \nSanthi et al. [54] | \n
16 | \nDisperser + bacterial | \n9.5 | \n22.4 | \n0. 279 g COD/g COD | \nBanu et al. [55] | \n
17 | \nUltrasound + microwave | \n16,700 | \n33.2 | \n0.3 L/g COD | \nKavitha et al. [56] | \n
18 | \nSurfactant + sonic | \n9600 | \n23.9 | \n0.239 g/g COD | \nTamilarasan et al. [57] | \n
Specific energy consumed and methane yield with various chemo-mechanical pretreatment.
S. No. | \nName of the pretreatment | \nSpecific energy consumed (KJ/kg TS) | \nSolubilization achieved (%) | \nBiomethane yield | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nMicrowave | \n1844 | \n18.6 | \n0.162 ml/g VS removed | \nRani et al. [33] | \n
2. | \nMicrowave + citric acid | \n14,000 | \n31 | \n0.615 L/g VS | \nEbenezer et al. [38] | \n
3. | \nMicrowave + surfactant | \n14,000 | \n28 | \n0.47 L/g VS | \nEbenezer et al. [58] | \n
4. | \nMicrowave + H2O2 | \n18,600 | \n56 | \n0.323 L/g VS | \nEswari et al. [59] | \n
5. | \nH2O2 + microwave | \n18,910 | \n46.6 | \n250 ml/g VS | \nEswari et al. [60] | \n
6. | \nThermo ozone | \n141.02 | \n30.4 | \n0.32 g COD/g COD | \nKannah et al. [1] | \n
Specific energy consumed with various physico-chemical pretreatment.
In physical pretreatment, the structure of the biomass gets altered and the size of the particles reduced, by the application of physical force. This leads to an increase in the surface area of the particles thereby making it susceptible to microbial and enzymatic attacks, which enhances the AD process for methane production [61]. Physical pretreatment may be done by employing microwave irradiation, sonication, mechanical beating, deflaking, dispersing, extruding, refining, milling, and cavitation etc. [62].
\nMilling pretreatment is carried out, especially for lignocellulose and algal biomass to reduce the size of the substrate to break open the cellular structure, and improve their bio accessibility to the cell tissues, by increasing the specific surface area of the biomass [40]. Particle size reduction not only increases the rate of enzymatic degradation, but also reduces viscosity in digesters thus making mixing easier and can reduce the problems of floating layers. For effective hydrolysis of lignocellulose, beta particle size of 1–2 mm has been recommended [63]. Using three batch reactors, Motte et al. [40] demonstrated, treating straw particle milled to different sizes 0.25 mm, 1 mm and 10 mm followed during 62 days. They achieved the highest methane production for straw with 10 mm particle size (192 ± 25 Nm L/g VS) which was associated with a straw biodegradability of 43%.
\nThe most frequently applied cavitation techniques include acoustic cavitation, which is produced by passing ultrasonic waves through the liquid medium and hydrodynamic cavitation produced using hydraulic systems. In acoustic cavitation, microbubbles called cavitation were developed when the ultrasound waves propagate in a liquid medium, due to a repeating pattern of compressions and rarefactions. These cavitation expand to unstable size, and then rapidly collapse resulting in temperatures up to 5000 K and pressures up to 180 MPa. The rapid collapse of a numerous microbubbles generates powerful shear forces in the surrounding liquid, which damages the cell walls of microorganisms [21, 53]. However, higher sonication power level is reported to adversely affect the pretreatment process. At higher power level, bubbles are formed near the tip of the ultrasound transducer, which hinders the transfer of energy to the liquid medium [64].
\nIn the ultrasonic pretreatment study on waste activated sludge (WAS), Apul & Sanin [7] investigated an improvement in anaerobic biodegradability at 15 min of sonication. They achieved an increase in daily biogas production and methane production by 49 and 74% respectively compared to control in semi continuous reactors at a solid retention time (SRT) of 15 days and organic loading rate of 0.5 kg/m3 d. Zeynali et al. [42] studied the efficiency of ultrasonic pretreatment in improving biogas production from fruits and vegetable waste. They adopted three sonication times of 9, 18, 27 min operating at 20 kHz and amplitude of 80 μm on the substrate. The highest methane yield they obtained was at 18 min sonication with specific energy 2380 kJ/kg TS (Total solids) for a 12 d batch period, while longer exposure to sonication led to lower methane yield. The energy content of the biogas obtained by them was twice that of input energy for sonication. Alzate et al. [65] reported that, the sonication applied to macro algae at a specific energy input of 75 MJ/kg TS produced just 20% of the methane production. Upon increasing the specific energy to about 100–200 MJ/kg TS, they reported an increase in the methane production rate between 80 and 90%.
\nIn hydrodynamic systems, cavitation is generated by forcing fluid flow through cavitating devices, where pressure substantially drops. Many microbubbles formed as a consequence of this pressure drop subsequently collapse. The collapse of the cavitation, results in release of large magnitudes of energy which helps in dissolution of biomass and makes it more suitable for subsequent bacterial decomposition, improving biogas yield during the AD process [66]. They investigated the application of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) for the pretreatment of wheat straw with an objective of enhancing the biogas production. They observed the methane yields of 31.8 ml with untreated wheat straw, 77.9 ml with HC pre-treated wheat straw and a maximum yield of 172.3 ml with the combined pre-treatment using KOH and HC.
\nDuring microwave irradiation the destruction of the microbial cells is caused by the disruption of the chemical (hydrogen) bonds in the cell walls and membranes, by polarized parts of macromolecules aligning with the poles of the electromagnetic field, which results in denaturation. Microwaves can induce an athermal effect in addition to their thermal effect due to dipole orientation, which results in possible breakage of hydrogen bonds and subsequently leads to the disintegration of the floc matrix [17]. They observed that, microbial cells exposed to MW showed greater damage at similar applied temperatures compared to conventional heating. Rincón et al. [67] studied the effect of a MW pre-treatment on olive mill solid residue to enhance its anaerobic digestibility. They carried out the experiment at a power of 800 W and temperature 50°C and observed a maximum methane yield of 395 ± 1 ml CH4/g VS for an applied specific energy 7660 kJ/kg TS. Beszédes et al. [16] focused on the effects of MW irradiation at different power levels on biodegradation and subsequent AD of sludge from the dairy and meat industry. Compared to their results obtained from conventional heat treatment of the same sludge, the MW treatment proved to increase the methane yield.
\nMaroušek [68] evaluated extrusion parameters of pelleted hay for maximal cumulative biogas production, and reported that, at optimal conditions of pressure 1.3 MPa, reaction time 7 min, and 8% dry matter, the maximal biogas production was 405 m3/ton TS (with 52.3% methane), which was about a 33% increase over the biogas yield of control. Novarino and Zanetti [69] employed extrusion pretreatment to improve biogas production from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, resulting in a biogas yield of 800 L/kg VS containing about 60% methane content.
\nThermal pretreatment improves hydrolysis, with increased methane yield during subsequent anaerobic digestion. A wide range of temperatures has been studied, ranging from 60 to 270°C, but temperatures above 200°C have been found responsible for the production of recalcitrant soluble organics or toxic/inhibitory intermediates during the pretreatment process [70]. Many studies employed at an optimum thermal range of 160–180°C for hydrolysis of wastewater sludge have proved an increase in methane yield during AD. Higher temperatures lead to a sharp reduction in biodegradability of sludge hydrolysate, due to production of recalcitrant soluble organics or toxic/inhibitory intermediates during the process [71]. The effect of thermal treatment of anaerobic sludge on the disintegration of the remaining organic fraction was evaluated by Borges and Chernicharo [18]. At 75°C, they observed an increase of 30–35 times increase in the concentrations of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and COD and an increase of 50% in the biogas production, thus characterizing a higher biodegradability of the remaining organic fraction.
\nAcid pretreatment causes sludge disintegration and cell lysis which releases the intracellular organics, which become more bioavailable and thus increases the rate and efficiency of the digestion process [17]. In lignocellulosic biomass, the pretreatment results in the disruption of the Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds that hold together the biomass components, which consequently causes the breaking of hemicellulose and the reduction of cellulose [72]. Devlin et al. [73] showed the improved effects of HCl pretreatment at pH 2 on subsequent digestion of WAS. In semi-continuous digestion experiments conducted for 12 day hydraulic retention time at 35°C, they found a 14.3% increase in methane yield compared to untreated WAS. Taherdanak et al. [74] used dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment, to improve the biomethane production from wheat plant under mesophilic anaerobic digestion. At 121°C, they obtained a maximum methane yield of 15.5% higher than that of the untreated wheat plant after pretreatment for 120 min.
\nThe mechanism of alkaline pretreatment mainly induces swelling of particulate organics at elevated pH, enabling the biomass cellular substances more susceptible to enzymatic action [24]. The complex cell gets damaged by the hydroxyl anions available in the alkali. In macroalgae, it enhances hydrolysis of RNA, organic liquefaction of proteins and saponification [28]. In lignocellulosic biomass, it causes swelling, delignification and de-esterification of intermolecular ester bonds. With the disintegration of the bonds the porosity and internal surface area of the biomass increases, the degree of polymerization and crystallinity decreases. This makes it more accessible for enzymes and bacteria [6]. Regarding WAS, at higher pH, the microbial cell walls are broken and intracellular material is released into the liquid phase.
\nStudies were explored by Banu et al. [13] to evaluate the advantage of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for its higher sludge solubilization potential and lime. They conducted experiments at a fixed alkali strength (35 meq/l) and varying concentration of NaOH and lime to demonstrate the role of alkalis in solubilizing sludge. The highest solubilization they achieved, was at an optimum dosage of NaOH and lime 1.6 and 0.7 g/l respectively at time 3 h. Sambusiti et al. [75] investigated the effect of alkaline (NaOH) pretreatment on ensiled sorghum forage in semi continuous digesters. They observed that pretreatment with 10 g NaOH/100 g TS increased the methane yield by 25% compared to untreated sorghum without experiencing any inhibition of the process.
\nWet air oxidation is a pretreatment option that enhances contact between molecular oxygen and organic matter for the complete degradation of organic compounds into carbon dioxide and water. In order to achieve this, high temperature (and subsequently high pressure) conditions are required [22]. The correspondingly high pressure required is to maintain the high temperature conditions, as well as to help increase the concentration of dissolved oxygen, and thus oxidation rate. Chandra et al. [76] employed wet air oxidation to enhance the biodegradability of the complex biomethanated distillery effluent. They reported an enhanced biogas yield of pretreated effluent up to 2.8 times higher than the untreated effluent with methane content up to 64.14%.
\nOzone is a strong oxidant and hence powerful in oxidizing substrates. It has potential to degrade lignin in diverse feedstocks. It reacts with the polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and other recalcitrant compounds and transform them into biodegradable molecules. The ozonation process can result in efficient cell wall rupture and release of more soluble and easily biodegradable organics, which can be easily accessed and assimilated by anaerobic microorganisms. Thus it leads to improvement in the AD process [15].
\nAD of ozone pretreated excess sludge was studied by Goel et al. [14] through long-term operation of laboratory-scale reactors. They found that ozone pretreatment was effective in partially solubilizing the sludge solids and leading to subsequent improvement in anaerobic degradability. The extent of solubilization and digestion efficiency depended on the applied ozone doses. At 0.05 g O3/g TS, the AD efficiencies improved to about 59% as compared to 31% for the control run. Different process indicators like specific methane production and ammonia concentration in the reactor, also specify the higher observed solid degradation rates for ozonated sludge.
\nThe biological mediated pretreatment process is based on the function of multiple form of heterotrophic microbes. Complex biopolymers such as protein and carbohydrate can be transformed into simpler end products due to the action of various enzymes produced by the bacteria. The significance of biological pretreatment lies in the fact that is solubilizes the organic compounds present in the biomass with minimum energy, with no severe changes in substrate environment. Biological pretreatment is done with or without enzyme addition some of which can be produced endogenously by microorganisms present in the sludge. Some of the enzymes like protease, lipase, cellulase, alpha-amylase and dextranase [11] can effectively improve the hydrolysis rate and release of biopolymers to a large extent. Contrarily, these enzymes are more costly and difficult to preserve. Bonilla et al. [77] evaluated the potential for enzymatic pretreatment of pulp mill biosludge with protease from
Saranya et al. [10] studied the impacts of phase separated disintegration pretreatment using calcium chloride (CaCl2) and bacteria. For their study a pH of 6.5, temperature of 40°C and treatment period of 42 h were the optimum conditions for pretreatment. In the initial phase, they achieved the floc disruption (deflocculation) with 0.06 g/g SS of CaCl2 and in the latter phase, cell disintegration through potent biosurfactant producing bacteria,
Fungal pretreatment improves degradation of lignin and hemicellulose and hence result in increased digestibility of cellulose, which is preferably essential for AD process. Several fungal classes, including brown-, white- and soft-rot fungi, have been used for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for biogas production, with white-rot fungi being the most effective. Amirta et al. [78] employed four fungal species to pretreat Japanese cedar wood chips in the presence of wheat bran which supplements nutrition for fungal growth. They revealed that wood chips pretreated by
Steam explosion pretreatment is an effort to expose the biomass to high temperature and pressure for short period of time and then reducing the pressure rapidly. This stops the reactions, causing the biomass to decompose explosively. This pretreatment condition may involve temperatures as high as 260°C and pressure up to 4.5 MPa. A study was investigated by Nges et al. [79] to improve the anaerobic biodegradability of
The combination of thermal and chemical pre-treatments have been investigated in a number of studies in which the enhancement of the anaerobic digestibility of sludge was reported. Yi et al. [19] has used combined alkaline and low-temperature thermal pretreatment to enhance the subsequent AD of WAS. Different combinations of these two methods were investigated and biochemical methane potential (BMP) test was used to assess the anaerobic digestibility of pretreated WAS. With the combined treatment of adding 0.05 g NaOH/g TS and temperature maintained at 70°C for 9 h, they achieved a ratio of 72.8% soluble carbohydrate/total carbohydrate. Biogas production achieved through their BMP experiment was six times higher than the control and the average value of methane content of the produced biogas was 64%. In another study, Kavitha et al. [56], employed microwave irradiation to disintegrate the dairy WAS biomass after deagglomerating the sludge using a mechanical device, ultrasonicator. The outcomes of their study revealed that a higher biomass lysis efficiency of about 33.2% was possible through ultrasonic assisted microwave disintegration (UMWD) when compared to microwave disintegration MWD (20.9%). Their results of BMP test showed that UMWD has better amenability towards AD with 50% higher methane production representing enhanced liquefaction potential of disaggregated sludge biomass.
\nJang and Ahn [5] determined the effect of MW irradiation with NaOH pretreatment on AD of thickened municipal WAS in semi-continuous mesophilic digesters at HRT of 15, 10, 7, and 5 days. They combined MW pretreatment at temperature of 135°C with the input power of 1000 W with 60 ml of alkaline (20 meq NaOH/l) pretreated sludge. The degree of substrate solubilization arrived was 18 times higher in pretreated sludge (53.2%) than in raw sludge (3.0%). With HRT reduced to 5 days, they observed an improvement in biogas production (205% higher) for pretreated sludge compared with the control. The results show that MW irradiation combined with alkali pretreatment is effective in increasing mesophilic anaerobic biodegradability of sewage sludge. Ebenezer et al. [58] reported an increased COD and biopolymers release of WAS treated with Sodium citrate, a cationic binding agent, followed by microwaves pretreatment. They also concluded that the above pretreatment made the biomass more amenable for batch AD and hence higher biogas production with a methane content of 60–70% of biogas volume. Tamilarasan et al. [28] has made an attempt, by coupling a mechanical disperser with a chemical Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) for pretreatment of macro-algal biomass. They arrived at a 15% liquefaction and more than 5 times higher methane production compared to control at an optimal disperser-specific energy input of about 3312.67 kJ/kg TCOD (total COD) and an STPP dosage of about 0.04 g/g COD. Thus the combined pretreatment showed a greater biodegradability and biomethanation properties.
\nAmmonia fiber expansion is a promising method especially to pretreat agricultural materials for bioenergy production. Ammonia can be easily recovered and presents a high selectivity towards the lignin reactions, while preserving the carbohydrates. Ammonia can also penetrate the crystalline structure of cellulose and causes swelling [30]. The method involves treating the lignocellulosic biomass with liquid ammonia under mild temperature (70–200°C) and pressure (100–400 psi) for a specific time. This explosion results in several physical and chemical alterations in the structure of biomass. Jurado et al. [32] studied the effect of aqueous ammonia soaking (AAS) as a method to disrupt the lignocellulosic structure and increase the methane yield of wheat straw, miscanthus and willow. In all three cases, with AAS they observed an increase in methane yield from 37 to 41%, 25 to 27% and 94 to 162% for wheat straw, miscanthus and willow, respectively. Antonopoulou et al. [30] employed AAS as a pretreatment method, for the AD of three lignocellulosic biomass—poplar sawdust, sunflower straw and grass. In their study, they arrived at an increase in the ultimate methane yield being 148.7, 37.7 and 26.2% of poplar, sunflower straw and grass, respectively. They did not observe any toxic compounds such as furaldehydes, during AAS pretreatment.
\nIn this pretreatment, a very short burst (∼100 μs) of rapidly pulsed (several kHz), high voltage (about 20 kV) electric field is utilized to disrupt and break up the cell membrane of microorganism. This focused pulse (FP) induces a critical electrical potential across the cell membrane, causing cell lysis by direct attack on phospholipids and the peptidoglycan, respectively. Once the cell membranes get damaged, the intracellular organic material are released, making complex organic macromolecules more biodegradable [82]. They evaluated the effects of FP treatment and SRT on WAS in laboratory-scale digesters operated at SRTs of 2–20 days. They achieved an increased methane production rate and TCOD removal efficiency of about 33% and 18%, respectively, at a SRT of 20 days. They also concluded that, an increase in the hydrolysis rate was caused by FP-treatment of WAS, particularly at lower SRTs. Salerno et al. [83] applied FP to WAS and pig manure for increasing the production of methane during AD. In their work, methane production increased 200% for sludge and 80% for pig manure as compared to untreated sludge and manure. Thus PEF technology is advantageous due to low energy requirement for very short pulse time.
\nThe global energy supply is highly relying on fossil sources (crude oil, coal, natural gas) till now. According to the current energy policies and management, world market energy consumption is forecast to increase by 44% from 2006 to 2030 [84]. At the same time, concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are rising rapidly, with fossil fuel-derived CO2 emissions being the most important contributor. Nowadays, increasing attention has been gained on various strategies for the bioconversion of biomass into methane-rich biogas, due to increased global warming, the need for sustainable waste management and high energy costs [41]. The production of biogas through AD offers significant advantages over other forms of bioenergy production. Unlike fossil fuels, biogas from AD is permanently renewable, as it is produced from biomass, which is a living form of storage of solar energy through photosynthesis [85]. It has been evaluated as one of the most energy-efficient and environmentally beneficial technology for bioenergy production [86]. It can drastically reduce GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels by utilization of locally available resources.
\nMany sources, such as crops, grasses, leaves, manure, fruit, and vegetable wastes or algae can be used, and the process can be applied in small and large scales in many parts of the world. Energy crops digestion requires prolonged HRT of several weeks to month to achieve complete fermentation with high gas yields and minimized residual gas potential of the digestate [4]. For an increased dissemination of biogas plants, further improvements of the process efficiency, and the development of new technologies for mixing, process monitoring, and process control are necessary. Pretreatment of substrates and the addition of micronutrients offers a major potential for increasing the biogas yield. With the increasing number of biogas plants, also an improvement of the effluent quality is necessary, in order to avoid a contamination of ground water with pathogens and nutrients [3]. The choice of a pretreatment should be made not only based on energy balance and economy, but also various environmental factors such as pathogen removal, use of chemicals, and the possibility for a sustainable use of the residues, impacts on human health and the environment [8]. Carballa et al. [87] evaluated the environmental aspects of different pretreatment methods in terms of abiotic resources depletion potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential, human and terrestrial toxicity potential through a life cycle assessment.
\nThe profitable operation of a biogas plant relies on low capital and operational expenditures [28]. The frequent approaches including physical, thermal and chemical processes have been commercially implemented nowadays with a number of patented technologies. But research on biological techniques is still undergoing investigations from bench scale to full scale applications. Many pretreatment methods are expensive or have a high energy demand. The performance of any pretreatment method is quantified based on the economic feasibility of the method in terms of the cost of pretreatment versus the value of added methane yield. The effect of the pretreatment is however mostly dependent on the biomass composition and operating conditions. The investment costs for pretreatment of recalcitrant substrates are high at the moment due to high expenditure in process engineering. Biological disintegration is devoid of chemical contamination and energy inputs and the use of an enzyme secreting bacterial consortium for biomass is beneficial, as commercial enzymes are expensive [55]. But the need for long reaction times renders biological pretreatment unsuitable for large scale plants where land space is expensive or restricted.
\nMost studies reviewed assessed the impact of pretreatment processes on the biogas yield on a laboratory scale with a few determining the net energy gain/loss obtained after pretreatment [11, 28, 58]. Most studies in the literature are conducted as lab scale experiments and do not represent the same output that could be achieved through large scale biogas production facilities. Hence, there is a continuous need for newer and cleaner methods of biomass processing with less energy demand and lower waste generation.
\nThis chapter concludes the effect of various biomass pretreatment for enhancement of biogas production and the future challenges for an energy efficient and eco-friendly manner. Therefore, optimizing the pretreatment conditions in order to lower production costs, improving the process performance and production of fewer residues is needed. A pretreatment method optimized based on the above situations may enhance the performance of individual pretreatments and achieve technical, environmental and financial feasibility. However, a further research on combined pretreatments is necessary in the future to get useful information that may lead to the necessary improvements in the AD industry.
\nThe use of nanomaterials as carriers for the administration of drugs and therapeutic agents is gaining increased attention. These nanocarriers are facilely taken up by the cells and are able to deliver the drug to the target site and prevent its rapid clearance or degradation [1]. Although several inorganic (such as iron oxide NPs, noble metal NPs, quantum dots, etc.) and organic (such as liposomes, polymers, dendrimers) nanomaterials have been produced as nanocarriers, each of these classes of nanomaterials has its own set of merits and demerits [2, 3]. Only a few of these nanosized drug carriers have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA); though still, they have some limitations [4].
Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) also referred to as porous coordination polymers (PCPs) are a crystalline class of coordination polymers and were first reported by Bernard F. Hoskins and Richard Robson in 1989 [5, 6]. MOFs are being synthesized in a building block fashion, in which inorganic building units (metal ion vertices or clusters) are interconnected by organic building units (organic linker molecules) by a self-assembly process, to form highly tailorable crystalline materials having pores in the nanometer range [7]. Their unique combination of high porosity, large surface areas, lack of non-accessible bulk volume, a wide range of pore sizes (micro- or mesopores), shapes (cages, channels, etc.) and topologies, tunable and rigid frameworks, easy surface functionalization, and a limitless number of possible combinations of metals and ligands have resulted in a large number of their potential applications [8, 9].
Nanoscale Metal–organic frameworks or Metal–organic framework nanoparticles (NMOFs or MOF NPs), nanoscale counterparts of MOFs are an attractive class of hybrid nanomaterials. These NMOFs not only exhibit the unique features of porous nanomaterials, but they also have benefits over analogous bulk MOFs for a variety of biomedical applications due to their small size. They can offer many advantages over conventional nanocarriers. (i) First, they can be designed to form desired structures with different shapes, sizes and chemical properties allowing for the loading of various therapeutic agents with different functionalities; (ii) next, their large surface area, high porosity, uniform pore size and volume results in high loading efficiency and selective transport; (iii) further, as a result of their somewhat labile metal and ligand coordination bonds, they are intrinsically biodegradable, which prevents their accumulation in the body after their task is achieved; (iv) finally, their surface functionalization by post-synthetic modifications can improve their colloidal stability, thereby prolonging their blood circulation time [10, 11, 12]. Thus, the miniaturization of MOFs to NMOFs has resulted in the development of nanomaterials with great potential to be used as drug delivery systems. The structural flexibility (referred to as “breathing”) and switchability of MOFs is a unique feature not found in other porous materials [13].
This chapter will give the readers an overview of the use of MOFs and NMOFs as potential drug carriers. In the succeeding sections, the basic composition and structure of these porous frameworks and general synthetic routes adopted for their preparation shall be discussed. Commonly used drug incorporation techniques and characterization methods to verify drug association will also be presented. In the final section, a summary of some of the MOFs and NMOFs reported as carriers and for application in the delivery of therapeutic drugs, biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and other active agents employed for light and magnetic field activated therapies, shall be provided.
The design principles of reticular chemistry suggest that deconstruction of a MOF results in four levels of structure [14].
The primary structure reveals the chemical composition of MOF, comprising of a metal ion (generally multivalent) and a polydentate organic linker molecule (topicity i.e., points of extension varying between 2 and 12) [15].
Secondary building units or SBUs, which are mostly formed
The tertiary level involves stitching of multiple SBUs together or two metal ions by bridging linkers (having binding groups like phosphates, carboxylates, imidazolates, etc.), giving rise to an internal framework comprising of pores and channels [15].
The outer morphology (size and shape) or quaternary structure of MOF depends on the synthesis procedure dictating the growth of the internal framework [17].
Figure 1 depicts the above four levels of MOF structure concerning MOF-5.
Structure of MOF-5. (a) Primary structure showing composition: metal ion (Zn2+) and linker (terephthalic acid), (b) secondary structure: SBU, Zn4O(-COO)6, (c) tertiary structure: internal framework formed showing linking of SBUs by the terephthalic acid linker, (d) quaternary structure: overall morphology.
Specialized synthetic routes are a prerequisite to obtaining MOFs in the nano-range, ideal for drug administration. The choice of synthesis protocol determines the final size, crystallinity, morphology, uniformity and stability of NMOF. Figure 2 shows a summary of the most often used approaches.
Schematic representation of various synthetic methods used for the synthesis of NMOFs.
Nanoprecipitation is based on the premise that although the precursors (metal ion and linker) are miscible in the original solvent, the formed nanoparticles are either immiscible or can be precipitated out by adding another solvent in which it is not soluble [18].
Solvothermal synthesis, performed at higher temperatures results in highly crystalline particles and can be used in combination with surfactants to form surfactant-coated stable particles [19].
Reverse microemulsions (sometimes called nanoreactors), which are water-in-oil systems stabilized by appropriate surfactants, can be used as templates to produce monodisperse particles, and size control can be achieved by varying the wo (water: surfactant ratio) value [20].
Other, less commonly used methods include the use of microwaves, ultrasounds, etc. [21, 22]. NMOFs are generally post-synthetically modified or altered to impart them with extra stability, targeting ability, and biocompatibility [23].
Some MOFs possess rigid and permanent pores, whereas others are flexible and can respond to external/internal stimuli such as temperature, light, pH, etc. by changing their pore size [24]. In addition, MOFs have distinct features such as breathing, linker rotation, swelling, and subnetwork displacements, which are important for drug loading and release management [25]. There are many ways to associate a drug with MOF, which may be a medicine, a gene, a protein, an enzyme, or any other agent of therapeutic importance.
The first approach is to carry out the encapsulation of the drug/therapeutic agent during the synthesis of MOF; this method is referred to as one-pot synthesis [26, 27]. This method can be used to entrap one or more drugs larger than the pore size of MOF and prevents its premature leaching.
Another approach is to directly incorporate the prodrug or drug into the framework by using it as a ligand giving higher loading efficiency [28, 29]. The only limitation of this method is that it can lead to loss of therapeutic activity of the incorporated drug.
Smaller drugs/cargos can also be post-synthetically encapsulated by introducing them into a dispersion of MOF in a suitable solvent in which they can subsequently diffuse through channels inside MOF pores [30]. This way the drug can also be physically adsorbed on the outer surface by electrostatic interactions.
Another method is to post-synthetically associate the drug through covalent bonding with functional groups of organic linkers or by the formation of coordination bonds to metal ions present at coordinatively-unsaturated sites (CUSs) [21, 31, 32, 33, 34]. These CUSs present on the MOF surface behave as Lewis acids and solvent molecules at these sites can be replaced by drugs.
Figure 3 gives a schematic illustration of some of these drug-loading techniques. Multimodal and theranostic systems can also be obtained by using one or more loading techniques to incorporate multiple drugs.
(a) One-pot synthesis of ZIF-8 NMOF encapsulating zinc phthalocyanine, a photosensitizer used for PDT. Reproduced with permission from [
Loading of drugs by MOFs can be confirmed by various methods. Spectroscopic techniques such as UV–visible and fluorescence spectroscopy are useful to confirm encapsulation/loading of chromophoric and fluorescent drugs. Encapsulation of zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc), which shows characteristic absorbance peaks at 605 and 670 nm was confirmed by the presence of these peaks in the absorbance spectrum of ZnPc@ZIF-8 but absence in the spectrum of only ZIF-8 [26]. This technique is also helpful to quantify the loaded drug. Determination of Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area and pore volume can also help in verifying successful encapsulation of drug. Nitrogen adsorption analysis of ZIF-90, ZIF-90-DOX, and 5-FU@ZIF-90-DOX showed BET surface areas 1045.7, 890.4, and 48.3 m2/g, respectively. A decrease in BET surface area validated drug loading [34]. Deviations in the TGA curve of drug incorporated MOF are also indicative of drug loading. TGA curve of ZIF-90 showed no significant loss in weight between 300 and 500° C, whereas ZIF-90-DOX showed much larger weight loss in the same temperature range. Zeta potential and hydrodynamic size measurement by dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiments can also confirm the nature of the association of MOF with the drug. Pure ZIF-8 nanospheres had a more positive zeta potential value of +31.4 mV, as compared to +22.9 mV for fluorescein adsorbed ZIF-8 nanospheres. This indicated surface adsorption of negatively charged fluorescein dye on the surface of positively charged nanospheres [35]. A very small change in negative zeta potential value for MIL-100 and DM NPs (DOX loaded MIL-100 NPs) confirmed encapsulation of DOX majorly inside the particle with some surface adsorption [36]. Other techniques such as FT-IR spectroscopy, PXRD, NMR, and electron microscopy techniques such as SEM and TEM are also frequently used for characterizing MOFs, with and without drugs [30, 37, 38, 39].
MOFs are unique inorganic–organic hybrid materials possessing ultrahigh surface area and porosity. They are crystalline, have flexible and rigid frameworks, and also exhibit high chemical and thermal stability. MOFs have been continuously and thoroughly explored and reviewed for numerous applications. Several applications related to MOFs have been reported such as for gas storage and separation, [40, 41, 42] catalysis, [43, 44] sensing, [45] magnetism, [46] and energy [47]. In addition, various biomedical applications have also been reported, including biological sensing, [48] molecular imaging, targeted drug delivery, [21, 49] among others [11].
A large number of side effects are associated with uncontrolled and non-specific drug delivery by direct administration of a free drug inside the body. Great efforts have been made by researchers for the development of methods for targeted, systemic, and controlled drug administration. Nanocarriers have provided a simple and effective solution to this problem. Both organic (such as dendrimers, liposomes, etc.) and inorganic (such as noble metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, silica nanoparticles, etc.) nanocarriers have been reported as potential drug delivery vehicles. Organic nanocarriers such as liposomes are less stable and easily captured by the reticuloendothelial system (RES) once inside the body [50]. Inorganic nanocarriers such as gold, silver, and silica nanoparticles have been reported to be cytotoxic [51]. Inorganic–organic hybrid nanocarriers, such as porous NMOFs, offer many advantages over their pure organic and inorganic counterparts and have established themselves as optimal drug delivery vehicles. In the following subsections, the applications of NMOFs for the delivery and as carriers of therapeutic drugs, biomolecules such as proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and other active agents, shall be discussed briefly.
MOFs, owing to their porous structure have been frequently reported for delivery of therapeutic agents such as analgesics, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer drugs, based on both
S.No. | MOFs/NMOFs | Metal ion | Organic linker | Therapeutic drug | Drug encapsulation method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | MIL-100 | Cr3+ | 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid | Ibuprofen | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [30] |
2. | MIL-101 | Cr3+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Ibuprofen | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [30] |
3. | MIL-53 | Fe3+, Cr3+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Ibuprofen | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [54] |
4. | MOF-5 | Zn2+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Curcumin, Sulindac | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [55] |
5. | ZJU-800 | Zr2+ | F-H2PDA | Diclofenac sodium | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [56] |
6. | M2(olz) | Fe2+, Co+2,Ni+2, Zn2+,Mg2+ | Olsalazine acid | Olsalazine | Direct assembly | [57] |
1. | MIL-101-NH2 | Fe3+ | 2-amino-1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Cidofovir | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [49] |
2. | UiO-66 | Zr4+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Ciprofloxacin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [52] |
3. | MIL-53 | Fe3+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Vancomycin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [58] |
4. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Gentamicin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [59] |
Ciprofloxacin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [60] | ||||
Ceftazidime | One-pot synthesis | [61] | ||||
Tetracycline | One-pot synthesis | [62] | ||||
5. | γ-CD-MOF | K+ | Cyclodextrin | Enrofloxacin, Florfenicol | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [63] |
6. | Bio-MOF | Mg2+, Mn2+ | Nalidixic acid | Nalidixic acid | Direct assembly | [64] |
1. | MIL-100 | Fe3+ | 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid | Busulfan | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [49] |
Doxorubicin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [65] | ||||
2. | PCN-221 | Zr4+ | TCPP | Methotrexate | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [66] |
3. | NCP-1 | Tb3+ | Disuccinatocisplatin | Cisplatin | Direct assembly | [28] |
4. | MIL-89 | Fe3+ | Muconic acid | Doxorubicin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [49] |
5. | Zn(bix) | Zn2+ | bix | Doxorubicin, Camptothecin, Daunomycin | One-pot synthesis | [67] |
6. | UiO-66 | Zr4+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Alendronate | Covalent bonding | [32] |
7. | HKUST-1 | Cu2+ | 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid | Nimesulide | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [68] |
8. | ZJU-64 | Zn2+-adenine | Terphenyl dicarboxylic acid | Methotrexate | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [69] |
9. | ZIF-67 | Co2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Doxorubicin | One-pot synthesis | [70] |
10. | Imidazole-2-carboxaldehyde | 5-Fluoro uracil | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [34] | ||
Doxorubicin | Covalent bonding | |||||
11. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | 5-Fluoro uracil | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [53] |
Camptothecin Doxorubicin 3-Methyl adenine | One-pot synthesis One-pot synthesis One-pot synthesis | [35] [71] [27] | ||||
12. | MOF-5 | Zn2+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Oridonin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [72] |
Examples of MOFs and NMOFs employed as carriers for therapeutic agents.
MOFs have proven themselves as effective carriers for the delivery of large biomolecules such as proteins, enzymes, DNA, RNA, and carbohydrates and small biomolecules such as amino acids, peptides and nucleotides [73]. These biomolecule-MOF composites protect the biodegradation of these biomolecules inside physiological systems and offer a pathway for their safe delivery. Many diseases are a result of protein deficiencies in the body. Also, nucleic acid and carbohydrates based therapies are gaining increasing interest. Intracellular delivery of these biomolecules using MOFs will help in preserving their bioactivity and they will be able to reach their targets avoiding unwanted side effects. There are many methods to form biomolecule-MOF composites. Post-synthetic pore entrapment is the most used method, in which biomolecules smaller than the cavity size of MOF directly diffuse into the pores of the MOF. Chen et al. have demonstrated the use of mesoporous NU-1000 MOF for the entrapment of insulin with high loading (approximately 40%) to treat diabetes mellitus (type 2) [74]. Surface attachment/adsorption is another method that is relatively easy, and biomolecules of all sizes can be attached/adsorbed on the surface
S.No. | MOFs/NMOFs | Metal ion | Organic Linker | Biomolecule | Incorporation method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | NU-1000 | Zr4+ | 4,4′,4″,4″’-(pyrene-1,3,6,8-tetrayl)tetrabenzoic acid | Insulin | Post-synthetic entrapment | [74] |
2. | Tb-meso MOF | Tb3+ | Triazine-1,3,5-tribenzoic acid | Cytochrome c Microperoxidase-11 | Post-synthetic entrapment Post-synthetic entrapment | [79] [80] |
3. | MOF-74 | Zn2+, Mg2+ | 2,5-dioxido terephthalate | Myoglobin | Post-synthetic entrapment | [81] |
4. | PCN-333 | Al3+ | TATB | Tyrosinase | Post-synthetic entrapment | [82] |
5. | ZIF-90 | Zn2+ | Imidazole-2-carboxaldehyde | Catalase | One-pot synthesis | [77] |
6. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Glucose oxidase, Horseradish peroxidase Hemoglobin Glucose oxidase Melittin | One-pot synthesis One-pot synthesis Biomimetic Mineralization One-pot synthesis | [83] [84] [85] [86] |
7. | Cu-TCCP(Fe) | Cu2+ | TCPP(Fe) | Glucose oxidase | Surface attachment | [87] |
8. | MIL-100 | Fe3+ | 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid | Insulin | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [88] |
b. | ||||||
1. | Hf-DBP | Hf4+ | 5,15-di(p-benzoato) porphyrin | αCD47 | Surface attachment | [75] |
2. | ZIF-90 | Zn2+ | Imidazole-2-carboxaldehyde | H-IgG, G-IgG | One-pot synthesis | [89] |
3. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Nivolumab | Biomimetic mineralization | [90] |
Ovalbumin | One-pot synthesis | [91] | ||||
4. | MIL-100 | Fe3+ | 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid | anti-EpCAM | Surface attachment | [92] |
5. | UiO-AM | Zr4+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid, 2-amino-1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Ovalbumin | Surface attachment | [93] |
6. | Al-MOF | Al3+ | 2-amino-1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Ovalbumin | One-pot synthesis | [94] |
c. Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids | ||||||
1. | IRMOF-74-II | Ni2+ | 3,3′-dihydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid | ss-DNA | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [95] |
2. | UiO-66-N3 | Zr4+ | 2-azido-1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | DBCO-DNA | Covalent linkage | [76] |
3. | UiO-66 | Zr4+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Terminal phosphate modified oligo-nucleotides | Covalent linkage | [31] |
4. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Plasmid DNA | One-pot synthesis | [96] |
5. | MIL-101 | Fe3+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | siRNA | Covalent-linkage | [97] |
1. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Meglumine, Carboxylate dextran Heparin, Hyaluronic acid | Biomimetic mineralization One-pot synthesis | [98] [99] |
2. | MAF-7 | Zn2+ | 3-methyl-1,2,4-triazole | Heparin, Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Dermatan sulfate | One-pot synthesis | [100] |
Examples of biomolecule-MOF composites incorporating biomolecules of biological importance.
Targeted delivery of photoactive compounds such as photosensitizers (dyes, metal nanoparticles/clusters, quantum dots, etc.) incorporated with MOFs and NMOFs can be achieved, preventing their degradation and accumulation in the physiological systems. These compounds are essential for light-activated novel therapies such as photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). Xu et al. incorporated a hydrophobic porphyrin-based dye, zinc phthalocyanine inside the pores of ZIF-8 for PDT [26]. Sharma et al. synthesized a bioactive MOF, MB/Cu-GA, for simultaneous PDT and drug delivery. Gallic acid (GA), an anti-cancer agent was directly incorporated into the MOF framework, and the photosensitizer, methylene blue (MB) was post-synthetically encapsulated [101]. Magnetic nanoparticles can also be encapsulated or decorated on the surface of MOF for magneto-cytolytic therapy (magnetic hyperthermia). Chen et al. prepared Fe3O4@PDA@ZIF-90 loaded with DOX nanocomposites for combined magnetic hyperthermia and chemotherapy [102]. Table 3 summarizes some of the examples of MOFs employed for the delivery of photosensitizers and magnetic nanoparticles.
S. No. | MOFs/NMOFs | Metal ion | Organic linker | Active agent | Incorporation method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Zinc phthalo-cyanine Chlorin e6 Au nano-clusters | One-pot synthesis One-pot synthesis One-pot synthesis | [26] [103] [104] |
2. | MIL-101-NH2 | Fe3+ | 2-amino-1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Black P quantum dots | One-pot synthesis | [105] |
3. | DBC-UiO | Hf4+ | 5,15-di(p-benzoato) chlorin | DBC | Direct assembly | [29] |
4. | Cu-GA | Cu2+ | Gallic acid | Methylene blue | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [101] |
1. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Cyanine Graphene quantum dots Au nano-stars | One-pot synthesis Surface attachment One-pot synthesis | [106] [107] [108] |
2. | UiO-66 | Zr4+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Polyaniline | Surface attachment | [109] |
3. | MIL-53 | Fe3+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Polypyrrole nano-particles | Post-synthetic encapsulation | [110] |
1. | ZIF-8 | Zn2+ | 2-methyl imidazolate | Fe3O4 nano-particles | One-pot synthesis | [102] |
2. | Fe-MOF | Fe3+ | 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid | Fe3O4 nano-particles | Surface attachment | [111] |
Examples of NMOFs and MOFs as carriers of active agents for novel therapies.
This chapter gives a general perspective regarding the use of metal–organic frameworks as drug carriers, in terms of their composition, structure, synthesis, procedures to incorporate drugs and characterization techniques. MOFs are highly porous frameworks with large surface area, made up of repeating units, and generally synthesized by solvothermal and non-solvothermal methods. Therapeutic agents and drugs can be encapsulated, post synthetically attached on the surface, or directly incorporated into the framework. Apart from these compounds, functional biomolecules can also be incorporated with MOFs for the possible treatment of various diseases and therapies. Due to their distinct physicochemical properties, MOFs and NMOFs are gaining prominence for various applications. MOFs have already established themselves as efficient systems for gas storage and separation. Their use as potential drug carriers is relatively new. The available work done by researchers around the world for utilizing these porous frameworks as carriers for drugs will help in synthesizing and designing MOF-drug composites in the future, that can successfully be used for real-world applications.
Ashi Mittal acknowledges fellowship support from the University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"56330",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69932",title:"Russian Scientific Trends on Specific Language Impairment in Childhood",slug:"russian-scientific-trends-on-specific-language-impairment-in-childhood",totalDownloads:1941,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In Russia, there are many decades of experience in the scientific study of the problem of impaired language development in children. Today, the term “Systemic speech-and-language underdevelopment (SLU)” has firmly established in Russian science and practice, implying a complex developmental disorder of speech and language in children with a primary normal hearing and a conserved intellect, in which the main components of the language system are violated: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, and, as a consequence, dialogic and monologic speech. Traditionally, a differentiated level-by-level analysis of the speech and language abilities of children is used. The variability of the manifestations and severity of speech-and-language disorders were initially systematized and characterized in four levels of underdevelopment: from the complete absence of phrase speech to the availability of simple and complex sentences with lexico-grammatical errors. Effective algorithms of speech therapist work with SLU are introduced. The effectiveness of the application of these models and algorithms on the material of various language groups is proved.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Tatiana Tumanova and Tatiana Filicheva",authors:[{id:"204529",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Volodarovna",middleName:null,surname:"Tumanova",slug:"tatiana-volodarovna-tumanova",fullName:"Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova"},{id:"208704",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Borisovna",middleName:null,surname:"Filicheva",slug:"tatiana-borisovna-filicheva",fullName:"Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva"}]},{id:"36452",doi:"10.5772/38931",title:"Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology",slug:"qualitative-research-methods-in-psychology",totalDownloads:35854,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"1997",slug:"psychology-selected-papers",title:"Psychology",fullTitle:"Psychology - Selected Papers"},signatures:"Deborah Biggerstaff",authors:[{id:"123274",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Biggerstaff",slug:"deborah-biggerstaff",fullName:"Deborah Biggerstaff"}]},{id:"56560",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70235",title:"The Role of Speech and Language Therapist in Autism Spectrum Disorders Intervention – An Inclusive Approach",slug:"the-role-of-speech-and-language-therapist-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-intervention-an-inclusive-app",totalDownloads:2342,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The chapter describes the possibilities of involving a speech-language therapist in the assessment of the pragmatic level of communication in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), where one of the most frequently impaired areas is communication pragmatics. These difficulties lead to a disruption of social interaction, which might be one of the obstacles to speech-language intervention in these children. The text is based on an originally developed testing material aimed at selected pragmatic-oriented communication situations relating to everyday activities and real life. Based on a comparison of domestic and international resources in this area, as well as mediated and own empirical experience, our assessment approach is based on the conclusion that pragmatics can be understood in different contexts and perspectives. The text presents the results of a partial survey comparing the performance of children with ASD and children with typical development. The assessment focused on the children’s election of the correct picture of a pair of pictures that represent usual communication and social situations. The results of the research suggest fewer incorrect responses in children with ASD and in different areas compared with children with typical development. However, the results of a qualitative analysis indicate a necessity to expand the assessment of communication pragmatics by adding an individually specific qualitative analysis of children’s performance.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Kateřina Vitásková and Lucie Kytnarová",authors:[{id:"203061",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kateřina",middleName:null,surname:"Vitásková",slug:"katerina-vitaskova",fullName:"Kateřina Vitásková"},{id:"212035",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Kytnarová",slug:"lucie-kytnarova",fullName:"Lucie Kytnarová"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73271",title:"Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty",slug:"social-media-and-its-effects-on-beauty",totalDownloads:2991,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Beauty is concerned with physical and mental health as both are intimately related. Short-term decisions to alter one’s body structure irrespective of genetic, environmental, occupational and nutritional needs can leave medium- and long-term effects. This chapter analyzes the role of social media and its effects on the standards of beauty. The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.",book:{id:"7811",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",title:"Beauty",fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments"},signatures:"Mavis Henriques and Debasis Patnaik",authors:[{id:"320016",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mavis",middleName:"Lilian",surname:"Henriques",slug:"mavis-henriques",fullName:"Mavis Henriques"},{id:"320978",title:"Dr.",name:"Debasis",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",slug:"debasis-patnaik",fullName:"Debasis Patnaik"}]},{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6884,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"27237",title:"Emotional Intelligence",slug:"emotional-intelligence",totalDownloads:5728,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"679",slug:"emotional-intelligence-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Emotional Intelligence",fullTitle:"Emotional Intelligence - New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Adrian Furnham",authors:[{id:"85492",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Furnham",slug:"adrian-furnham",fullName:"Adrian Furnham"}]},{id:"70731",title:"Theoretical Perspective of Traditional Counseling",slug:"theoretical-perspective-of-traditional-counseling",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical perspective of traditional counseling from an African context. Traditional counseling involves a broad perspective that enhances learning for transformation and integration of sociocultural values that are peculiar to each human society. A cursory review of the literature suggests that the concept of traditional counseling is rooted in traditional systems of knowledge and sociocultural customs and practices, and it promotes a collective approach to problem identification, resolution, and management. The traditional counseling process centers on four aspects: traditional counselor, client, family, and community. The key elements that inform the theoretical framework of traditional counseling from an African perspective are: cultural context, collective belief system, and initiation rituals Traditional systems of knowledge deemed essential for each generation are passed on successively to the next generation by elderly people who do not only have the necessary wisdom and experience, but are also adorned with social competences and skills.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Hector Chiboola",authors:[{id:"314172",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Chiboola",slug:"hector-chiboola",fullName:"Hector Chiboola"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7678,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"21",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82260",title:"Psychometric Analysis of an Instrument to Study Retention in Engineering",slug:"psychometric-analysis-of-an-instrument-to-study-retention-in-engineering",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105443",abstract:"Although engineering programs admit highly qualified students with strong academic credentials, retention in engineering remains lower than most other programs of study. Addressing retention by modeling student success shows promise. Instruments incorporating noncognitive attributes have proven to be more accurate than those using only cognitive variables in predicting student success. The Student Attitudinal Success Instrument (SASI-I), a survey assessing nine specific noncognitive constructs, was developed based largely on existing, validated instruments. It was designed to collect data on affective (noncognitive) characteristics for incoming engineering students (a) that can be collected prior to the first year and (b) for which higher education institutions may have an influence during students’ first year of study. This chapter will focus on the psychometric analysis of this instrument. Three years of data from incoming first-year engineering students were collected and analyzed. This work was conducted toward investigating the following research questions: Do the scale scores of the instrument demonstrate evidence of reliability and validity, and what is the normative taxonomy of the scale scores of first-year engineering students across multiple years? Further, to what extent did the overall affective characteristics change over the first year of study?",book:{id:"11441",title:"Psychometrics - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11441.jpg"},signatures:"Kenneth J. Reid"},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",abstract:"The word senescence is derived from the Latin word “senex” (meaning old). In biology, senescence is a process by which a cell ages and permanently stops dividing. Senescence is a natural universal phenomenon affecting all living organisms (e.g., humans, animals, and plants). It is the process of growing old (aging). The underlying mechanisms of senescence and aging at the cellular level are not fully understood. Senescence is a multifactorial process that can be induced by several stimuli including cellular stress, DNA damage, telomere shortening, and oncogene activation. The most popular theory to explain aging is the free radical theory. Senescence plays a role in the development of several age-related chronic diseases in humans (e.g., ischemic heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer). Lifespan is a biological characteristic of every species. The lifespan of living organisms ranges from few hours (with mayfly) to potential eternity (with jellyfish and hydra). The maximum theoretical lifespan in humans is around 120 years. The lifespan in humans is influenced by multiple factors including genetic, epigenetic, lifestyle, environmental, metabolic, and endocrine factors. There are several ways to potentially extend the lifespan of humans and eventually surpass the maximum theoretical lifespan of 120 years. The tools that can be proposed include lifestyle, reduction of several life-threatening diseases and disabilities, hormonal replacement, antioxidants, autophagy inducers, senolytic drugs, stem cell therapy, and gene therapy.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati"},{id:"81748",title:"Emotional Creativity",slug:"emotional-creativity",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104544",abstract:"Creativity encompasses and is influenced by several emotions. Emotional creativity is a critical component in the creative process. It is the ability to create something new through the influence of emotions evoked from the personal or experiences of others. Creative works inspired by emotions are often original and greeted with Euphoria. This chapter demonstrates how different emotions inspire different forms and levels of creativity with examples of notable artists who experienced emotional creativity. This chapter discusses research linking emotions to creativity and the explanations of how the identification and regulation of emotions, which are often referred to as emotional intelligence, make a difference in whether creativity becomes useful, helpful, or hurtful. The dark side of creativity, which occurs when creativity becomes hurtful instead of helpful, and research into its causes is also discussed in this chapter. An example of a notable figure in the twentieth century, i.e., Adolf Hitler who masterminded World War II, is used to demonstrate how emotions played a role in this phenomenon. A conclusion alluding to the fact that creativity or creative outcomes are not necessarily bad but the application of creative work and the ability to identify emotions and regulate or control the emotions to drive creative performance validates emotional creativeness.",book:{id:"11303",title:"Creativity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11303.jpg"},signatures:"Cynthia Naa Anyimah Botchway"},{id:"82097",title:"Including Religion in Rational-Emotive Behavior Counseling",slug:"including-religion-in-rational-emotive-behavior-counseling",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104980",abstract:"Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) have been disseminated worldwide. This therapeutic approach is being considered some of the best empirically supported treatments for a large variety of psychological disorders. The core tenet of CBT is to restore mental health and promote psychological well-being by focusing on cognitive dysfunctional patterns that cause emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors. First, a general view of the basic principles and origins of cognitive-behavior therapies constitute the basis on which the chapter is built. Thereafter, a more in-depth discussion on specific forms of CBT, namely cognitive therapy (CT) and rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) provides further support for the integration of religion and psychological intervention. Next, a thorough analysis of the theoretical premises of this integration and the ways in which religious beliefs and psychological mechanisms merge in practice is provided. Finally, the REBT conceptualization, techniques, and strategies are illustrated in a practical situation; here, the relationship between religious beliefs and practices on the one hand, and irrational beliefs, dysfunctional emotions, and maladaptive behaviors, on the other hand, is easy to observe. The example provided aptly illustrates the many ways in which REBT can incorporate religious principles, beliefs, and practices; all of them, advocating for the harmonious relationship between Christian values and REBT.",book:{id:"11305",title:"Counseling and Therapy - Recent Developments in Theories and Concepts",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11305.jpg"},signatures:"Adrian Opre and Bianca Macavei"},{id:"82075",title:"Sexuality and Disability",slug:"sexuality-and-disability",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104325",abstract:"Sexuality and disability is an important topic in our global society. Dismantling myths about sexuality and disability is considered a final frontier for people with disabilities. Dismantling myths about sexuality and disability is vital to the overall health and well-being of people with disabilities. A major aspect of the dismantling process is to acknowledge that sexuality is a significant quality of life determinant for all human beings. This chapter provides information that will promote a healthier and more accurate view of Sexuality and Disability. Dismantling this last frontier involves providing the readership with relevant historical information; information about psychosocial factors and attitudes that influence sexuality; and information about ethical practice guidelines. Information pertaining to sexuality training, specific provider competencies and how select disabilities and chronic illness impact sexuality is also covered in the chapter.",book:{id:"11267",title:"Human Sexuality",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11267.jpg"},signatures:"Danita H. Stapleton, Sekeria V. Bossie, Angela L. Hall and Lovett O. Lowery"},{id:"81962",title:"Gender and Modern-Day Slavery: Aggression and Violence in the Context of a Nigerian Focus",slug:"gender-and-modern-day-slavery-aggression-and-violence-in-the-context-of-a-nigerian-focus",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104727",abstract:"This chapter explored the various forms of gender-based modern-day slavery in Nigeria. Such modern slaveries as baby factories (unlawful maternity and orphanages where children are sold and their mothers serve as ‘economic-slaves, sex-slaves, procreation-slaves, and money-ritual-slaves’), peonage (debt bondage), and early forced marriage were found to be common and on the increase in Nigeria and fundamentally precipitated by patriarchy. The predictors and risk factors of these slavery typologies were supported by the tenets of feminist and political economy theories, which formed the framework. A patriarchal society engenders inequalities, alienation, subjugation, aggression, violence, deprivations, and frustration, with women on the receiving end, when compared to men. The female population is largely the victim, while most perpetrators are males. The new, emerging trend in slavery enterprise are typically organised and largely motivated by women’s vulnerabilities and powerlessness, with dehumanising and destructive consequences. Arising from this is the conclusion that certain cultural practices and socioeconomic forces intertwine with poverty, lack of qualitative education, and other exclusions to expose women and girls to servitudes. The problem requires robust intersectoral approaches—that is, coordinated intervention, programmes, and collaborative efforts between governments and local authorities and institutions—to (re)solve.",book:{id:"11440",title:"Aggression and Violent Behaviour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11440.jpg"},signatures:"Mary Juachi Eteng and Macpherson Uchenna Nnam"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:50},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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