Dexamethasone sodium phosphate-equivalent concentrations in ocular tissues.
\r\n
\r\nCoverage included:
\r\n- Preparation NiO catalyst on FeCrAl Subtrate Using Various Technique at Higher Oxidation Process
\r\n- Electrochemical properties of carbon- supported metal nanoparticle prepared by electroplating methods
\r\n- Fabrication of InGaN-Based Vertical Light Emitting Diodes Using Electroplating
\r\n- Integration Of Electrografted Layers for the Metallization of Deep Through Silicon Vias
\r\n- Biomass adsorbent for removal of toxic metal ions from electroplating industry wastewater
\r\n- Resistant fungal biodiversity of electroplating effluent and their metal tolerance index
\r\n- Experimental design and response surface analysis as available tools for statistical modeling and optimization of electrodeposition processes",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0471-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4991-0",doi:"10.5772/1913",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"electroplating",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"18ec8cf0e50c5e8170a9d0b20af09b7f",bookSignature:"Darwin Sebayang and Sulaiman Bin Haji Hasan",publishedDate:"April 11th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1455.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20875,numberOfWosCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:51,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 13th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"92970",title:"Prof.",name:"Darwin",middleName:null,surname:"Sebayang",slug:"darwin-sebayang",fullName:"Darwin Sebayang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92970/images/3175_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Darwin Sebayang was graduated from Rheinisch Westfaelische \nTechnische Hochschule Aachen- Germany (RWTH Aachen- Germany) on Light Structure. He is a professor in Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. The research focuses on light structure, engineering design and advance material and since five years ago he has been active on development of catalytic converter and exploring the application of electroplating of nickel to FeCrAl for catalytic converter.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tun Hussein Onn University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"121404",title:"Prof.",name:"Sulaiman",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"sulaiman-hasan",fullName:"Sulaiman Hasan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/121404/images/system/121404.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr Sulaiman Haji Hasan has been teaching Manufacturing Engineering since 1980. Graduated in Bachelor of Manufacturing Engineering with Honours from the University of Birmingham , England in 1980, then Master in Advanced Manufacturing System and Technology in the University of Liverpool in 1987. In 1993 he pursued his PhD in Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing at the University Of Birmingham and graduated in 1997. He has been teaching manufacturing in the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn and has also been a Dean for 8 years. He also supervises research and graduates student and also did some consultancy.He has authored and published more than 60 papers in the areas of specialization. He also advised curriculum and course implementation in private higher educational institutions in Manufacturing.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"505",title:"Electrochemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry-electrochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"35381",title:"Preparation of NiO Catalyst on FeCrAl Substrate Using Various Techniques at Higher Oxidation Process",doi:"10.5772/32862",slug:"preparation-of-nio-catalyst-on-fecral-substrate-using-various-techniques-at-higher-oxidation-process",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Darwin Sebayang, Yanuandri Putrasari, Sulaiman Hasan, Mohd Ashraf Othman and Pudji Untoro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35381",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35381",authors:[{id:"92970",title:"Prof.",name:"Darwin",surname:"Sebayang",slug:"darwin-sebayang",fullName:"Darwin Sebayang"}],corrections:null},{id:"35382",title:"Electrochemical Properties of Carbon-Supported Metal Nanoparticles Prepared by Electroplating Methods",doi:"10.5772/33682",slug:"electrochemical-properties-of-carbon-supported-metal-nanoparticles-prepared-by-electroplating-method",totalDownloads:1959,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Misoon Oh and Seok Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35382",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35382",authors:[{id:"96667",title:"Prof.",name:"Seok",surname:"Kim",slug:"seok-kim",fullName:"Seok Kim"},{id:"127730",title:"BSc.",name:"Misoon",surname:"Oh",slug:"misoon-oh",fullName:"Misoon Oh"}],corrections:null},{id:"35383",title:"Fabrication of InGaN-Based Vertical Light Emitting Diodes Using Electroplating",doi:"10.5772/32855",slug:"fabrication-of-ingan-based-vertical-light-emitting-diodes-using-electroplating",totalDownloads:4463,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jae-Hoon Lee and Jung-Hee Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35383",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35383",authors:[{id:"92949",title:"Dr.",name:"Jae-Hoon",surname:"Lee",slug:"jae-hoon-lee",fullName:"Jae-Hoon Lee"},{id:"139589",title:"Prof.",name:"Jung-Hee",surname:"Lee",slug:"jung-hee-lee",fullName:"Jung-Hee Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"35384",title:"Integration of Electrografted Layers for the Metallization of Deep Through Silicon Vias",doi:"10.5772/33948",slug:"integration-of-electrografted-layers-for-the-metallization-of-deep-through-silicon-vias",totalDownloads:2729,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Frederic Raynal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35384",authors:[{id:"91843",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo De Tarso",surname:"Freire",slug:"paulo-de-tarso-freire",fullName:"Paulo De Tarso Freire"},{id:"97913",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronaldo",surname:"Nascimento",slug:"ronaldo-nascimento",fullName:"Ronaldo Nascimento"},{id:"128249",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Fechine",slug:"pierre-fechine",fullName:"Pierre Fechine"},{id:"128256",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Sousa",slug:"francisco-sousa",fullName:"Francisco Sousa"},{id:"128257",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Neto",slug:"vicente-neto",fullName:"Vicente Neto"},{id:"128515",title:"Prof.",name:"Raimundo",surname:"Teixeira",slug:"raimundo-teixeira",fullName:"Raimundo Teixeira"},{id:"128519",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Araujo-Silva",slug:"marcos-araujo-silva",fullName:"Marcos Araujo-Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"35385",title:"Biomass Adsorbent for Removal of Toxic Metal Ions From Electroplating Industry Wastewater",doi:"10.5772/32670",slug:"biomass-adsorbent-for-removal-of-toxic-metal-ions-from-electroplating-industry-wastewater",totalDownloads:4876,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira do. Nascimento, Francisco Wagner de Sousa, Vicente Oliveira Sousa Neto, Pierre Basílio Almeida Fechine, Raimundo Nonato Pereira Teixeira, Paulo de Tarso C. Freire and Marcos Antônio Araujo-Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35385",authors:[{id:"92284",title:"Dr.",name:"Arifa",surname:"Tahir",slug:"arifa-tahir",fullName:"Arifa Tahir"}],corrections:null},{id:"35386",title:"Resistant Fungal Biodiversity of Electroplating Effluent and Their Metal Tolerance Index",doi:"10.5772/34624",slug:"resistant-fungal-biodiversity-of-electroplating-effluent-and-their-metal-tolerance-index",totalDownloads:1792,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Arifa Tahir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35386",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35386",authors:[{id:"100986",title:"Prof.",name:"Lilian",surname:"Senna",slug:"lilian-senna",fullName:"Lilian Senna"},{id:"103371",title:"Prof.",name:"Aderval",surname:"Luna",slug:"aderval-luna",fullName:"Aderval Luna"}],corrections:null},{id:"35387",title:"Experimental Design and Response Surface Analysis as Available Tools for Statistical Modeling and Optimization of Electrodeposition Processes",doi:"10.5772/34310",slug:"experimental-design-and-response-surface-analysis-as-available-tools-for-statistical-modeling-and-op",totalDownloads:2755,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"Lilian F. Senna and Aderval S. Luna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35387",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35387",authors:[{id:"99593",title:"Dr.",name:"Frederic",surname:"Raynal",slug:"frederic-raynal",fullName:"Frederic Raynal"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"21",title:"Ferroelectrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"ferroelectrics",bookSignature:"Indrani Coondoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/21.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"289832",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrani",surname:"Coondoo",slug:"indrani-coondoo",fullName:"Indrani Coondoo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2549",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5d70a346ca433c501e5968f54286740",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2549.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2282",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",subtitle:"Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"17fb7c8076806f6aca457071b7e7ce10",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",bookSignature:"Victor Bellitto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2282.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111789",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Bellitto",slug:"victor-bellitto",fullName:"Victor Bellitto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5381",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Progress and Developments in",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e87c37c4d014c11121453605e6d0f37a",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",bookSignature:"Scott Handy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5381.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42658",title:"Prof.",name:"Scott",surname:"Handy",slug:"scott-handy",fullName:"Scott Handy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"607",title:"Electropolymerization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0457c6cc64766bdd64f8195b8e22afb1",slug:"electropolymerization",bookSignature:"Ewa Schab-Balcerzak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73293",title:"Dr.",name:"Ewa",surname:"Schab-Balcerzak",slug:"ewa-schab-balcerzak",fullName:"Ewa Schab-Balcerzak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1431",title:"Recent Trend in Electrochemical Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ec6b0bf8c309891f70a9c181399984e",slug:"recent-trend-in-electrochemical-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Ujjal Kumar Sur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1431.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27764",title:"Dr.",name:"Ujjal Kumar",surname:"Sur",slug:"ujjal-kumar-sur",fullName:"Ujjal Kumar Sur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"159",title:"Superconductivity",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb0587d06c5516fc4e3c89818b9b17e6",slug:"superconductivity-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Adir Moyses Luiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/159.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10012",title:"Dr.",name:"Adir",surname:"Luiz",slug:"adir-luiz",fullName:"Adir Luiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4599",title:"Ion Exchange",subtitle:"Studies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e45cfed818bc38f70a214561b0a1e21",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3476",title:"Developments in Electrochemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0d070ce0c17777f7605b91a0beac07e",slug:"developments-in-electrochemistry",bookSignature:"Jang H. Chun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3476.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang Ho",surname:"Chun",slug:"jang-ho-chun",fullName:"Jang Ho Chun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1430",title:"Electrochemical Cells",subtitle:"New Advances in Fundamental Researches and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d6940c11056ad45b64997133a536a0f",slug:"electrochemical-cells-new-advances-in-fundamental-researches-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yan Shao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39811",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",surname:"Shao",slug:"yan-shao",fullName:"Yan Shao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68579",slug:"corrigendum-to-industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",title:"Corrigendum to: Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68579.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68579",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68579",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68579",chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10286",leadTitle:null,title:"GaAs (Gallium arsenide)",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tGallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a compound semiconductor. It is a mixture of two elements Gallium (Ga) and Arsenic (As). Its forms group 3 to 5 in the periodic table. GaAs consider one of the most important materials in semiconductors.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will explain in detail the physical and chemical properties of this material which makes it important. Furthermore, we will explain the importance of GaAs in the electronics industry and its importance for the market value and electronics economy in general. Then, we will explain the usage of GaAs in the optics and photonics fields because it heavily used in LED and LASER fabrication either as substrate or Quantum will layers. Last but not least we will define the GaAs growth technics either by using MBE or MOCVD and how important making GaAs wafer and define the fabrication lines for the material. It will be an important book in the fabrication field especially for the GaAs.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b34f31143472ad055c9870ac9be8666d",bookSignature:"Prof. Thamer Tabbakh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10286.jpg",keywords:"Semiconductors, Group 3 to 5, Physical Characteristics, Chemical Properties, Industry, Market Value, LED, Laser, Wells, Q Dots, MBE, MOCVD",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Tabbakh completed his master's and Ph.D. at CREOL- UCF which is considered as the top 10 optics and photonics college in the united state, he is currently working at KACST which is considered as the largest research institution in Saudi Arabia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"318912",title:"Prof.",name:"Thamer",middleName:null,surname:"Tabbakh",slug:"thamer-tabbakh",fullName:"Thamer Tabbakh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318912/images/system/318912.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59335",title:"Control Charts to Enhance Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73237",slug:"control-charts-to-enhance-quality",body:'\nQuality is regarded as an important build-in feature of a product, whose function is to fit ones needs, while showing no defects. In addition to this, the price has to be right, so that the product may serve its designed life span. Another aspect of quality is that the product has to show the user a favorable characteristic while used other than the aim of the user to buy the product. When all the mentioned measures are met within the product, it may be regarded as a quality product.
\nSome types of production are done by one person, let us say a tailor; this person is responsible of every step of the product either machine performed, or by hand. As such, that person would take care of any defects as soon as these occur. In addition to this, that one person would add or deduct so-called “excitement” features in the product according to the consumer’s taste. This kind of production is called the mentor-protege type. Henry Ford introduced and implemented mass production, where every step of the production is done by someone else with a different machine. Since many people and machines are involved in the production, the chance of deviations and defects increases and may cause quality-specific problems. Furthermore, since the operators do not know who the consumer they are producing for in mass production, research and development departments were created to fulfill the “excitement” features, since this work had to be done by other people than the operator; additionally, research and development departments serve to aim produced goods to different markets.
\nIn order to effectively manage and eliminate quality-specific problems, a number of quality control methods were developed. The following encapsulates some of these:
Quality control,
Total quality control,
Total quality management,
Quality management,
Quality improvement,
Six-sigma quality management, etc.
Statistical quality control is used widely in the modern business world. Indeed, control charts are deemed as one of the primary techniques to enhance quality. Gathering data to prepare a control chart is done according to many national and international standards like British Standards (BS), American Standards (ASTM), German Standards (DIN), Turkish Standards (TSE), etc. Variations in due time or sample order are examined by control charts in order to keep production under control according to the product’s desired properties. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the arising benefits of using control charts and elaborate their impetus on industrial case studies such as to keep production under control, to eliminate defects, and to increase profit, if not, a full understanding of what is going on in production or service will not be conceived.
\nA process is a system of bonds worked altogether to produce a specific outcome or factors which affect the production and the quality of a product or a function. In order a process to achieve the intended result, the causes of the mentioned process have to be kept under control. To this end, control charts are used [1]. The latter is prepared with numerical data of a particular characteristic of the product, which is controlled. Additionally, control charts provide visual support about the deviations in the characteristics [2]. In doing so, they prevent the formation of defects and increase and develop the efficiency of the processes.
\nQuality improvement tools are mainly process flow diagrams, cause-and-effect (fishbone) diagrams, check sheets, histograms, scatter plots, Pareto diagrams, and control charts. The aim of this chapter is to focus on the use of only the control charts and provide a qualitative and quantitative insight. As such, it will present industrial cases regarding their use and type. In addition to this, it will discuss on how they are designed, prepared, and interpreted together with research concerning control charts.
\nIn doing so, this work will include:
Presentation of control charts in the area of quality control;
Design of a control chart;
Types of control charts;
General guidelines to prepare control charts;
Control charts for variables, that is, individual measurements control charts, means control charts, ranges control charts, and standard deviation control charts with industrial applications;
Control charts for attributes, that is, control charts for fraction nonconforming, control charts for the number of nonconforming items, control charts for conformities per unit, and control charts for nonconformities with industrial applications;
Special cases for control charts;
Interpretation of control charts;
Research on control charts.
Control charts provide higher efficiency in production, decrease defects and faulty production, increase profit, and diminish costs. These are some of the reasons why control charts are widely used in industry. Indeed, their area of application is quite wide and covers nearly everything from service organizations and providers to financial consulting offices, as well as in various other applications in daily life.
\nIt is worth mentioning at this point that in nature as well as in service and production companies, no two products of the same substance are exactly the same. This implies that at least two of the same substance or characteristic are always different, or at least there is a small difference between them. This, however, is normal as long as it affects small variations. To produce every piece in a lot exactly to the specified nominal characteristic is both hard and costly. The measurements of some quality characteristic like length, width, temperature, weight, etc., vary slightly and maybe unavoidable. This variability depends on equipment, machinery, materials, equipment, environment, people, etc., and is acceptable. These types of variability are referred to as “normal”, “random”, or “natural”.
\nIn view of the above, it is preferred that the variability has to be reduced as much as possible in the process, if it is not eliminated. The distances of the points from the mean line give the user information about its variability. There are chance causes of variation in statistical control, but there are also assignable causes which are not a part of the chance causes. These show important, large, and unusual differences. The reasons for this may be:
Material is taken from a different lot,
The machine setter makes a new setting,
Any kind of “operator error”.
The above may cater for the “abnormal” or “unnatural” variations. In a production where the aim is to achieve quality and to meet the consumers’ requirements, the presence of assignable causes may draw the process out-of-control. Since the objective of studied quality characteristic is to be stable and repeatable, the occurrence of assignable causes must be detected instantly and the investigation of the process and corrective action ought to take place before further nonconforming units are manufactured. Control charts are widely used in order to interpret the variability a characteristic possesses between nominal and actual settings. The differences between “normal” and “abnormal” variations are detected, and the characteristic is kept under control by taking all the necessary measures. The purpose of control charts in quality control is prevention, which is better than cure [3].
\nThe amount of variation to be allowed in any manufacturing process is of paramount importance. It is impossible to examine the records of past data and evaluate data by looking and thinking without doing statistical calculations.
\nIn some factories, technical staff checks out the data and estimates on an ad hoc level the limits of the process. These may be too wide or too narrow, which in turn, may be both affecting the production negatively causing it to go out-of-control. If the limits are too wide, the process will posses an excess of variation; if it is too narrow, extra work may be required so as to maintain set limits. It is worth noting at this point, both of them prevent corrective action to take place which is suitable for production. On the other hand, when the limits are calculated on a scientific basis, the exact amount of expected variation in a product will be determined and will be confidently used, so guesswork will be eliminated [4]. Examples for limits can be seen in Figures 6–12.
\nShewhart developed the control charts first in 1924 and are as such called Shewhart control charts. The usage of control charts became common as its benefits were recognized in due time. Its benefits can be listed as:
Knowing how the production proceeds,
Diminishing costs,
Increasing production by doing it right the first time so to prevent defects,
Being aware of the effects of raw material, machine, worker, and environmental factors by analyzing the patterns occurring on the control chart
Saving time by preventing the error of searching for special reasons that effect the processes even they do not exist;
Making it easier to find the factors that negatively affect the process;
Used to seek if the desired efficiency of a machine is achieved;
Useful in decreasing the variations in a product or in a process;
Useful in decreasing the number of rejected pieces or waste;
Ensuring to decrease the cost of testing and control;
Enabling the specifications and orders at a more realistic level;
Helpful in making the processes more stable;
Advantageous in preparation of reports near to real about the processes or operations to present to the managers;
Expedient in keeping sensitive and reliable records;
Used in deciding the renewal time of the production machines;
Substantial reference in research and development practices;
Helpful in cost and financial analysis;
Used in stocks control [5].
The areas where control charts can be used are areas such as production-not least on say, count of the yarn or the weight of fabric in textiles, costs, sales, circulation of workers, material, chemicals, etc., in a certain period of time.
\nQuality control charts are statistical technique tools which have a wide application in scientific research, in industry, and even in daily life. This concept makes the use of control charts as important as cost control and material control. Information about the design and types of control charts and general guidelines to prepare control charts, and the likes are given below.
\nA control chart is a graph mainly derived from a normal distribution curve. The y-axis denotes a quality characteristic or a particular characteristic of the product or process, which is controlled and is marked in units, in which the test value is expressed. The x-axis consists of time intervals or sample number. There is a center line, which is the average of the value of the studied matter or may also indicate the nominal value. The upper boundary characterizes the upper control limit (UCL), while the lower designates the lower control limit (LCL), respectively. The gathered data are plotted in sequence, and then, the pattern occurring on the chart is interpreted. A sample of a control chart is given in Figure 1.
\nSample of a control chart.
As can be seen from Figure 1, there is a close relationship between the normal distribution curve and the control chart. Control charts are constructed on the basis of expanding the sigma limits above and below of the mean. By taking a deeper look, it can be expressed that expansion of 1.962\n
Warning and action limits for large samples.
Warning and action limits for small samples.
The center line of a control chart stands from the past data or new data got from the measurements in the process or applied from what the consumer wants. If the clients have specified limits for their orders, production has to be done according to the specification limits of the client. In this case, the UCL and LCL have to be in the specification limits (Figure 4). If the control limits take place out of the specification limits (Figure 4), then that is an undesirable condition because the product will be manufactured with a quality characteristic range that the client does not want, thus resulting in an inferior quality product.
\nPlacement of UCL and LCL according to specification limits.
3\n
Representation of 99.73% probability.
Control charts are quality technique tools that may trigger an alarm. If a value exceeds the warning limit above or below, production may continue, but the reason for this variation must be investigated and corrective action must be taken.
\nIn obtaining data from a process, sampling is performed by using small sample sizes. Concerning small samples, sensitivity of the control chart is increased by statistical methods, and the warning limit and the action limit are combined to be expressed as UCL and LCL. So, if a value gets close to one of these limits, it is understood that it is not needed to stop production but search for the reason of this variation and to correct it. Likewise, if a value crosses one of these limits, action has to be taken and production must be stopped before searching. Sensitivity, sample size, and sampling frequency (specific and equal time intervals) are important factors regarding the performance of the control chart. Sampling frequency must be in accordance with the production processes.
\nControl charts have two main types according to the way the values used are obtained. Values can be obtained by measuring on a numerical scale, that is, counting, calculating, by using a testing instrument, or by deriving proportions of judgments. If they are conforming or nonconforming, one would look at their certain attributes they have to possess so as to express a case. If the values used are obtained by measuring, then they are called control charts for variables. If the values used are obtained by deriving proportions, then they are called control charts for attributes. These charts apply for different process-specific cases in processes, so that each can be evaluated on its own.
\nEach type has different kinds of control charts particularly for the case studied. The most important kinds of control charts for variables are mainly
\nIndividual measurements control chart (x),
Means control chart (\n
Ranges control chart (R),
Standard deviation control chart (s).
Others are s2 control chart, moving range control charts, and regression control chart. The main kinds of control charts for attributes are foremost p-, np-, u-, and c-control charts. Others are standardized control charts, g control charts, and h control charts.
\nThere are control charts for special uses in literature which can be listed as cumulative sum control charts, moving average control chart, x-bar and R-control charts for short production runs, attributes control charts for short production runs, modified and acceptance control charts, group control charts for multiple-stream processes, chi-square control chart, difference control charts, control charts for contrasts, run sum and zone control charts, adaptive control charts, moving average control charts, residual control charts, control charts for six-sigma processes, acceptance control charts, T2 control charts, Hotelling T2 control charts, Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) control charts, exponentially weight means square control charts, multivariate EWMA control charts, one-sided EWMA control charts, moving centerline EWMA control charts, and one-sided CUSUM control chart [7].
\nSteps to prepare control charts in general are as follows:
Obtain a set of values;
Decide which kind of a control chart to prepare;
Do the needed calculations;
Draw the control chart;
Plot the values in Step 1 on the control chart;
Continue to plot the new values collected in due time on the chart;
Interpret the pattern occurring on the chart.
It is apparent from the last step, as the production proceeds, new values accumulate and these new values should be plotted on the same control chart with the UCL and LCL calculated from the first values of the same production. This procedure guarantees that the properties of the first products and the rest lie in the same control limits.
\nIn the first preparation of the control chart, if an assignable cause is found in the data collected, that point is discarded and the trial control limits are recalculated, using only the remaining points.
\nControl charts for variables are widely used because they enable more effectual control and provide more information about the performance of the processes. These charts are preferred because they provide the user with an estimation of the central tendency and the distribution of the studied case [8]. The most commonly used ones as stated above are individual measurements control chart (x), means control chart (\n
Control charts prepared with individual measurements are called individual measurements control charts. These charts are used in cases where only one value measured on a numerical scale is to be defined, that is, counting, calculating, or with a testing instrument. Examples would be the number of workers for successive months, paid taxes over years (in economics), effective staple length for similar fiber batches, fiber fineness obtained from air flow principle (in textiles), etc. [9].
\nPreparation steps for an X control chart are:
There has to be at least 10 values, 20 is better, but if there is a large time gap between obtaining the values 8 serves as well;
Average value of X (\n
The absolute value of the differences between two consecutive values of X is called the moving range. Moving range (MR) is calculated and average of MR (\n
UCL and LCL are calculated by \n
Control chart lines are drawn with the center line (\n
The values used in calculation are plotted on the chart;
The values coming up in due time are plotted on the same chart and interpreted as will be explained later.
An application of the X chart to yarn irregularity quality characteristic (U%) of the Kaynak Group Cotton Yarn Factory’s regular measurements is given in Figure 6 [10].
\nApplication of X chart to yarn irregularity quality characteristic (U%) of the Kaynak group cotton yarn factory’s regular measurements.
When sampling is done, n-repeats are taken at once to analyze the case under study in specified intervals. Control charts prepared with the means of the samples taken at once are called means control charts. These charts are used in cases where repeated measurements on a numerical scale of small sample sizes are done. Sample size is usually 5. Means of the samples possess a normal distribution. The basis of this system depends on finding how close the means of the samples measured are to the nominal or average value. Examples would be yarn count, fabric weight per unit area (in textiles), etc.
\nPreparation steps for an X-bar (\n
There has to be at least 10 different repeated measurement groups of a sample size of 5; 12 is better, but it should never be 8;
Mean of sample size (usually 5) is calculated for each different repeated measurement group, where each mean of sample size is indicated as \n
Range is the difference between the maximum and the minimum value in a sample (like size of 5). Range (R) for each sample size is calculated;
The averages of \n
UCL and LCL are calculated by \n
Control chart lines are drawn with the center line (\n
The values calculated in Step 2 (\n
The values coming up in due time are plotted on the same chart and interpreted as will be explained later.
An application of \n
Application of \n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n chart to yarn maximum breaking strength quality characteristic (gf) of the Kaynak group cotton yarn factory’s regular measurements.
Control charts prepared with the range values are called range control charts. These charts are used together with means control charts (\n
The preparation steps for a R-control chart are:
The same R values obtained in Step 3 of \n
The same average of R (\n
The UCL is calculated by D4 \n
Control chart lines are drawn with the center line (\n
The values used in Step 1 are plotted on the chart;
The values coming up in due time are plotted on the same chart and interpreted [9].
When interpreting the pattern occurring on the R-control chart, it is ideal when the points are located near to the LCL.
\nAn application of R chart to yarn maximum breaking strength quality characteristic (gf) of the Kaynak Group Cotton Yarn Factory’s regular measurements is given in Figure 8.
\nApplication of R chart to yarn maximum breaking strength quality characteristic (gf) of the Kaynak group cotton yarn factory’s regular measurements.
Control charts prepared with the standard deviation values are called standard deviation control charts. These charts are used together with the means control charts (\n
It is suggested here to use \n
The preparation steps for a s-control chart are similar with range control charts, that is, average value of s (\n
An application of the s chart to yarn maximum breaking strength quality characteristic (gf) of the Kaynak Group Cotton Yarn Factory’s regular measurements is given in Figure 9.
\nApplication of s chart to yarn maximum breaking strength quality characteristic (gf) of the Kaynak group cotton yarn Factory’s regular measurements.
Control charts for attributes are used in cases, where the studied matter is not represented by measuring on a numerical scale but defined as a conforming (nondefective) or nonconforming (defective) to specifications. Then, different proportions suitable to each case are obtained, and control charts are drawn. The most commonly used ones as stated above are control chart for fraction nonconforming (p), control chart for the number of nonconforming items (np), control chart for conformities per unit (u), and control chart for nonconformities (c).
\nControl charts are developed by dividing the amount of nonconforming pieces to the total production amount are called p-control charts. The p-control charts possess binomial distribution. Since the total amount will be changing from one lot, batch, or party to the other, proportions are used to bring all to the same denominator. In the case where p charts will be used, 100% of the production must be controlled, otherwise the nonconformities which are not controlled may reach the end user. Examples would be the proportion of number of defective skirts to total produced skirts in 1 day, the proportion of number of defective yarn cones to total produced cones in one shift (in textiles), etc.
\nThe preparation steps for a p-control chart are:
There has to be at least 10 values;
The proportions (p) are calculated by dividing the nonconformity amount to the total amount;
The average value of p (\n
The UCL and LCL are calculated by \n
The control chart lines are drawn with the center line (\n
An application of the p chart to nonconforming pants in the Çağla Textile Ready-wear Factory’s regular measurements is given in Figure 10 [11].
\nApplication of p chart to nonconforming pants in the Çağla textile ready-wear Factory’s regular measurements.
Control charts prepared with the number of nonconforming items is called a np-control chart. A proportion is not done because the total production amount in these cases is the same in every day or shift, etc. There is no need to divide like in p-control charts every time. Examples would be the number of defective skirts in 1 day for a constant produced amount, the number of defective yarn cones in one shift for a constant produced amount (in textiles), etc.
\nThe preparation steps for a np-control chart are similar with the p-control charts, that is, the average value of np (n\n
An application of the np chart to the nonconforming skirts in the Çağla Textile Ready-wear Factory’s regular measurements is given in Figure 11.
\nApplication of np chart to nonconforming skirts in the Çağla textile ready-wear factory’s regular measurements.
Control charts prepared with the number of nonconformities per unit are called u-control charts. The unit here is different from the production amount mentioned in the p- and np- charts, being changing or constant, respectively. The unit here is the restricting factor, where the main pronounced value is the nonconformity. A unit may be length, weight, etc. As such, it is mentioned as number of defects per unit length or number of conformities per unit weight, facilitating the status change of the unit.
\nThe number of nonconformities is divided to the unit to find the “per unit” value of the defects to bring all to the same comparison ground. An example would be the number of defects per 100 m length of fabric (fixed width) (in textiles).
\nThe preparation steps for a u- control chart are:
There has to be at least a set of 10 values;
The number of defects per unit is calculated for a specified unit for every value;
The average value of u (\n
The UCL and LCL are calculated by \n
The control chart lines are drawn with the center line (\n
When interpreting the pattern occurring on the u-control chart, it would be preferably when the points are located near to the LCL.
\nApplications of u charts to defects in fabrics of fixed width in the Özer Textile Weaving Factory’s regular measurements are given in Figure 12 [12].
\nApplication of u charts to defects in fabrics of fixed width in the Özer textile weaving factory’s regular measurements. (a) Application of u chart to thin weft yarn defect calculated per 100 m. Of fabric (considered normal), (b) application of u chart to thick warp yarn defect calculated per 100 m of fabric (gives alarm).
The control charts prepared with the number of nonconformities per constant unit are called c-control charts. The unit here is again the restricting factor, where the main pronounced value is the nonconformity. In these cases, the unit will be constant for all the data collected. There is no need to divide every time, since they are all on the same ground of comparison. Examples would be the imperfections (thick place in yarn, thin place in yarn, and neps) in yarn (number of an imperfection per 1 km. of yarn; in textiles).
\nThe preparation steps for a c- control chart are similar with the u-control charts, that is, the average value of c (\n
The applications of c charts in the Gülçağ Textile Yarn Factory and the Yıldırımlar Printing & Dying Factory are given in Figure 13.
\nApplication of a c chart. (a) Applications of c chart to thin place imperfection per 1 km, of yarn in the Gülçağ textile yarn Factory’s regular measurements [13], (b) applications of c chart to spot defects per fixed fabric roll of 80 m. In the Yıldırımlar printing & dying factory’s regular measurements [14].
This chapter will detail and analyze industrial applications of control charts for variables and attributes.
\nControl charts are widely used in industry nowadays. The information obtained from them helps production to be monitored effectively. Some examples of control charts for variables taken from industry are given in Figures 14–17.
\nIndividual measurements control chart for the number of rolls daily of Sarıkılıç.
Individual measurements control chart for the production weight daily of Sarıkılıç textile nonwoven factory.
Means control chart, ranges control chart, and standard deviation control chart for open-end yarns’ hairiness values of the Kaynak group yarn factory.
Means control chart, ranges control chart, and standard deviation control chart for nonwoven thickness values of the Sarıkılıç textile nonwoven factory.
Individual measurements control charts for number of rolls of nonwoven fabric and daily production weight of Sarıkılıç Textile Nonwoven Factory are given in Figures 14 and 15, respectively. By observing mentioned figures, one might see that at the beginning, both the number of rolls and production weight are high, but toward the end, even the number of rolls are near to average and production weight is high. This is because the weight of the unit area of nonwoven fabric increased. This is a typical case seen in textile factories, and as such, it can be said that production is under control.
\nIn Figure 16, the means control chart, ranges control chart, and standard deviation control chart are given for open-end yarns’ hairiness values, which are supplied from Kaynak Group Yarn Factory. A closer look at the charts may reveal an improvement in hairiness values, as the production proceeded but for a short time. The factory searched for the reason of this improvement and found out that it was because of the better condition of air suction and applied that condition afterward.
\nIn Figure 17, means control chart, ranges control chart, and standard deviation control chart are given for nonwoven thickness of nonwoven fabric values of the Sarıkılıç Textile Nonwoven Factory. It is seen in the charts that the thickness values have increased. The same applies to the range and standard deviation values too. The factory searched for the reason, and it was determined that different unit weights of nonwoven rolls were plotted on the same charts and were corrected.
\nSome examples of control charts for attributes applied in industry are given in Figures 18-21.
\np control chart for nonconforming socks in different amounts of production in the Tekstüre textile socks factory.
np-control chart for nonconforming socks in constant amount of production in the Tekstüre textile socks factory.
u-control chart for double weft fault in different lengths of fabric rolls in the Ne-Ke textile weaving factory.
c-control chart for cracks in dying department of the Özer textile weaving factory.
In the Tekstüre Textile Socks Factory in İstanbul, there are nonconforming socks produced during manufacturing. A p-control chart for nonconforming socks in different amounts of production is given in Figure 18. As can be seen in the figure, there is an increase in nonconformities toward the end. The factory searched for the underlying reason and found out that new employees had not taken enough training regarding socks production. A np-control chart for nonconforming socks in constant amount of production is given in Figure 19. As depicted in the figure, there is a decrease in nonconformities toward the end. The factory searched for its reason and found out that new machines were bought, which had started production.
\nIn the Ne-Ke Textile Weaving Factory, there is a double weft fault in weaving of bed placemats. A u-control chart for different lengths of fabric rolls is given in Figure 20. As seen in the figure, the pattern seemed normal, and the factory did not take any action for this case. In Figure 21, a c-control chart is given for the cracks occurred in the dying department of the Özer Textile Weaving Factory. By observing the corresponding figure, it can be seen that there is a sharp increase and then a fall. The factory searched for its reason and found that the worker had forgotten to add the anticrack chemical into the dying bath in the night shift and gave more training to the worker.
\nSome special cases for control charts are listed below:
The formulae for calculation of the UCL and LCL change in \n
If there are variable sample sizes, then the UCL and the LCL will be varying also and another approach to dealing with variable sample size is to use a “standardized” control chart
There can be subgroups for a case studied in the control chart. An example would be individual machines producing the same lot, yarn producing machines or fabric producing machines. In this case, there may be different control charts to control every machine under control even if they produce the same lot
Process capability analysis can be done using a control chart
There may be variable sample sizes on control charts
There may be variable sampling interval on control charts
The details for these special cases are not included here.
\nThe distribution of the points on a control chart is important, and the patterns occurring on the control chart have to be examined and interpreted. Since the values distribute at a distance around the mean value and support visually the variation in the spread of the test results, they provide useful information about the process so as to make modifications in order to reduce variability. For interpreting the control charts, the principles of the control charts have to be known, and their users must be familiar with the process. It is the author’s view that during the interpretation of control charts, not only statistics but also experience and common sense have to be combined with it. If there is a run toward the warning limit, this may suggest that a change has to be made. On the other hand, a similar run would also mean that a change in time may prevent the next item from lying outside the limits. This has to be evaluated for every occasion on its own.
\nTwo examples of a typical control chart where production is under control or a normal behavior is noticed is seen in Figure 22.
\nTwo examples of a typical control chart.
The main interpretation of control charts is that all the points should lie in between the UCL and LCL. If sample points fall in between the control limits in a continued production, then the process is in control, and as such, no action has to be taken. If a point falls out of them, then the process is out-of-control, and further investigative and corrective action ought to be taken. If, however, points get close to the UCL and LCL’s, one has to search for the root of the problem and solve it without stopping production. If on the other hand, points cross the UCL and LCL’s, production must be stopped and the problem must be investigated and solved. Faulty production is worse than no production.
\nOn the other hand, even if none of the points lie out of the control limits, this does not mean that the chance factor had played a role. All the points on the control chart may lie in between the UCL and LCL’s like a typical chart in Figure 22, but this does not mean that production is under control. Incidentally, they may well be out-of-control soon. The reason for this is the pattern occurring on the control chart. Patterns give information about the condition of the process, and their early identification may trigger the alarm for the user to investigate their causes and to prevent any faults before they occur. Patterns having deviations from normal behavior are indicators of raw material, machine (setting, adjustment, tool abrasion, and systematic causes of deterioration) or measuring method, human, and environmental factors starting to change the quality characteristic of the product. To interpret control charts, every cause has to be studied one by one and investigated and corrective action ought to be taken.
\n\n\n
Cyclic patterns: Two examples of control charts showing a cyclic pattern are given in Figure 23. An \n
Two examples of control charts showing a cyclic pattern.
Mixture: An example of a control chart showing a mixture pattern is given in Figure 24. In a mixture pattern, the plotted points gather around the UCL and LCL, but few points fall near the center line. In this outline, there are two or more overlapping distributions generating the process output. An \n
Example of a control chart showing a mixture pattern.
Shift in process level: An example of a control chart showing a shift in process level pattern is given in Figure 25. An \n
Example of a control chart showing a shift in process level pattern.
Trend: An example of a control chart showing a trend pattern is given in Figure 26. In a trend pattern, the plotted points continuously move in one direction. An \n
Example of a control chart showing a trend pattern.
Stratification: An example of a control chart showing a stratification pattern is given in Figure 27. In a stratification pattern, the plotted points tend to cluster around the center line, and there is a lack of natural variability in the pattern. An \n
Example of a control chart showing a stratification pattern.
Approaching LCL: An example of a control chart showing an approach to LCL pattern is given in Figure 28. A p-control chart having an approach to LCL pattern may represent a real improvement in process quality. But, downward shifts are not always attributable to improved quality. This is due to the fact that errors in the inspection process may be resulting from inadequately trained or inexperienced inspectors or from improperly calibrated test and inspection equipment during that particular shift. Besides, inspection may pass nonconforming units owing to a lack in training. The same interpretation is valid for np-control charts also.
\nExample of a control chart showing an approach to LCL pattern.
Approaching UCL or LCL: An example of a control chart showing an approach to UCL or LCL pattern is given in Figure 29. A c-control chart having approaching the UCL line may be because of temperature control and an approach to the LCL may be due to inspection error.
\nExample of a control chart showing an approach to UCL or LCL pattern.
Some definitive guidelines are developed to interpret control charts. Keeping in mind that the main principle is none of the points should cross UCL or LCL, the developed standards can be grouped as follows showing that process is out-of-control:
\nPoint/Points crossing the control limits: Examples of control charts showing point/points crossing the control limits are given in Figure 30. If there is an assignable cause in the \n
Examples of control charts showing point/points crossing the control limits.
Many points very near to the control limits: An example of a control chart showing many points that are very near to the control limits is given in Figure 31. This pattern may be toward UCL or LCL.
\nExample of a control chart showing many points that are very near to the control limits.
Points gather around a value: An example of a control chart showing points gathering around a value is given in Figure 32.
\nExample of a control chart showing points gathering around a value.
Consecutive points: All the consecutive seven points which are placed on one side of the center line is given in Figure 33. About 10 out of 11 consecutive points that are placed on one side of the center line is shown in Figure 34.
\nAll of the consecutive 7 points are placed on one side of the center line.
10 out of 11 consecutive points that are placed on one side of the center line.
This expression can be widened as 12 out of 14 consecutive points, 14 out of 17 consecutive points, 16 out of 20 consecutive points, and 19 out of 25 consecutive points (Figure 35) are placed on one side of the center line. They all indicate very nonrandom appearance and an out-of-control production.
\n19 out of 25 consecutive points are placed on one side of the center line.
Runs: Average run length is the average number of points that must be plotted assignable before it can be said that it is an out-of-control condition. They describe the performance of the control charts. Some examples are:
\nA run of 2 points out of 3 near the control limits is given in Figure 36.
\nA run of 2 points out of 3 is near the control limits.
Others may be a run of 4 points out of 5 at a 1σ distance from the center line, a run of 8 points lie at one side of the center line, and a run of 7 points rises or falls (Figure 37).
\nA run of 7 points rises or falls.
The placement of the points according to the center line is also important. 2/3 of the points have to lie between the inner 1/3 distance between the UCL and LCL’s and 1/3 of the points have to lie between the outer 2/3 distance between the limits. If more or less of the 2/3 of points lie near the center line, then this means either the limits were calculated wrong or the points are placed erratically on the chart, successive measurements may have been from different parties in production but located on the same chart by fault, or the machine adjustments have changed but the control operator was not aware of it and located the points on the same chart by fault instead of preparing a new chart.
\nExamples of less than 2/3 of points lie in the middle 1/3 of the control limits are given in Figure 38.
\nLess than 2/3 of points lie in the middle 1/3 of the control limits.
An example of clear shifts for different periods is given in Figure 39. The reason for these shifts would be that the process is changing periodically, and so, different limits have to be calculated for different periods. Another reason would be that the lot had been changed, but the person in charge is not aware of it and continues to plot two different lots on the same chart rather than preparing a new one for the new lot.
\nExample of clear shifts for different periods.
A number of researches have been performed on the topic of control charts. Indeed, the majority of studied works emphasize the early prediction of defects and on different areas like poultry, health, etc., other than manufacturing which is the main area these are used. A short survey of new developments in control charts is given below.
\nThere are some statistics software packages which also include preparations of control charts like SPSS, MATLAB, STATISTICA, etc. These software packages utilize the usage of control charts in companies, service, and official applications. With the help of computers, much of the work done by hand is performed very quickly, and results are obtained right away. The results are interpretated fast, and corrective action is taken to increase efficiency and profit in the enterprise. Furthermore, new techniques like artificial neural networks are applied in modern quality control methods and techniques.
\nThe authors use Shewhart control charts to maintain the quality of raisins (dried grapes) and dried figs within acceptable limits and make it possible to readjust storage conditions, if the acceptable limits should be violated. This occurs since the Shewhart control charts they use are constructed by using the Hunter Lab color scale parameters to assure maintenance of the color and flavor of raisins and dried figs during storage in modified atmosphere packages, vacuum packages, or nylon bags. Changing the storage conditions after the fruits have deteriorated cannot improve quality because deterioration of raisins or figs is irreversible. In the early stages of storage, violation of the control limits will warn the operators, and the storage conditions will be improved [15].
\nThe authors used the program which was designed by Montgomery to prevent errors and wastage of resources during sampling process in order to determine the economic design of parameters. The economical design of Shewhart control charts improves the principle of balancing between control efficiency and its costs. They did an application in a fruit soda producing factory. It is worth noting at this point that although staff was trained about total quality control, they were not adequately trained in statistical quality control. After the work of the authors, with this program and by paying attention to the lost functions and unit costs, design parameters, sample size, sampling interval, and the control limits were determined, resulting in a reduction of errors [16].
\nIt is the author’s view that coal properties are variable even within a single coal seam due to coalification history, mining method, etc. To control the variability of coal quality is important from the points of efficiency and production costs of power plants. These are negatively affected by nonconsistent coal characteristics such as calorific value, moisture content, and ash content and profitability of the coal producer. Variations in coal properties of the Tuncbilek Power Plant were studied by means of control charts, and process capability analysis of the statistical quality control methods was found to be very high. The latter showed variation within short intervals and away from contract specifications. It was suggested that the coal should be blended to reduce the variability in coal characteristics before selling to power plants, so that the efficiency of the power plant and the income of the coal producer can be increased [17].
\nThe authors obtained the control limits of \n
It is worth noting however that statistical quality control charts (SQCCs) are widely used in manufacturing processes so as to keep fluctuations within the acceptable limits; nonetheless, no application is done to weight management studies. In this paper, the author proves that using the mean Body Mass Index (BMI) values as the only indicator to assess the weight status of populations might be misleading in clinical weight management studies. For healthy aging, the author suggests to introduce a powerful tool, SQCCs, to keep fluctuations in BMIs within acceptable limits in a given population and makes a cross-sectional design. The distributions of individual BMIs and the pattern of BMI which change by age were studied using X charts, tolerance charts, and a capability analysis was performed. It is concluded by the author that the mean BMI increased in both genders by age as seen in Figure 40. Likewise, the individual weights were out-of-control limits, the mean BMI values were within the limits, and although the number of overweight individuals was greater in some groups, their mean BMIs were lower compared to the groups with fewer overweight individuals. Capability tests concluded that each group, even the groups with a mean BMI in the normal weight ranges and also the groups which are referred as being “under control” according to the X charts, was not within the so-called energy balance (Cp < 1 and Cpk < 1). The results suggest that by using the mean BMIs as the only indicator might be misleading in weight management studies. This work introduces SQCCs as a potential tool for clinical nutrition studies to maintain the fluctuations of individual BMIs within acceptable limits for healthy aging populations [19].
\nMean BMI increase in females by age.
The authors constructed modified Shewhart charts incorporating weight loss, Haugh units and yolk index for storage of untreated, soda lime, water glass, or oil coated and thermostabilized eggs. The data obtained showed differences between particular treatments. Control charts derived from them illustrate that maintenance lies within the limits of the inevitable quality loss, and this comes from the storage of eggs. Knowing the trends made it possible to readjust the storage conditions so as to prolong the period before the violation of acceptable limits [20].
\nIn determining the quality of the egg shell, broken or cracked eggs are important factors. The manufacturers need control charts throughout production to keep the number of broken or cracked eggs under control. The authors in this paper used p-control charts prepared with 52 weeks data in poultry business. They used three methods to draw control charts and concluded that the process was not under control because the number of broken or cracked eggs often crossed the upper control limit [21].
\nWhen the vector of means of several quality characteristics are monitored, the most widely used multivariate control chart is the Hotelling’s χ2 control chart, which is a Shewhart-type control chart, and it is relatively insensitive to detect small magnitude shifts quickly. The authors study the performance of the Hotelling’s χ2 control chart supplemented with a r-out-of-m runs rule. Their new control chart exhibits an improved performance over other competitive runs rules based control charts [22].
\nWhen the quality characteristics cannot be measured on a continuous scale, attribute control charts are very useful for monitoring different processes. Some cases involve the monitoring of multiple attributes simultaneously. This leads to multinomial and multiattribute quality control methods, which are better than the simultaneous use of multiple uniattribute methods. The authors equally studied research previously conducted on multiattribute quality control, regarding the design, performance, and applications of multiattribute control charts (MACCs), as well as multiattribute sampling plans. They also reviewed comparisons of the MACCs, as well as MADM research. They also emphasized the need of neural networks, the design of artificial neural network in attributes monitoring for an out-of-control signal, the detection of the magnitude of the shifts in parameters, the determination of the shape of the membership functions in linguistic terms, the appropriate degree of fuzziness of the membership functions, the exact relationship between the degree of fuzziness and sensitivity of control charts, and in nonhomogenous cases, where the distribution is no longer binomial what the properties of the process p chart should and as such may form a subject for further investigation [23].
\nThe authors have examined the problem of the statistical and economics-based design of fully adaptive Shewhart control charts for monitoring finite-horizon processes, where the production horizon for a specific product can be limited to a few hours or shifts. They propose a Markov chain model to design a fully adaptive Shewhart control chart for such cases. Their Markov chain model allows the exact computation of several statistical performance metrics, as well as the expected cost of the monitoring and operation process for any adaptive Shewhart control chart with an unknown but finite number of inspections. The implementation of the Vp X chart in short runs shows the production of a finite batch of products. They also support two models, namely one that is economics based and one that is aimed for the statistical design. These charts can also be used to optimize the performance of any adaptive control chart (VSSI, VSI, VSS, and Vp) in a finite-horizon context. They derived some properties of the economics-based model, which facilitates economic optimization and CUSUM adaptive control charts can also be developed [24].
\nThe authors presented the economic design of \n
A Shewhart-type chart with fixed parameters and,
An adaptive chart with variable sampling intervals and/or sample size.
They aimed to improve the statistical control scheme employed for monitoring quality characteristics and minimize the relevant costs. They also tested and confirmed the applicability of the theoretical models supporting the economic design of control charts with fixed and variable parameters and evaluated the economic benefits of moving from the broadly used static charts to the application of the more flexible and effective adaptive control charts. They concluded that by re-designing the currently employed Shewhart chart using economic criteria, the quality-related cost is expected to decrease by approximately 50% without increasing the implementation complexity.It is the author’s view that by monitoring the process by means of an adaptive \n
The author studied the factors that affect the Brix value and the volatile acidity of the final product in the bio-production of grape molasses, considering the ground used for cultivation and the variety of grapes. The author applied off-line statistical quality control techniques and discussed the outcomes in detail, concluding that Corinthian and Camborne varieties of grapes seemed to lead to the optimum result because the Brix value is optimum and grape molasses, while Phocean and Corinthian varieties of grapes were the best choices in order to decrease their volatile acidity, and mountain ground was better [26].
\nThe author indicates that Statistical Process Control procedures are based on the assumption that the process subject to monitoring consists of independent observations. Many nonindustrial processes besides chemical processes exhibit autocorrelation, where the assumption is not valid. The author has developed a methodology for monitoring autocorrelated processes. The main idea here is to compare the performance of the time series model against an alternative which works with departures from it. A phase II control procedure is proposed, which is a time-varying auto-regressive (AR) model for autocorrelated and locally stationary processes. That model is optimized during phase I, and as a result, the model describes the process accurately. The phase II control procedure is based on a comparison of the current time series model with the alternative model which is measuring deviations from it, using Bayes factors where its threshold rules enable a binomial-type control procedure. This model can equally be used in local nonstationarities via the dynamic evolution of the AR coefficients, and so it describes stable and nonstable processes. In particular, this method can be used in nonindustrial process monitoring, where nonstable or nonstationary processes are typical (finance, environmentrics, etc.). Temperature measurements at two different stages in the manufacturing of a plastic mold are used as data sets [27].
\nIn statistical quality control, control charts are the most widely used and are regarded as an effective tool. This work presented recent developments in the design of the adaptive control charts, especially in univariate control charts because they allow some of their parameters to change during production. They also act as an extension of the study of Tagaras. Based on performed literature review, it may be stated that the adaptive control charts may result to faster detection of a process shift and thus may contribute to improving overall economic performance. However, they are harder to administer, and their application may run up against technical difficulties. The design parameters which are the sample size, the sampling interval, and the control limit coefficient can be changed in adaptive control charts, while warning limits are added and improvements are gained. This study has equally shown that the more parameters are adaptive, the more improvement is obtained, hence, making the implementation of the control chart more difficult. The performance measures of the adaptive control charts which are derived from the Markov chain approach are discussed in this paper. The authors are interested in monitoring the process dispersion instead of the process mean. They indicate that in the S or R chart and the conforming run length chart, modification can be applied in order to detect variance shifts, and these shifts prove to detect increase in σ better than the decrease and are useful to monitor both the process mean and the process variance shift. It is the author’s view that users may misuse the cause-selecting chart in production steps because of unsatisfactory training, and this may lead to unnecessary adjustment that could increase the variability and as such the cost of the products. In view of the above, the dependent processes can be extended to the VP charts as well as to multiple process steps, multiple assignable causes, and dependent assignable causes. EWMA and the CUSUM charts are more effective than the standard Shewhart charts because they take into account both the present and previous samples. The adaptive control charts for attributes are also studied in this paper, and it is shown that by adding the adaptive feature, the detection ability of the charts is increased [28].
\nIn today’s world, the pursuit of high quality production is one of the main topics. The need for use of the specific software products so as to control the production process quality is the result of the variety and complexity of the production characteristics. SPSS is the most widely used software, which provides increased deliverables for a basic quality control analysis. A critical review of SPSS quality control functions and features is done, which contributes to enhanced quality management. It is worth mentioning at this point though, that aforementioned software package is facing competition from Minitab and Statistica to name but a few. In the future, it is hoped to find a universal all-in-one tool for the data processing without any insufficiencies concerning quality control functions and statistical analyses [29].
\nPerformed literature research indicates that pattern recognition technology is used to automatically judge the changing modes of control chart, which reveal potential problems. They propose a neural network-numerical fitting (NN-NF) model to recognize different control chart patterns with the purpose of improving the recognition rate and the efficiency of control chart patterns. They first use a back propagation (BP) network and then Monte Carlo simulation to generate training and testing of the data samples. If the control chart patterns are recognized with the general run rules, the abnormal report is directly generated, if not, the NN-NF model is activated. Training time of their NN-NF model is less, and the recognition rate is also improved [30].
\nIn addition to the above, a skewness correction (SC) method is proposed for constructing the \n
This paper emphasizes that control chart pattern recognition (CCPR) is a important task in statistical process control (SPC). Abnormal patterns in control charts can be associated with certain assignable cause adversely affecting the process stability. Work is aimed at reviewing and analyzing research on CCPR. In conjunction with this, a new conceptual classification scheme emerges, based on a content analysis method, so as to classify past and current developments in CCPR research done in more than 120 papers within the period 1991–2010. It was found that most of the CCPR studies dealt with independently and identically distributed process data; some recent studies pertaining to the identification of mean shifts or/and variance shifts of a multivariate process were based on innovative techniques. It is worth mentioning at this point though that there is an increase in the percentage of studies that address concurrent pattern identification as well as in Artificial Neural Network (ANN) approaches for improving the recognition of pattern together with hybrid, modular, and integrated ANN recognizer designs. The latter may be combined with decision tree learning, particle swarm optimization, etc. There are two main categories of performance criteria used to evaluate CCPR approaches: statistical criteria that are related to two conventional average run length (ARL) measures and recognition-accuracy criteria, which are not based on these ARL measures mainly for ANN-based approaches. Performance criteria with ARL measures are insufficient and inappropriate in the case of concurrent pattern identification. The authors also discuss some future research directions and their perspectives [32].
\nControl charts are important tools of statistical quality control that enhance quality. Quality improvement methods like flow diagrams, cause-and-effect (fishbone) diagrams, check sheets, histograms, scatter plots, and Pareto diagrams have also been applied so as to fulfill the needs of consumers with the desired properties and the least possible defects in the output, while maximizing producers’ profit. There are natural variations in production but also assignable causes which are not a part of chance but may be attributable to a number of internal and/or external factors like raw material, machine setting (or adjustment, tool abrasion, systematic causes of deterioration) or measuring method, human, and environmental effects.
\nThis paper provided a qualitative and quantitative insight into the use of only the control charts. Based on a number of industrial cases, it showed that the implementation of control charts can indeed contribute to defects minimization and, hence, reduce warranty and other costs.
\nControl charts mainly used are control charts for variables, that is, individual measurements control chart (x), means control chart (\n
The case studies presented herein showcase that control charts result in higher production efficiency and are as such used widely in industry. This work has equally highlighted performed research in the area of control charts. Indeed, research on control charts is done on a global basis, and from the findings discussed in this work, statistical methods and techniques are further empowered by the use of computer technology and, in particular, dynamic software packages and artificial neural networks, to name a few. In view of the above, it may be stated that Statistics may further assist its users by refined and selected methods to improve quality in a modern way besides control charts.
\nThe author kindly exhibits her deep regards to Kaynak Group Cotton Yarn Factory, Çağla Textile Ready-wear Factory, Özer Textile Weaving Factory, Gülçağ Textile Yarn Factory, Sarıkılıç Textile Nonwoven Factory, Yıldırımlar Printing & Dying Factory, and Ne-Ke Textile Weaving Factory which are located in Uşak and Teksüre Textile Socks Factory which is located in İstanbul-Turkey.
\n\n
Uveitis represents a group of intraocular inflammatory disorders which may result in significant visual loss and is responsible for approximately 10–15% of blindness in the USA [1, 2, 3, 4]. The annual prevalence of uveitis ranges from 58 to 115 cases per 100,000 persons [4, 5, 6]. Anterior uveitis is the most common anatomic location representing approximately 70% of all the uveitis cases in the USA [4, 5, 6]. Although posterior and panuveitis are far less common, they owe a greater consequence in blindness [7].
Dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP) is a highly water-soluble form of dexamethasone. DSP undergoes rapid hydrolysis to form dexamethasone (DEX) in plasma [8] and ocular tissues [9]. Both DEX and DSP have been used for the treatment of a wide variety of ocular inflammation conditions such as keratitis, blepharitis, iritis, conjunctivitis, uveitis, macular edema, and post-operative eye surgery [10]. There are a number of dosage forms of DEX and DSP for ocular treatments including eye drops, ointments, oral tablets, intraocular injections, and intravitreal implants. Current topical methods, however, cannot deliver drugs to the posterior segment of the eye effectively and their practice has been limited to treating anterior eye conditions [11, 12, 13]. Eye drops often yield poor patient compliance due to the required adherence to frequent administration [14]. The posterior segment of the eye can be treated systemically but significant whole-body adverse effects are major concerns [12]. Invasive methods, such as periocular injections, intravitreal injections, or intravitreal implants (e.g., Ozurdex®, Retisert®, Iluvien®, etc.), are effective but the cost of administration is high. They also involve a number of potential serious risks including retinal detachment, endophthalmitis, increased intraocular pressure (IOP), and cataractogenesis [15, 16, 17, 18]. There is an unmet need for a new drug delivery system that can address such challenges.
Recent publications suggest that treating back-of-the-eye diseases using topical administration is feasible [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. For topically administered drugs, the transscleral pathway can be a route for a drug molecule to reach posterior eye tissues [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. A fluorophotometry study in live rabbits suggests that once drug is placed intrasclerally, there is an active, convective flow carrying drug molecules through the suprachoroidal space to the retina-choroid region at the back of the eye [32]. To administer drug through this pathway effectively, a high drug concentration on the sclera is an ideal prerequisite. This is because drug diffuses across eye tissues by concentration gradients as described by Fick’s first law of diffusion: Flux = PA(C1 − C2). Flux is the amount of drug that passes through a membrane per period of time (mg/sec). P is the permeability coefficient of the permeant (cm/sec), A is the surface area (cm2) over which diffusion is taking place, and (C1 − C2) is the difference in concentration (mg/mL) of the permeant across the membrane for the direction of flow from C1 to C2. Thus, a high concentration in the applicator (C1) may significantly increase flux. However, the current topical ophthalmic products have failed to utilize this pathway effectively because of the short retention time at the site of application and the low drug concentration used in its formulation.
Visulex-P is a noninvasive ocular drug delivery system that can be used to administer drug topically through the limbal sclera into the interior of the eye utilizing the transscleral pathway [33, 34]. It is a passive diffusion-base technology developed by Aciont Inc. designed to facilitate the drug molecule entering primarily through the conjunctiva-scleral surface and minimize the drug clearance from tearing and drainage into the nasolacrimal duct. In addition, Visulex-P enables an ophthalmic application of a high drug concentration, which may expedite the passive drug diffusion through the transscleral pathway without significant ocular toxicity [34]. DSP is suitable for Visulex-P because of its high water solubility, enabling a high drug-driving force, and its high potency with respect to prednisolone acetate on a molar basis. In this chapter, the combination of this high DSP-concentration solution instilled into the Visulex-P applicator is referred to as DSP-Visulex.
DSP-Visulex may be administered to a patient in a general clinical setting by a physician, nurse, or trained technician, and in some cases, it may be self-administered at home. The Visulex applicator resembles the handling and feel of a scleral lens which is a type of contact lens worn throughout the day by the patient who is suffering from corneal shape disorders or injuries to the eye. The details and video of DSP-Visulex administration follow:
There are a few steps in DSP-Visulex administration (Figure 1). Proparacaine (0.5%), a topical anesthetic agent, is first applied to the patient’s eye(s). The DSP solution (250 μL) is loaded into the Visulex-P applicator with the drug loader just prior to application. The drug-loaded applicator (DSP-Visulex) is removed carefully from the loader. The DSP-Visulex is then gently placed directly onto the sclera while the care giver holds the patient’s upper and lower eyelids open. The Visulex applicator is checked to ensure that it remains centered on the eye and does not make contact with the cornea throughout the treatment duration. After the treatment duration (e.g., 5 minutes), the Visulex applicator is carefully removed by squeezing the entire bulb to release the vacuum while lifting the applicator up from the eye. The DSP-Visulex is discarded after this single administration and is not reused. The DSP-Visulex administration for animal studies was similar to that in the clinical study except each animal was placed in a restrainer to limit movement during the DSP-Visulex administration.
(A) Dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP) solution is being loaded into Visulex applicator through a drug loader. (B) DSP-Visulex is being applied onto the eye. (C) DSP-Visulex is on the eye where the sponge is in contact with the eye on the sclera and the surface area of the sponge is approximately 150 mm2.
Both the DSP concentration and the treatment duration of DSP-Visulex correlate with the total amount of drug in the eye [35]. After single applications of DSP-Visulex for 5, 10, or 20 minutes and for all DSP concentrations, significant amounts (i.e., 56–760 μg) of DSP were found in the eye (Figure 2). When qualitatively comparing both factors with respect to the whole eye, it appears that the relative increase in DSP-Visulex concentration affected the ocular tissue concentrations more than the treatment duration.
(A) Effect of drug concentration on total amount of drug in the eye. (B) Effect of drug concentration on total amount of drug in the eye.
For instance, in Figure 2 at the 5-minute application time, when the DSP concentration is increased from 4 to 15%, which is about a factor of 4, the total amount of the drug in the eye increased by about fivefold from 56 μg to 288 μg, but when the application time is increased from 5 to 20 minutes, which is also a factor of 4, the total amount of the drug in the eye increased by only twofold from 56 μg to 104 μg. This relationship appears to hold for sclera, conjunctiva, cornea, and anterior chamber (AC), but is more subtle for vitreous, retina-choroid, and lens (discussed in a later section).
The ocular drug distribution study of DSP-Visulex in rabbit illustrates the potential for the noninvasive delivery of DSP into the eye tissues from anterior to posterior section [35]. After single applications of DSP-Visulex for 5, 10, or 20 minutes and for all DSP concentrations, significant amounts of DSP and some DEX were found in all eye tissues. A typical rank order of DSP amounts in the eye tissues is sclera, conjunctiva, cornea, retina-choroid, anterior chamber, vitreous, and lens. The total amount of drugs in each tissue except vitreous and lens appears to be correlated well with the DSP concentration and application time of DSP-Visulex.
In Table 1, the concentration of DSP in each tissue is calculated in μg/g and summarized for potential efficacy evaluation of DSP-Visulex and the concentration of 1 μg/g or higher in the tissue is considered a potential therapeutic level [35]. After a single administration of DSP-Visulex, with exception of the lens, DSP found in most of the ocular tissues including cornea, sclera, conjunctiva, retina-choroid, and anterior chamber was significantly higher than the target level of 1 μg/g in all of the DSP-Visulex regimens tested in the study. DSP concentrations in the vitreous were around or slightly above 1 μg/g in most cases except for the 5-minute 4% DSP application. The typical order of concentration of DSP in ocular tissues, from high to low, was: cornea > sclera > conjunctiva > retina-choroid > anterior chamber > lens > vitreous. The drug concentration in the ocular tissues (except lens and vitreous) correlated well with both increasing DSP concentration in the Visulex system and treatment duration.
Dexamethasone sodium phosphate-equivalent concentrations in ocular tissues.
Although the dynamics of aqueous flow and clearance in the eye are complex, the ocular drug distribution results are in line with an anticipated concentration gradient pattern arising from the outer eye tissues like sclera and conjunctiva, which were adjacent to the DSP drug reservoir and received the most drug, to the innermost tissues like the vitreous humor and lens that received much lesser amounts. Additionally, it should be noted this study was limited only to one time point, which was immediately after the DSP-Visulex application. More study time points should yield further understanding of the pharmacokinetic profiles of DSP administered by the DSP-Visulex including drug distribution, onset, duration of action, and half-life of the drug in the eye tissues.
Comparing the DSP-Visulex in rabbit to periocular injections and oral administration in human [36], the DSP concentration in rabbit retina-choroid after a single administration of DSP-Visulex ranged from 18 to 351 μg/g whereas the estimated maximum DEX concentration in the subretinal fluid in patients after an oral dose of DEX (7.5 mg), a peribulbar injection (5 mg), and a subconjunctival injection (2.5 mg) was 12, 82, and 359 ng/mL, respectively [36]. When qualitatively comparing DSP-Visulex application in rabbit to the topical DSP eye drop (i.e., 1 drop of 0.1% DSP every 1.5 hours for a total of 10 or 11 drops) in human [37], the concentration of DSP in the vitreous of rabbit from DSP-Visulex is much higher: the Cmax in human vitreous from the DSP eye drop was 1 ng/mL while most DSP-Visulex regimens yield ~1 μg/mL or more in the vitreous of rabbit. While such indirect comparisons of the DSP-Visulex data in rabbit with the pharmacokinetic studies in human may be unavailing, these at least illustrate the potential significance of the DSP-Visulex approach.
A toxicokinetic study in rabbit suggests that DSP was rapidly absorbed into the systemic circulation after the DSP-Visulex application [35]. The plasma concentrations of DSP and DEX after single applications of DSP-Visulex are shown in Figure 3. Tmax of DSP was reached at the first blood draw (5 minutes after DSP-Visulex application), whereas Tmax of DEX was reached later at 30 minutes. The maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of both DSP and DEX increased with increasing DSP concentration and with longer application time. Within 24 hours, the drug plasma concentrations of all groups were approaching or under the lowest detection limit of 1 ng/mL.
Mean plasma concentration of DSP (solid line) and DEX (dot line) following single administration of DSP-Visulex at predose, 5, 30, 60, 120, 240, and 360 minutes, and 24, 48, 72, and 168 hours. To reveal all pharmacokinetic data, all the graphs were not plotted in a linear time scale on the x-axis.
For the purpose of assessing the systemic exposure of total corticosteroid after DSP-Visulex application, the DSP and DEX plasma concentrations were combined and calculated as DSP equivalent. The DSP equivalent is defined as the sum of DSP and DEX in gram equivalents, with 392.5 g of DEX equivalent to 516.4 g of DSP. The key toxicokinetic parameters are presented in Table 2. The systemic half-life of the drug in the rabbit is approximately 2–3 hours. Cmax and AUC increased with increased concentration of DSP and increased application time. Similar to the eye results, the concentration seems to have more effect on the systemic exposure than application duration. For example, when the DSP concentration was increased from 4 to 15%, which is about a factor of 4, the Cmax increased about eightfold from 148 μg to 1188 μg, but when the application time increased from 5 to 20 minutes, which is also a factor of 4, the total amount of the drug in the eye increased only fourfold from 148 μg to 795 μg. This was also the case with AUC. The increase in concentration from 4 to 15% increased the AUC by a factor of 4, whereas the increase in the application time from 5 to 20 minutes increased the AUC only by a factor of 2.
Dexamethasone sodium phosphate-equivalent concentrations in plasma.
To express the results of systemic DSP exposure in rabbit in human perspective, Cmax values of DSP in human were estimated and are presented in Table 2. The estimations were based on Cmax data from intravenous (IV) injections in both rabbit [38] and human [39]: An IV injection of 1 mg DSP yields a Cmax of 786 ng/mL in rabbit and 10.5 ng/mL in human. Accordingly, these results suggest that at a given dose of DSP, the Cmax of DSP for rabbit is approximately 75 times higher than that for human. The estimated Cmax values in human of the lowest dose (4% DSP, 5 minutes) and the highest dose of DSP-Visulex (15% DSP, 20 minutes) are 2 and 25 ng/mL, respectively. In addition, the estimated Cmax values in human in the range of 2–25 ng/mL may be supported by an ocular iontophoretic delivery of dexamethasone phosphate (4%w/v) in uveitis patients, which showed the plasma Cmax of dexamethasone in the range of 2–10 ng/mL [40]. This is because the ocular iontophoresis delivered approximately the same order of magnitude of dexamethasone phosphate to the rabbit ocular tissues as DSP-Visulex [35], it is reasonable to speculate that the systemic drug exposure in human of DSP-Visulex would be in the same order of magnitude as the ocular iontophoresis.
When compared to the plasma Cmax from a single application of DSP-Visulex to the literature Cmax from a single IVT injection, a single topical eye drop, an oral tablet, a single peribulbar injection, and a single subconjunctival injection [41], it suggests that DSP-Visulex may have a higher systemic exposure than eye drops and IVT injections but less than oral and periocular injections (i.e., peribulbar injection and subconjunctival injection).
A 12-week toxicity study of DSP-Visulex at 4, 8, 15, and 25% suggests that multiple treatments of DSP-Visulex are well tolerated [35]. The ocular findings observed in treated eyes from the study (i.e., 20-minute treatment duration of DSP-Visulex) were conjunctival injection, chemosis discharge, and corneal haze. These ocular findings were transient and mild in nature. No abnormalities or signs of ocular toxicity were observed in untreated eyes. The only frequent ocular adverse event was conjunctival injection, which appeared to resolve within a week. This sign of irritation correlates with increasing DSP concentration. Some accumulations of conjunctival injection were observed in the high concentration formulations (i.e., 15 and 25% DSP) after 2 months into the weekly treatment regimen. The tonicity of the DSP formulation may have played a role in the conjunctival irritation. The persistence and severity of the conjunctival irritation were found to be much lower in the 4 and 8% DSP formulations (i.e., isotonic formulation) compared to the 15 and 25% formulation (i.e., hypertonic formulation). It may be noted that conjunctival injection, which is also known as conjunctival hyperemia or conjunctival erythema, is a common side effect found among FDA-approved corticosteroid ophthalmic solutions including prednisolone, dexamethasone, and difluprednate. A temporary corneal haze was found in one rabbit when the placement of DSP-Visulex is placed off center. This is an adverse effect that can be avoided by checking whether the DSP reservoir has any direct contact with the cornea while in position during treatment.
As for the histopathology after multiple treatments of DSP-Visulex for 12 weeks, all eyes were considered to be morphologically normal, except one treated eye in the 8% DSP group showed mild chronic inflammation at the limbus of the cornea. Besides this one eye, there were no significant findings with any ocular tissue examined: no edema or congestion of conjunctiva, ciliary body, or cornea was observed in any group; no neovascularization on the cornea was found; and no inflammation in conjunctiva, cornea, anterior chamber, trabecular meshwork, iris, ciliary body, vitreous, choroid, and retina tissues and no test article changes were identified.
There were no significant weight changes in the 4 or 8% DSP-treated rabbits. However, the animals in the 15 and 25% DSP groups showed trends of decreasing body weight. Although only the 25% DSP group showed statistically significant reduction in body weight, the consistent decline in body weights of the animals in these two groups indicate that long-term exposure at these levels of DSP-Visulex dosing (i.e., 15 and 25% DSP for 20 minutes) may have significant systemic side effects on rabbit. Since all animals exhibited systemic exposure of both DSP and DEX after single administration of the DSP-Visulex (discussed above), this is an expected outcome after multiple treatments of DSP-Visulex for 3 months [42, 43]. It should be noted that the 20-minute treatment duration and 25% DSP tested in this study were an exaggerated wearing time and concentration to find the adverse effect (if any). The intended clinical use in the patient population would be 10 minutes or less and the DSP concentration would be 15% or less.
In summary, repeated 20-minute weekly treatments of 4 and 8% DSP-Visulex are well tolerated over 3 months, whereas, respective 15 and 25% DSP-Visulex treatments potentially are limited to shorter periods of time, perhaps between 4 and 8 weeks. The safety of DSP-Visulex with a shorter application time (i.e., 8 and 15% DSP for 5 minutes) was evaluated in phase I/II clinical trial for the treatment of noninfectious anterior uveitis discussed in a later section.
Experimental uveitis, also known as experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU), has been a method for evaluation of various therapeutic agents as well as new drug delivery systems for intermediate, posterior, and panuveitis [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. By preimmunization and challenge of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra antigen, this induction causes a severe panuveitis in rabbit that lasts for more than 4 weeks [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51].
Single application and multiple applications of DSP-Visulex (i.e., 8 and 15%) have been shown to be effective in treating the experimental uveitis over the course of a 29-day study [34]. In the study, rabbits were randomly assigned into six groups after uveitis induction. Rabbit eyes were examined by indirect ophthalmoscopy. A modified McDonald-Shadduck scale [52] was used for scoring inflammation. An average of all scores over the course of study is calculated for comparison. The eyes were collected at the end of the study on Day 29 for histopathology evaluation.
All induced eyes showed signs of inflammation within a day after the uveitic induction. Overall, inflammation occurred more significantly in the posterior chamber than in the anterior chamber (Tables 3 and 4). The most apparent finding from the eye examination in assessing the severity of uveitis is inflammation in vitreous (Figure 4 and Table 3). All animals in the control group (untreated) reached a severe vitritis, which remained on average above a score of 3 through the end of study. The average inflammation score of vitreous for the control group was significantly higher than all the DSP-Visulex treatment groups. The resolution speed of inflammation in the vitreous appears to correlate with both the DSP concentration and frequency of DSP-Visulex treatment. The same correlation also corresponds to the inflammation score observed by histopathology (Table 4). A complete resolution of the highest dosing regimen was observed at Day 10 and the lowest dosing regimen was observed at Day 22.
Inflammation scores from observations using indirect ophthalmoscope.
*P < .05, **P < .01, and ***P < .001.
Inflammation scores and inflammatory cell infiltration score from histopathology examination.
*P < .05, **P < .01, and ***P < .001.
Vitreous scores of various treatment groups tested in the experimental uveitis rabbit model.
Statistical differences in the average scores observed between the control group and each DSP-Visulex treatment group were assessed by the Wilcoxon rank-sum test with *P < .05, **P < .01, and ***P < .001.
The signs of inflammation in the anterior section including the anterior chamber (AC) and conjunctiva were mild even with the control group. This made it difficult to see significant differences between the control and the low dosing regimens through the observations using indirect ophthalmoscope. The efficacy of the low dosing regimens for the anterior section was mainly supported by histopathology evaluation (Table 4).
For histopathology evaluation, the average inflammation scores for both anterior and posterior sections are presented in Table 4. The total inflammatory scores of anterior section were high for the untreated eye; whereas for the DSP-Visulex treatment groups, they were significantly lower. The efficacy of DSP-Visulex treatment in the anterior section appears to be related to DSP concentrations. The intermediate and posterior uveitis was persistent in the control group for 29 days, consistent with the ophthalmoscopic observations. The eyes from the highest dose regimen had almost no pathological signs of uveitis present and their posterior tissues appeared to be healthy with minimal inflammation while the untreated eyes appeared to be completely impaired (Figure 5). The overall inflammation scores of the posterior section suggest that all DSP-Visulex treatment regimens, except the lowest dosing regimen, were less inflamed in the posterior section than the controls.
Comparative histopathologic presentation of the posterior section of the eyes at the end of study (Day 29). (A) Control (untreated eye): The inflammation is severe and the photoreceptor layer is completely damaged. (B) 15% DSP (15 minutes, 4 doses): Inflammation is minimal and the tissue structure is well preserved.
The successful treatment with a single-dose of DSP-Visulex was not anticipated in this uveitis model because the DSP was estimated to be cleared from the eye tissues and eventually from the body within 24 hours based on the pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone sodium phosphate [38, 39]. Although the duration of action for dexamethasone can last up to 72 hours [53], it cannot explain the long anti-inflammatory effect of the single dose of DSP-Visulex in this chronic uveitis model, unless a very high dose of DSP (similar to the 8 and 15% DSP-Visulex) can stop the inflammatory process in the uveitic eye without a repeat dose. More studies (e.g., a dose-ranging study of DSP IVT injection in experimental uveitis rabbit) need to be done to confirm this hypothesis.
The uveitis model used in this DSP-Visulex study was similar to (if not the same as) the uveitis rabbit model used in the preclinical studies of intravitreal DEX implant [44, 46]. Considering a qualitative (DEX vs. DSP) and indirect comparison (nonhuman primate vs. rabbit) to intravitreal DEX implant (Ozurdex®) from a pharmacokinetic study in nonhuman primate [41], the Cmax of DEX from Ozurdex® was 1.1 μg/g in the retina at Day 60 and 0.2 μg/mL in the vitreous at Day 60 whereas the concentration of DSP in the retina-choroid and vitreous from DSP-Visulex was much higher immediately after a single administration (i.e., ≥18 μg/g in the retina-choroid and ≥ 1 μg/mL in vitreous)[35]. This may suggest a more rapid onset of the pharmacological action with DSP-Visulex compared to Ozurdex®. However, since Ozurdex®, which is a controlled release product, provides a much longer exposure of DEX in eyes compared to DSP-Visulex, the risks and benefits of the two products in the eye diseases will need to be further evaluated, particularly in well-controlled efficacy models.
In summary, the ophthalmoscopic observations and histopathological examinations strongly indicate that the DSP-Visulex treatment was safe and well tolerated in the rabbit uveitis model. Overall, all the 8 and 15% DSP-Visulex treatment regimens in this study can be considered for the treatment of anterior, intermediate, posterior, and panuveitis. On the other hand, the 4% DSP-Visulex regimen may only be considered for the treatment of anterior and intermediate uveitis but not for posterior uveitis unless more frequent dosing is tested.
DSP-Visulex treatment regimens (two applications on the first week and then weekly after) were evaluated for safety and efficacy against daily prednisolone acetate eye drop (PA) for noninfectious anterior uveitis[54]. The study (called DSPV-201) was a phase I/II, multicenter, randomized, parallel group, double-masked, active-controlled, and dose comparison study.
A total of 44 patients were randomized in 1:1:1 ratio to the three treatment groups: 14 patients to the 8% group (8% DSP-Visulex with placebo eye drops), 15 patients to the 15% group (15% DSP-Visulex with placebo eye drops), and 15 patients to the PA group (Vehicle-Visulex with 1% PA eye drops). All patients received the Visulex treatments (either DSP-Visulex or Vehicle-Visulex) at Visit 1 (Day 1), Visit 2 (Day 3 ± 1), Visit 3 (Day 8 ± 1), and Visit 4 (Day 15 ± 1) with an optional Visulex treatment at Visit 5 (Day 22 ± 1). The optional Visulex treatment was at the investigator’s discretion. Patients self-administered the study eye drops 6 times daily through Visit 4, then tapered off. Both safety and efficacy assessments were made at all visits. Efficacy parameters included anterior chamber cell (ACC) count and anterior chamber flare (ACF) grade, which were graded based on the Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) Working Group classification [55]. The safety parameters assessed were the incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events (AEs), best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), intraocular pressure (IOP), slit lamp biomicroscopy assessments, ophthalmoscopy assessments, and ocular pain.
A total of 40 patients completed the study: 12 patients in the 8% group, 14 patients in the 15% group, and 14 patients in the PA group. The patient characteristics regarding age, gender, and race were comparable among the three groups [54]. The uveitis baseline of the three treatment groups including anterior chamber cell (ACC) grade, anterior chamber flare (ACF) grade, VAS for pain, visual acuity, and IOP were similar. Moreover, the baseline characteristics were also comparable to larger phase III studies [54, 56].
The percentages of patients with zero ACC count were comparable among all three treatment groups at the end of the study (Figure 6A). The profiles of ACC clearing over the course of the study are similar among the three treatment groups (Figure 6B). All showed a rapid reduction of ACC counts to the average of 5 cells or lower within 14 days, then gradually approaching 0 cell subsequently. The same trends were also observed with respect to ACF. The 15% illustrated a trend for stronger potency compared with the 8% on the basis of the percent of patients with ACC count of 0 at Visit 5 (Day 22) and the need for an optional dose at Visit 5. Based on the criteria of the SUN working group on the short-term evaluation of a new therapy (i.e., a two-grade decrease in ACC grade or decrease to grade 0 is considered sufficient improvements) [55], weekly DSP-Visulex treatments are considered effective therapy for noninfectious anterior uveitis. Majority of patients in all groups showed similar improvement in visual acuity (i.e., the reductions of logMAR)[54].
(A) Percentage of patients with anterior chamber cell count of 0. (B) Anterior chamber cell count.(C) Anterior chamber flare grade based on SUN classification. (D) Ocular pain measured by a visual analog scale.
The eye pain was measured by visual analog scale (VAS). The reduction in VAS pain scores throughout the study (Figure 6D), which coincided with the improvement of other aspects of anterior uveitis, including ACC and ACF, demonstrated that while patients had moderate pain at enrollment, the patients experienced minimal or no pain by the conclusion of the study. These observations can be attributable to either an improvement in symptoms related to a treatment effect of the anterior segment inflammation and/or acquired tolerance to the treatment modality itself over time, the differential effects being difficult to clearly delineate.
No safety concerns were identified in the study. Overall, 19 of 44 patients reported 58 AEs, of which 54 were ocular. The numbers of AE reports from each group were 10, 36, and 12 for the 8%, 15%, and PA groups, respectively. A summary of AEs is presented in Table 5. The higher ocular AEs reported with the 15% group are possibly due to the hypertonicity of the 15% DSP formulation compared with the isotonic formulations of 8% DSP and 1% prednisolone acetate, resulting in more ocular irritation. Most AEs were related to ocular surface phenomena. The most frequently reported AEs were corneal abrasion (n = 4), conjunctival staining (n = 4), and cornea staining (n = 4). These findings are consistent with preclinical studies [35] and such AEs are similar to those found with contact lens wearers [57, 58, 59]. The AEs are believed to be caused by physical/mechanical abrasion of the Visulex applicator on the corneal and conjunctival surface (i.e., epithelium). Two patients experienced a serious adverse event (SAE), including hospitalization for diabetic ketoacidosis and surgical treatment for unilateral retinal detachment. Both of these SAEs were identified as unrelated to the investigational product. Throughout the course of this study, no apparent corticosteroid-mediated AEs were observed and only four reported AEs were even considered as systemic AEs (three were from PA group and one, which was granulomatous dermatitis, was from the 8% group). None of the systemic AEs were considered treatment-related. These findings suggest negligible systemic exposure of DSP-Visulex in human as discussed above. The safety outcomes of PA are consistent with expectations and the incidence of AEs are comparable to other clinical studies [56, 60]. This suggests that the Visulex applicator by itself contributes minimally to any adverse effects and tolerability.
Adverse events.
The results of IOP elevation in the PA arm (Figure 7) are consistent with a phase 3 study of PA in treating noninfectious anterior uveitis [56] and other local corticosteroid treatments including eye drops, intravitreal injection, periocular injections, and intravitreal implants [61]. With respect to the DSP-Visulex arms, no IOP elevation was observed after the first week of treatment. The IOP results from both DSP-Visulex groups are not congruent with those typically observed for topical steroid treatments. However, this outcome is consistent with the preclinical studies of DSP-Visulex in rabbits, in which IOP elevations are minimal and transient (unpublished data). We hypothesize that the length of steroid exposure to the eye, which is the main difference between the DSP-Visulex treatment and the other corticosteroid therapies, affects the IOP elevation. Frequent daily eye drops, sustained release implants, and IVT injections of corticosteroid suspensions represent constant drug exposure to eye tissues including trabecular meshwork. By contrast, the steroid exposure to the eye in the case of DSP-Visulex is intermittent (i.e., twice in the first week and then once a week thereafter). We speculate that this unique pulsatile treatment of DSP-Visulex optimizes the balance between the anti-inflammatory and IOP effects of steroid therapy. Furthermore, the delivery method of steroid into the AC with DSP-Visulex may be analogous to that of a micropulse of relatively high concentration of local steroid into the eye, and that frequent micropulse of steroid may be more efficacious from inflammatory perspective and not over expose trabecular meshwork to more sustained concentrations of steroid over a long period of time. Glaucoma, diabetic, or elderly patients who are more susceptible to the IOP increases could benefit from DSP-Visulex treatments. However, this plausible benefit of IOP along with the efficacy and safety must be confirmed in a pivotal study with a larger sample size.
Mean changes in intraocular pressure (IOP) from baseline.
It is of interest to compare two novel ocular drug delivery systems of dexamethasone phosphate: one employs electrical current (also known as iontophoresis) and another is based on passive diffusion (i.e., no electrical current). On a semi-quantitative basis, the present DSP-Visulex results may be compared to the ocular iontophoresis results of 4% dexamethasone phosphate as reported by Güngör et al.[62]. The 8% DSP-Visulex (5-minute application or longer) appears to deliver DSP to retina-choroid tissues to the same extent as the iontophoresis results (5-minute application at 2, 4, and 6 mA) and the 15 and 25% DSP-Visulex appear to be somewhat better than the iontophoresis results.
An iontophoresis of dexamethasone phosphate, known as EGP-437, is also being investigated in clinical studies for noninfectious anterior uveitis. While not directly comparable, in the phase 2 clinical trial of EGP-437 for noninfectious anterior uveitis [40], the percentage of patients achieving the ACC score of zero were 48% at Day 14 and 60% at Day 28 for EGP-437, whereas, the respective percentage of DSP-Visulex patients in the present study achieving the ACC score of zero were approximately 41% at Day 15 and 89% at Day 29. In the phase 2 study of EGP-437, it appeared that the higher the electrical current used, the lesser the efficacy. While this was an unexpected outcome of the EGP-437 study, Pescina et al. [63] suggested that under certain iontophoretic conditions used in the study of EGP-437, the electroosmotic flow occurring during iontophoresis may oppose the direction of drug transport into ocular tissues resulting in an inverse relationship of electrical current and efficacy. As for safety comparisons, the number of ocular AEs produced from a single dose of EGP-437 is higher than those following multiple applications of DSP-Visulex. Although the comparative discussions of the two studies are qualitative, the results of the DSP-Visulex study may raise a question of the fundamental utility of iontophoresis in DSP administration for the treatment of noninfectious anterior uveitis.
DSP-Visulex may address problems of existing corticosteroid treatments for uveitis and other eye diseases. This includes eliminating the need for frequent dosing of eye drops (i.e., multiple drops 6–10 times/day), reducing side effects inherent with systemic drug therapies, and avoiding serious risks associated with intravitreal and periocular injections. Data suggest that DSP-Visulex has clinical potential for the noninvasive treatment of ocular diseases including uveitis, macular edema, postoperative inflammation, diabetic retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration. In the future, many other drug molecules can be incorporated into the Visulex-P platform for various ophthalmic applications. With the positive outcomes of DSP and other in-house-tested therapeutic molecules (e.g., mycophenolic acid, rapamycin, triamcinolone acetonide phosphate, and lipoic acid), we are optimistic that Visulex-P is a new ophthalmic drug delivery system that can benefit both anterior and posterior eye diseases.
The research and development of DSP-Visulex were financially supported by NEI SBIR Grant R44EY014772 and Aciont Inc. The authors thank Dr. Kevin Li at University of Cincinnati for his comments on an early draft, Dr. Nick Mamalis and Dr. Albert Vitale at Moran for their medical insights and helpful discussion on uveitis, Dr. David Miller at Keystone Pharmacy for his help on the study supplies, Dr. Gregory DeNaeyer for his insights on ocular lens design, and Aciont research team for their contributions to this project. This chapter is derived in part from three articles published in: Current Eye Research available online
Kongnara Papangkorn, and John Higuchi are employees of Aciont, Inc. Balbir Brar is a consultant at Aciont, Inc. William Higuchi is a founder and CTO of Aciont, Inc.
You have been successfully unsubscribed.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Successful",metaDescription:"You have been successfully unsubscribed.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-successful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"114",title:"Civil Engineering",slug:"engineering-civil-engineering",parent:{title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"},numberOfBooks:39,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:497,numberOfWosCitations:328,numberOfCrossrefCitations:300,numberOfDimensionsCitations:644,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering-civil-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7587",title:"Hydraulic Structures",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8ef69ca1e2f0cf3f24f912eb45156fb",slug:"hydraulic-structures-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7587.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",middleName:null,surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8240",title:"Geotechnical Engineering",subtitle:"Advances in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a3c20b826fa5a5cf4693e418eb1c909",slug:"geotechnical-engineering-advances-in-soil-mechanics-and-foundation-engineering",bookSignature:"Sayed Hemeda and Mehmet Barış Can Ülker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258282",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Hemeda",slug:"sayed-hemeda",fullName:"Sayed Hemeda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9431",title:"Smart Cities and Construction Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"37ca01618d7f291efb11a4d115b9cb63",slug:"smart-cities-and-construction-technologies",bookSignature:"Sara Shirowzhan and Kefeng Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9431.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8355",title:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65dbf9dbd943d058488488e73b6c592a",slug:"infrastructure-management-and-construction",bookSignature:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Faham Tahmasebinia and Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8355.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",middleName:null,surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8589",title:"Bridge Optimization",subtitle:"Inspection and Condition Monitoring",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8713f4c0933358bac0d2f3d64ea34ff",slug:"bridge-optimization-inspection-and-condition-monitoring",bookSignature:"Yun Lai Zhou and Magd Abdel Wahab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8589.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"235629",title:"Dr.",name:"Yun Lai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yun-lai-zhou",fullName:"Yun Lai Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7369",title:"Failure Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef22a4739e8f6aa0eb6f7ee49f088c6",slug:"failure-analysis",bookSignature:"Zheng-Ming Huang and Sayed Hemeda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196101",title:"Dr.",name:"Zheng-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"zheng-ming-huang",fullName:"Zheng-Ming Huang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8747",title:"Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6083f7c9881029f1e033a1e512af7e20",slug:"asphalt-and-asphalt-mixtures",bookSignature:"Haitao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260604",title:"Prof.",name:"Haitao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"haitao-zhang",fullName:"Haitao Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8822",title:"Advances in Structural Health Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"429d24d493e64821ae08df0a71d33e37",slug:"advances-in-structural-health-monitoring",bookSignature:"Maguid H.M. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8822.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"141308",title:"Prof.",name:"Maguid H.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"maguid-h.m.-hassan",fullName:"Maguid H.M. Hassan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8808",title:"Risk Management in Construction Projects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8f1673caa5c51349ef131c89d02f873",slug:"risk-management-in-construction-projects",bookSignature:"Nthatisi Khatleli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247856",title:"Dr.",name:"Nthatisi",middleName:null,surname:"Khatleli",slug:"nthatisi-khatleli",fullName:"Nthatisi Khatleli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7524",title:"High-Speed Rail",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e248745ed8a460687701d02462cb874",slug:"high-speed-rail",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7473",title:"Indoor Environmental Quality",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb35168f3d84a1a6ee93cb3797ecda97",slug:"indoor-environmental-quality",bookSignature:"Muhammad Abdul Mujeebu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7473.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"289697",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Mujeebu",slug:"muhammad-abdul-mujeebu",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Mujeebu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:39,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"10381",doi:"10.5772/9090",title:"Ground Based SAR Interferometry: a Novel Tool for Geoscience",slug:"ground-based-sar-interferometry-a-novel-tool-for-geoscience",totalDownloads:4734,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"geoscience-and-remote-sensing-new-achievements",title:"Geoscience and Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Geoscience and Remote Sensing New Achievements"},signatures:"Guido Luzi",authors:null},{id:"41368",doi:"10.5772/52377",title:"Infrastructure Asset Management of Urban Water Systems",slug:"infrastructure-asset-management-of-urban-water-systems",totalDownloads:5671,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"water-supply-system-analysis-selected-topics",title:"Water Supply System Analysis",fullTitle:"Water Supply System Analysis - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Helena Alegre and Sérgio T. Coelho",authors:[{id:"157373",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Alegre",slug:"helena-alegre",fullName:"Helena Alegre"},{id:"165893",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"T Coelho",slug:"sergio-t-coelho",fullName:"Sérgio T Coelho"}]},{id:"33243",doi:"10.5772/35098",title:"Fluid Planning: A Meaningless Concept or a Rational Response to Uncertainty in Urban Planning?",slug:"fluid-planning-a-meaningless-concept-or-a-rational-respons-to-uncertainty-in-urban-planning-",totalDownloads:3308,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:24,book:{slug:"advances-in-spatial-planning",title:"Advances in Spatial Planning",fullTitle:"Advances in Spatial Planning"},signatures:"Torill Nyseth",authors:[{id:"102966",title:"Prof.",name:"Torill",middleName:null,surname:"Nyseth",slug:"torill-nyseth",fullName:"Torill Nyseth"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70758",title:"Bridges: Structures and Materials, Ancient and Modern",slug:"bridges-structures-and-materials-ancient-and-modern",totalDownloads:453,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"infrastructure-management-and-construction",title:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",fullTitle:"Infrastructure Management and Construction"},signatures:"Arturo Gonzalez, Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez and Alejandro Mungaray",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"},{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez"},{id:"311533",title:"MSc.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"arturo-gonzalez",fullName:"Arturo Gonzalez"},{id:"311534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Mungaray",slug:"alejandro-mungaray",fullName:"Alejandro Mungaray"}]},{id:"59672",title:"Critical Success Factors for Effective Risk Management",slug:"critical-success-factors-for-effective-risk-management",totalDownloads:1375,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"risk-management-treatise-for-engineering-practitioners",title:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners",fullTitle:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners"},signatures:"Geraldine J. Kikwasi",authors:[{id:"222345",title:"Dr.",name:"Geraldine",middleName:null,surname:"Kikwasi",slug:"geraldine-kikwasi",fullName:"Geraldine Kikwasi"}]},{id:"67068",title:"Structural Design of a Typical American Wood-Framed Single-Family Home",slug:"structural-design-of-a-typical-american-wood-framed-single-family-home",totalDownloads:1240,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability"},signatures:"Anthony C. Jellen and Ali M. Memari",authors:[{id:"252670",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"M. Memari",slug:"ali-m.-memari",fullName:"Ali M. Memari"},{id:"276003",title:"Mr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Jellen",slug:"anthony-jellen",fullName:"Anthony Jellen"}]},{id:"41368",title:"Infrastructure Asset Management of Urban Water Systems",slug:"infrastructure-asset-management-of-urban-water-systems",totalDownloads:5671,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"water-supply-system-analysis-selected-topics",title:"Water Supply System Analysis",fullTitle:"Water Supply System Analysis - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Helena Alegre and Sérgio T. Coelho",authors:[{id:"157373",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Alegre",slug:"helena-alegre",fullName:"Helena Alegre"},{id:"165893",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"T Coelho",slug:"sergio-t-coelho",fullName:"Sérgio T Coelho"}]},{id:"65037",title:"Monitoring of Critical Metallic Assets in Oil and Gas Industry Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves",slug:"monitoring-of-critical-metallic-assets-in-oil-and-gas-industry-using-ultrasonic-guided-waves",totalDownloads:436,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-structural-health-monitoring",title:"Advances in Structural Health Monitoring",fullTitle:"Advances in Structural Health Monitoring"},signatures:"Anurag Dhutti, Shehan Lowe and Tat-Hean Gan",authors:null},{id:"65137",title:"Sound Quality inside Mosques: A Case Study on the Impact of Mihrab Geometry",slug:"sound-quality-inside-mosques-a-case-study-on-the-impact-of-mihrab-geometry",totalDownloads:1012,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"indoor-environmental-quality",title:"Indoor Environmental Quality",fullTitle:"Indoor Environmental Quality"},signatures:"Hany Hossameldien and Abdulrahman Abdullah Alshawan",authors:[{id:"249109",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"Hossameldin",slug:"hany-hossameldin",fullName:"Hany Hossameldin"},{id:"289154",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Abdulrahman",middleName:"Abdullah",surname:"Alshawan",slug:"abdulrahman-alshawan",fullName:"Abdulrahman Alshawan"}]},{id:"60352",title:"Intelligent Drilling and Coring Technologies for Unmanned Interplanetary Exploration",slug:"intelligent-drilling-and-coring-technologies-for-unmanned-interplanetary-exploration",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"drilling",title:"Drilling",fullTitle:"Drilling"},signatures:"Junyue Tang, Qiquan Quan, Shengyuan Jiang, Jieneng Liang and\nZongquan Deng",authors:[{id:"227250",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Junyue",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"junyue-tang",fullName:"Junyue Tang"},{id:"228658",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengyuan",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"shengyuan-jiang",fullName:"Shengyuan Jiang"},{id:"228668",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiquan",middleName:null,surname:"Quan",slug:"qiquan-quan",fullName:"Qiquan Quan"},{id:"228669",title:"Mr.",name:"Jieneng",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",slug:"jieneng-liang",fullName:"Jieneng Liang"},{id:"228671",title:"Prof.",name:"Zongquan",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",slug:"zongquan-deng",fullName:"Zongquan Deng"}]},{id:"40885",title:"Guidelines for Transient Analysis in Water Transmission and Distribution Systems",slug:"guidelines-for-transient-analysis-in-water-transmission-and-distribution-systems",totalDownloads:6753,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"water-supply-system-analysis-selected-topics",title:"Water Supply System Analysis",fullTitle:"Water Supply System Analysis - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Ivo Pothof and Bryan Karney",authors:[{id:"12216",title:"Professor",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Karney",slug:"bryan-karney",fullName:"Bryan Karney"},{id:"167066",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivo",middleName:null,surname:"Pothof",slug:"ivo-pothof",fullName:"Ivo Pothof"}]},{id:"72208",title:"Operation and Maintenance of Hydraulic Structures",slug:"operation-and-maintenance-of-hydraulic-structures",totalDownloads:347,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"hydraulic-structures-theory-and-applications",title:"Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Hydraulic Structures - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Musa Abubakar Tadda, Amimul Ahsan, Monzur Imteaz, Abubakar Shitu, Umar Abdulbaki Danhassan and Aliyu Idris Muhammad",authors:[{id:"15106",title:"Dr.",name:"Monzur",middleName:null,surname:"Imteaz",slug:"monzur-imteaz",fullName:"Monzur Imteaz"},{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",middleName:null,surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan"},{id:"321344",title:"MSc.",name:"Musa",middleName:"Abubakar",surname:"Tadda",slug:"musa-tadda",fullName:"Musa Tadda"},{id:"321345",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubakar",middleName:null,surname:"Shitu",slug:"abubakar-shitu",fullName:"Abubakar Shitu"},{id:"321346",title:"Dr.",name:"Umar",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulbaki Danhassan",slug:"umar-abdulbaki-danhassan",fullName:"Umar Abdulbaki Danhassan"},{id:"321347",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliyu",middleName:"Idris",surname:"Muhammad",slug:"aliyu-muhammad",fullName:"Aliyu Muhammad"}]},{id:"64214",title:"Electric Two-Wheelers, Sustainable Mobility and the City",slug:"electric-two-wheelers-sustainable-mobility-and-the-city",totalDownloads:743,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"sustainable-cities-authenticity-ambition-and-dream",title:"Sustainable Cities",fullTitle:"Sustainable Cities - Authenticity, Ambition and Dream"},signatures:"Stefan Bakker",authors:[{id:"253018",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Bakker",slug:"stefan-bakker",fullName:"Stefan Bakker"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering-civil-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"73625",title:"Analytic and Numerical Results of Bending Deflection of Rectangular Composite Plate",slug:"analytic-and-numerical-results-of-bending-deflection-of-rectangular-composite-plate",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93592",book:{title:"Structural Integrity and Failure"},signatures:"Louay S. Yousuf"},{id:"74272",title:"Structural Modeling and Dynamic Analysis of a Nuclear Reactor Building",slug:"structural-modeling-and-dynamic-analysis-of-a-nuclear-reactor-building",totalDownloads:45,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94956",book:{title:"Structural Integrity and Failure"},signatures:"Evrim Oyguc, Abdul Hayır and Resat Oyguc"},{id:"74178",title:"Treatment Analysis of Welding Structure in the Presence of a Crack Type Defects",slug:"treatment-analysis-of-welding-structure-in-the-presence-of-a-crack-type-defects",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94832",book:{title:"Structural Integrity and Failure"},signatures:"Mersida Manjgo and Meri Burzic"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/167288/feng-zhang",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"167288",slug:"feng-zhang"},fullPath:"/profiles/167288/feng-zhang",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()