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",isbn:"978-1-80355-367-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-366-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-368-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d3a491e5194cad4c59b900dd57a11842",bookSignature:" Vladimir V. Kalinin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg",keywords:"Variety of Traits, Historical Remarks, Modern Definitions and Descriptions, Personality Disorders, Comorbid Psychopathology, Depression, Anxiety, Obsessions, Delusion, Treatment of Personality Disorders, Phenomenology of Personality Traits, Delusional Symptoms",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 28th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'A researcher with over 300 publications in psychopathology, psychopharmacology, neuropsychiatry, and epileptology, a member of the Russian Society of Psychiatry, and the Russian Society of Epileptology. Dr. Kalinin\'s biography is included in Marquis "Who’s Who in Medicine and Healthcare" (2006-2007); Who’s Who in Science and Engineering 2008-2009"; "Who’s Who in the World" (2010, 2011), and in the Cambridge International Biographical Centre.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"31572",title:null,name:"Vladimir V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-v.-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir V. Kalinin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31572/images/system/31572.png",biography:"Vladimir V. Kalinin was born in1952 into a family of physicians in Orenburg (Russian Federation). He obtained an MD from Moscow State Medical Stomatological University in 1976. In 1976-1977 he completed an internship in Psychiatry. In 1978 he became a scientific researcher at Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry of Ministry of Health and Social Development where he is currently the department head. His scientific interests concern a broad range of psychiatry problems. The topic of his doctoral thesis in 1996 was the psychopathology and therapy of anxiety disorders with an emphasis on panic disorder. Prof. Kalinin has authored 228 publications, including research articles in professional journals (in Russian and English), three monographs in Russian, and four monographs in English.",institutionString:"Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry – The Branch of Serbsky's National Center of Psychiatry and Narcology of Ministry of Health",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"510",title:"Anxiety Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"183445801a9be3bfbce31fe9752ad3db",slug:"anxiety-disorders",bookSignature:"Vladimir Kalinin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/510.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31572",title:null,name:"Vladimir V.",surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-v.-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir V. 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Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10981.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde Dorthea Grindvik",surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-dorthea-grindvik-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde Dorthea Grindvik Nielsen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10211",title:"The Science of Emotional Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"447fc7884303a10093bc189f4c82dd47",slug:"the-science-of-emotional-intelligence",bookSignature:"Simon George Taukeni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10211.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7811",title:"Beauty",subtitle:"Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f6fd59694706550db8dd1082a8e457b",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine and Júlia Scherer Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17663",title:"Relationships between Lithospheric Flexure, Thrust Tectonics and Stratigraphic Sequences in Foreland Setting: the Southern Apennines Foreland Basin System, Italy",doi:"10.5772/24120",slug:"relationships-between-lithospheric-flexure-thrust-tectonics-and-stratigraphic-sequences-in-foreland-",body:'We discuss here tectonics and sedimentation processes occurring during continent-continent collision and relationships between accretionary processes on overplate, flexural lithosphere on underplate and related controls on clastic sedimentation in developing foreland basin systems. This paper focuses on and clastic sedimentation developed during the sequential history of an orogenic system, in the Mediterranean Region. These clastic trends, covering a large time span from Early Mesozoic to the present, may contribute: (1) to the paleogeographic and paleotectonic reconstructions of the southern Italy portions of the western Mediterranean orogen, and (2) to the general models of complex relationships between clastic sedimentation and paleotectonic history of other major orogens.
The evolutionary record of Earth’s processes preserved in the form of sedimentary rocks has been pivotal in paleogeographical and paleotectonic reconstructions of source/basin systems. Compositional trends of clastic strata through space and time are used to infer the structural history of adjacent mountain belts and to monitor the key geodynamic changes during orogenic processes (
The controls on the composition and dispersal pathways of clastic strata along the convergent plate margins have long been debated (
The development of an orogenic wedge during continental collision results in thickening of the crust. The excess mass of this thickened crust acts as a load on the underthrust plate, causing it to be flexed downwards close to the load, so developing a foreland basin (
The foreland is the region between the front of a thrust belt and the adjacent craton (
Diagrammatic cross sections showing the generally accepted notion of foreland-basin geometry(
Foreland basin stratigraphy records tectonic, eustatic, and climatic changes at convergent plate margins (
In foreland settings, subsidence and uplift are profoundly affected by lithospheric flexure. Foreland basin subsidence is primarily controlled by downflexing of the lithosphere in response to thrust accommodation and loading (e.g. Jordan, 1981, 1995; Beaumont, 1981). Subsidence rate gradually decreases away from the thrust front producing an asymmetrical depression. Flexure uplift (forebulge) occurs as an isostatic response to downwarping and forms the distal margin of the foreland basin. Cratonward of the forebulge flexure, a broad shallow downwarp or intrashelf basin forms, the back-bulge basin (Fig. 1; e.g. Quinlan and Beaumont, 1984; DeCelles and Giles, 1996).
The dimension and amount of flexural subsidence and uplift produced by the flexural features (i.e., foreland basin, forebulge, back-bulge basin) primarily depend on the geometry and density of the tectonic load, rheology of the lithosphere, density and volume of the sediment infill, and amount of thrust wedge and forebulge erosion (e.g. Beaumont, 1981; Jordan, 1981; Vai, 1987; DeCelles and Giles, 1996; Sgrosso, 1998). The interrelationships between lithospheric flexure, single thrust accomodation within the accretionary wedge and flexural subsidence experiences geometrically complexes entities within the foreland region. The foreland basin system may be diveded into four depozones, the wedge-top, the foredeep, the forebulge, and the back-bulge depozones (Fig. 1; e.g. DeCelles and Giles, 1996). Boundary between depozones may shift laterally through time following the deformation propagation. The longitudinal dimension of the foreland basin system is roughly equal to the length of the adjacent fold-thrust belt (e.g. DeCelles and Giles, 1996).
In subaerial foreland basin systems (in which foredeep is not filled to the crest of forebulge) the forebulge may be a zone of erosion, with streams draining both toward and away from the orogenic belt (Crampton and Allen, 1995). If sediment derived from thrust-belt progrades into the forebulge, a thin condensed fluvial and aeolian sediment is deposited (DeCelles and Giles, 1996; Critelli, 1999).
In subaqueous foreland basin systems (in which foredeep is not filled up to the crest of forebulge), local carbonate platforms may develop in the forebulge depozone; extensive forebulge carbonate platforms and ramps can connect the foredeep with the back-bulge depozone (Giles and Dickinson, 1995; Critelli, 1999).
From south to north the Southern Italy is subdivide into the following morphotectonic belts (Ippolito et al., 1975): (1) The northern Calabrian Arc, including ophiolites, crystalline basement rocks and Mesozoic sedimentary sequences; (2) the Cilento and Calabro-Lucanian Ranges, having ophiolitic, metasedimentary and sedimentary rocks. The Ranges include a Paleogene Subduction Complex (the Calabro-Lucanian Flysch Unit or Liguride Complex of southern Italy), the middle Miocene foreland strata of the Cilento Group and younger sequences, and the Mesozoic to Miocene carbonate platform and slope (inner platform or Alburni-Cervati-Pollino Units and the Monti della Maddalena Unit); (3) the Campano-Lucanian Ranges, including Mesozoic to upper Miocene deep-sea sequences of the Lagonegro and Sicilide units, the outer platform sequences (Monte Alpi Unit), and the Miocene foreland strata; (4) the Lucanian-Apulia lowland, including the Pliocene to Quaternary foreland clastics; and (5) the Apulian Swell, a Mesozoic to Quaternary carbonate platform (external platform).
Present day distribution of the main geodynamic domains of the Alpine region. Modified after
Chart showing major Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic and depositional events in southern Italy sedimentary assemblages. Modified after
This paper presents results of regional, structural, stratigraphic and provenance relationships that constraint the post-Oligocene tectonic history of the southern Apennines foreland basin system (Fig. 2). The paper focus on the effects of tectonic deformation during sequential history of the growing orogen in southern Italy.
QmFLt (Qm = monocrystalline quartz, F = feldspars, Lt = aphanitic lithic fragments) diagram to illustrate concept of mixing detritus from different provenance types to produce detrital modes reflecting mixed provenance (from
The entire stratigraphic, structural and compositional data set are interpreted using new general models of sequential evolution of foreland basin systems.
The Calabrian terranes form an arcuate mountain belt that lies between the thrust belts of the Apennines to the north and the Maghrebides to the west (Fig. 2). The study area is a transect across the Calabria block and Apulia platform (Figs.5,11 ).
Geological sketch map of the main tectonostratigraphic units of the Southern Apennines (A) and the Calabria-Peloritani Arc (B). A] 1) Lower Messinian to Holocene sediments (a: Monte Vulture volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks); 2) San Bartolomeo Formation (Messinian); 3) Castelvetere, Oriolo,Monte Sacro, Nocara, Serra Manganile formations (upper Tortonian to lower Messinian); 4) Gorgoglione Formation (Tortonian); 5) Piaggine Formation (Serravallian to Tortonian); 6) Serra Palazzo Formation (Langhian to Tortonian); 7) Cilento Group (Langhian to Tortonian); 8) Numidian Sandstone Formation (Langhian); 9) Liguride Complex (Cretaceous to early Miocene; a: Saraceno Formation); 10) Sicilide Complex (Jurassic to early Miocene; a: Albanella, Corleto, Colle Cappella, Tufiti di Tusa formations); 11)Shallow-water to deep-water carbonate units (Triassic to middle Miocene); 12) Deep-water pelagic sediments (Triassic to early Miocene; Lagonegro, Molise, Sannio units). B] 1) Pliocene to Holocene sediments and recent volcanic deposits; 2) Upper Tortonian to Messinian sediments; 3) Stilo-Capo d’Orlando Formation (early Miocene); 4) Longobucco Group (Jurassic); 5) Jurassic to Cretaceous Ophiolitiferous units,and Paleozoic metamorphic and plutonic units; 6) Maghrebian units (Mesozoic to Tertiary); 7) Paludi Formation (Late Oligocene to early Miocene); 8) Frazzan`o Formation (Oligocene to early Miocene). Modified after
Cross sections from the Adriatic Sea to the Tyrrhenian Sea, crossing the main depozones of the modern southern Apennines foreland basin system (
Bathymetric and structural map of the Gulf of Taranto, which is the deep-marine part of the modern foreland basin system along the south-east side of the Apennines orogenic belt. The Corigliano basin represents the wedge-top depozone of the foreland region, in which the Crati Fan has been developing during the last 6000 y. Modified after
The modern physiography and geology of Calabria are the results of post-30 Ma geodynamic processes in which synchronous accretionary processes were active along the eastern flank (northern Ionian Sea), and rifting processes along the western flank (Eastern Tyrrhenian Margin).
The subduction plane, as such as the southern Apennines and Calabrian accretionary prism, have migrated eastward or southeastward causing the roll-back of the subduction (e.g. Malinverno and Ryan, 1986; Royden et al., 1987; Doglioni, 1991; Gueguen et al., 1997, 1998). The roll-back of the subduction hinge (rate of hinge retreat is 6 cm/y; Royden et al., 1987; Patacca et al., 1993) appears to have been slowed and buckled during the Late Pleistocene by the interference of the thick continental lithosphere of the Adria Plate (Apulian swell) at the front of the belt (e.g. Doglioni et al., 1994, 1996).
The frontal active accretionary wedge, below sea-level, whereas the main elevated ridge to the west is in uplift and extension instead. The modern basin configuration of this thrust belt is represented by the wedge-top depozone (Corigliano-Amendolara basins), the marine and subaerial foredeep depozone (Gulf of Taranto and the Bradano river basin, respectively), the forebulge (the Gallipoli Basin) and the back-bulge (southern Adriatic Sea) (Figs. 6,7; e.g. Critelli and Le Pera, 1998).
Several Pliocene-Pleistocene basins cross-cut the Apennines and northern Calabria thrust pile, the most important are the Vallo di Diano, Val d\'Agri, Potenza Basin, Mercure Basin and Crati Basin (e.g. Turco et al., 1990; Cinque et al., 1993; Colella, 1994; Tortorici et al., 1995; Schiattarella, 1998; Tavarnelli and Pasqui, 1998).
On the backarc area similar fault-controlled Pliocene-Pleistocene basins (Tortorici et al., 1995), as such as the Paola Basin and Gioia Basin, represent the synrift troughs of the eastern Tyrrhenian margin (e.g., Savelli and Wezel, 1980; Barone et al., 1982; Sartori, 1982, 1990).
Respect of low elevation, some calculations (Doglioni et al., 1996; Gueguen et al., 1998) show that the thickness of sedimentary strata in the Apennines exceed 20-25 km, the entire crustal thickness is about 30 km, and a thick pile of synorogenic sediment accumulation (up to 10 km from Miocene to modern) suggesting a delamination of the lithospheric mantle during Apenninic subduction (e.g. Channel and Mareschal, 1989; Doglioni et al., 1996).
The Calabrian ranges is peculiar for their high uplift rates that are 1 mm yr-1 (e.g. Cosentino and Gliozzi, 1988; Sorriso-Valvo, 1993; Westaway, 1993), where the maximum uplift is toward the frontal part of the accretionary prism (Ionian side) (Cosentino and Gliozzi, 1988).
The study area shows rocks which experienced a large series of geodynamic events occurred between early to middle Paleozoic orogenesis to actual.
The key geodynamic events into the Mediterranean region can be summarized as follow:
a) The Mesoalpine (Eocene to early Oligocene) tectonic phase in southern Italy corresponds with the subduction of the Adria-Ionian oceanic lithosphere beneath the Iberia plate (Fig. 8). This tectonic stage is responsible for the initial flexure, a general erosional processes of both the inner platform (Alburni-Cervati-Pollino-Bulgheria; Boni, 1974; D\'Argenio, 1974) and outer platform (Monte Alpi-Apulia).
The Mesoalpine tectonic phase caused regional metamorphism at around 38 Ma (e.g. Steck and Hunziker, 1994), and intra-orogenic magmatism along the Periadriatic zone.
The Middle Oligocene (32-30 Ma) is characterized by intense magmatic activity, part of which is directly linked to the Algero-Provencal rift (Provence and Sardinia), part along the Insubric line and part along the periadriatic domain. In the Alps and northern Apennines, the Eocene and Oligocene siliciclastic sedimentary sequences record provenance from (a) Iberic plate (Corsica-Sardinia-Brianconnais), (b) Adria plate (austroalpine domain), (c) European plate, (d) syneruptive magmatic activity, and from (e) both European and Adria forebulges.
In the southern Italy domain, the Calabro-Lucanian Flysch Unit and the Sicilide Complex strata represent deposition in the remnant ocean basin related to the western subduction of the Adria oceanic lithosphere beneath the Iberia plate (Fig. 8; e.g. Knott, 1988; Dewey et al., 1989; Critelli, 1993; Guerrera et al., 1993; Critelli and Le Pera, 1998; Critelli, 1999). The subduction has been active for all the Paleogene and lower Miocene, producing an accretionary prism, the calabro-Lucanian Flysch Unit and the Sicilide p.p. Complex, and a diffuse calcalkaline volcanism in Sardinia. The Liguride Complex records the accretionary processes along the Adria margin and the consumption of the oceanic crust.
Paleogeographic reconstructions (Oligocene to early Miocene) of the western Mediterranean during progressive closure of the remnant ocean basin and onset of collision in southern Apennines. Modified after
f) During early (Fig. 8) to middle (Fig. 9) Miocene the Apenninic domain is the place where immense volume of turbiditic sedimentation is in response of E-NE accretionary processes along the Adria plate (e.g. Ricci Lucchi, 1986; Patacca and Scandone, 1987; Boccaletti et al., 1990). Here, the foreland basin system is developed over deformed Liguride Complex, during the early-middle Miocene, over Sicilide, Lagonegro and inner platform units during the upper Miocene (Fig. 10), over the previous units and the western margin of the Apulia platform during the Pliocene to Quaternary. The foreland basin system (wedge-top, foredeep, forebulge, back-bulge depozones) migrated in time, and siliciclastic and carbonatoclastic deposits, filling the wedge-top and the foredeep, where derived from progressive unroofing of the Calabrian crustal block or from erosion of the forebulge (e.g. Critelli and Le Pera, 1998).
Palinspastic restoration of the Apenninic domains during Langhian. Modified after
g) the geodynamic events of the last 10 My, in the western-central Mediterranean is named the Tyrrhenian phase (15-0 Ma) (Fig. 10). The Tyrrhenian phase (or back-arc extension) is responsible for the fragmention and dispersion of pieces of the Iberian and European plates (Calabria, Sardinia, Corsica), increased the displacement of the accretionary prism over the Adria plate, the eastward migration of the magmatic arcs, and the roll-back of the Adriatic lithosphere (Malinverno and Ryan, 1986; Patacca et al., 1990, 1993; Argnani et al., 1995; Doglioni et al., 1996; Gueguen et al., 1997, 1998). The Tyrrhenian backarc basin migrated eastward (northeastward in the northern Apennines and southeastward in Calabria and Sicily) at velocities of up to 5-7 cm/yr in the most arcuate parts of the arc (Doglioni, 1991; Gueguen et al., 1998).
Palinspastic restoration of the Apenninic domains during the late Tortonian to early Messinian (time interval 8-6 my). Initial back-arc rifting of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and diverse wedge-top and foredeep depozones in the southern Apennine foreland region. Modified after
The Paleozoic metamorphic and plutonic terranes of the Calabrian Arc represent the remnants of Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine orogens (e.g. Amodio Morelli et al., 1976; Schenk, 1981; Zanettin Lorenzoni, 1982; Atzori et al., 1984; Del Moro et al., 1986; Zeck, 1990; Messina et al., 1994), that are drifted from the southern Iberic plate and accreted since upper Oligocene over the Adria-Africa lithosphere. They are a key tectonic element of the southern Italy orogen.
However, other authors consider the Calabrian basement terranes as a part of the Austroalpine domain of the African Plate (e.g. Haccard et al., 1972; Alvarez et al., 1974; Alvarez, 1976; Amodio Morelli et al., 1976; Scandone, 1979, 1982; Bonardi et al., 1982, 1993; Dercourt et al., 1986). In other alternative interpretations, the nappes of the Calabrian Arc originated from a microcontinent located between the European and African continents (e.g. Wildi, 1983; Guerrera et al., 1993; Critelli and Le Pera, 1998; Critelli, 1999; Mongelli et al., 2006; Perrone et al., 2006; Critelli et al., 2008; Perri et al., 2008; 2010) or the Calabrian-Arc terranes are the result of the amalgamation of three “crustal microblocks” (e.g. Vai, 1992).
Tectonic sketch map of the Calabria-Peloritani Arc. 1) Pliocene to Holocene sediments, and volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks; 2) Upper Tortonian to Messinian clastics and evaporites; 3) Cilento Group (Middle Miocene); 4) San Donato, Verbicaro and Pollino Units (Triassic to Miocene); 5) to 7) Liguride Complex: 5. Calabro-Lucanian Flysch Unit (Upper Jurassic to Upper Oligocene); 6. Ophiolitiferous blocks and M`elange; 7. Frido Unit (Upper Jurassic to Upper Oligocene); 8) Longobucco and Caloveto Groups (Lower Lias to Lower Cretaceous) and Paludi Formation (Upper Oligocene); 9) Sila, Castagna and Bagni basement Units (Paleozoic); 10) Malvito, Diamante-Terranova, Gimigliano Ophiolitiferous units (upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous); 11) Floresta Calcarenite (Middle Miocene), Stilo-Capo d’Orlando Formation (Lower Miocene); 12-13) Stilo Unit: 12. Carbonate rocks of the Stilo Unit (Upper Triassic? to Cretaceous) and 13. Basement rocks (Paleozoic); 14) Sedimentary Cover of the Longi-Taormina Unit (Upper Triassic to Oligocene); 15) Basement rocks (Paleozoic) of the Aspromonte, Africo, Mandanici, Fondachelli, Longi, Taormina units; 16) Sedimentary units of the Maghrebian Chain. Modified after
Sketch map of the Calabria-Peloritani Arc, showing the outcrop of the ophiolitiferous and crystalline basement rocks, and simplified tectonostratigraphic terranes of the northern Calabrian Arc.Simplified tectonostratigraphy of the nappe sequence is modified after
The northen Calabrian Arc can be divided into three stacked tectonostratigraphic assemblages (Figs. 11, 12; e.g. Amodio Morelli et al., 1976; Bonardi et al., 1976; Scandone, 1979, 1982; Cello et al., 1981; Bonardi et al., 1982; Colonna and Compagnoni, 1982; Colonna, 1998). The lowest is made of mainly carbonate rocks of Mesozoic age (D’Argenio et al., 1973; Ietto and Barillaro, 1993; Iannace et al., 1995; Perrone, 1996; Ietto and Ietto, 1998) that were originally deposited on the continental margins of the Apulia/Adria plate (Channel et al., 1979). These sediments were stripped from their basement during the Early Miocene collision of Calabria with Africa and Adria, and now form part of the Africa-verging Apennine fold-thrust belt. The middle tectonic units are composed of two nappes (Diamante-Terranova, and Malvito units; Fig. 12) of Mesozoic to Cenozoic metasedimentary and ophiolitic rocks, which can be interpreted as the remnains of the neo-Tethyan Ocean and related accretionary wedge (De Roever et al., 1974; Amodio Morelli et al., 1976; Lanzafame et al., 1979; Guerrera et al., 1993; Cello et al., 1996). The uppermost tectonic units consists of thrust sheets of Paleozoic igneous and metamorphic rocks (Bagni, Castagna and Sila units) and Mesozoic (Longobucco Group) to Cenozoic sediments (Figs. 11, 12), considered to be the basement and cover, respectively, of the former Iberian/Europe margin of Neotethys (e.g. Ogniben, 1969, 1973; Bouillin, 1984; Bouillin et al., 1986; Knott, 1987, 1988; Dietrich, 1988; Dewey et al., 1989; Thomson, 1998).
Thomson (1998), with fission track studies, demonstrates that the emplacement of continental basement rocks with Alpine metamorphism over ophiolitic rocks is constrained as a thrust contact of lower-to-middle Miocene age (<23 Ma), and the other major thrust contact of the diverse alpine basement units may be <18 Ma (Fig. 12). The relative cooling ages range from 35 to 15 Ma, where most of this phase of accelerated cooling can be attributed to increased erosion and progressive exhumation since 23 Ma to about 10 Ma (Thomson, 1994, 1998).
In this large time occurred the main Alpine tectonic phases and final closures of the Piemontese-Ligurian oceanic basin to the north, whereas in the southern Italy, a more external remnant oceanic basin, the Lucanian oceanic basin, divides the Adria margin from the Mesomediterranean Microplate (e.g. Channel and Mareschal, 1989; Dewey et al., 1989; Guerrera et al., 1993; Critelli and Le Pera, 1998; Guerrera et al., 2005; Perrone et al., 2006; Critelli et al., 2008). The Adria plate experienced abrupt surficial and lithospheric changes, as changing nature of the pelagic basins, onset of siliciclastic sedimentation, huge volumes of cratonic quartzose sediments, emersion and erosion of carbonate platform domains, and deformation of the inner carbonate platform to form a forebulge (Patacca et al., 1992; Sgrosso, 1998). The oceanic lithosphere was subducting beneath the Mesomediterranean Microplate, with the Liguride basin representing the oceanic accretionary wedge and a diffuse calcalkaline volcanism was located in Sardinia.
Simplified Early Cretaceous palaeogeographical sketch of the Western Mediterranean Region (after
During Paleogene to early Miocene, sediments over the Calabria-Peloritani Arc include the Upper Oligocene to lower Miocene Frazzanò Formation (de Capoa et al., 1997), in the Peloritani sector of the arc, and the upper Oligocene to lower Miocene Paludi Formation (northern sector) and Stilo Capo d\'Orlando Formation (southern sector). These sandstones are quartzofeldspathic (Fig. 14; Zuffa and De Rosa, 1978; Puglisi, 1987; Cavazza, 1989; Nigro and Puglisi, 1993; Critelli et al., 1995b) and reflect their local provenance from crystalline rocks of the Calabrian terranes. The tectonic setting of these basins is complex; the sequences suturing some crystalline thrust units could represent a wedge-top deposition on advancing calabrian thrust-belt (e.g. Weltje, 1992; Patacca et al., 1993; Wallis et al., 1993) or may represent deposition in a forearc setting (e.g. Cavazza et al., 1997). An alternative interpretation is that they could represent remnants of deposition in foreland setting related to the back-thrust belt of the Betics-Alps orogen (e.g. Doglioni et al., 1997; Gueguen et al., 1997, 1998).
The oceanic area (Liguride basin) experienced deformation and accretion, involving in a remnant ocean basin (Fig. 8). A tectonic melange (Northern-Calabrian Unit; Critelli, 1993, 1999; Mongelli et al., 2010) was formed in this time frame, including olistholiths and broken formations of oceanic sequences (both basement and its pelagic sedimentary cover) and crystalline rocks (gneiss and granite) (Spadea, 1982). The subduction of the Adria oceanic lithosphere beneath the European plate, producing along the southern-end of the European plate a continental-margin calcalkaline volcanic arc in Sardinia (e.g. Scandone, 1982; Malinverno and Ryan, 1986; Channel and Mareschal, 1989; Dewey et al., 1989). Cretaceous to Eocene quartzose sandstone (Crete Nere Formation; Bonardi et al., 1988; Monte Soro Unit; Barbera et al., 2011), and late Paleogene (upper Eocene to upper Oligocene) quartzofeldspathic and volcanolithic sandstones are tectonically assembled within the tectonic mélange (Northern-Calabrian Unit) (Figs. 14). Quartzofeldspathic sandstone was derived from mixtures of ophiolitiferous detritus and neovolcanic detritus. Syneruptive volcanolithic sandstones, having basaltic and andesitic fragments, reflect climax of activity of the Sardinia volcanic arc during its initial arc volcanism (late Oligocene, 32-30 Ma; Critelli, 1993). The overlying sequence, the Saraceno Formation (that caps the Liguride Complex), is unconformably over the Northern-Calabrian Unit, is mixture of siliciclastic and carbonatoclastic strata, that are hybrid arenites, lithic and quartzolithic sandstones (Figs. 14). These sandstones reflect a provenance evolution from sedimentary-dominant (both carbonate and siliciclastic fragments) detritus to metamorphic and sedimentary mixtures. This provenance evolution testifies the initial signal of accretion and unroofing of the frontal thrust system of the northern Calabrian terranes (Sila Unit; e.g. Messina et al., 1994).
QtFL plot (with superposed provenance fields of
During Paleogene, carbonate platforms and their slopes are characterized by thin stratigraphic sections, repeated emersions and non deposition (hiatus) intervals, that include the Eocene-Oligocene in the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino-Bulgheria units, all the Paleogene in the Monti della Maddalena unit and Apulia platform unit, and the Cretaceous to Early Miocene in the Monte Alpi Unit (Marsella et al., 1995).
QtFL plot (with superposed provenance fields of
Basinal sequences are dominantly pelagic, consisting of resedimented carbonate gravity flows (turbidite calcarenite to conglomerate debris flows and grain flows), representing carbonate slope aprons in the Lagonegro basin (Flysch Rosso Formation; Pescatore et al., 1988) and the Sicilide basin (Monte Sant’Arcangelo Formation; Lentini, 1979), interbedded with siliceous clays and shales. Rare siliciclastic or hybrid arenites are in the Paleocene sections of the Sicilide Complex (Monte Sant\'Arcangelo Formation; Selli, 1962; Lentini, 1979). The sandstone is quartzolithic, including abundant quartz and metamorphic and sedimentary lithic fragments. Eocene to Oligocene Colle Cappella Sandstone Formation (the lower portion of the Nocara Flysch; Ogniben, 1969; Zuppetta et al., 1984), is a turbidite system including abundant sandstones that are quartzolithic (Critelli and Le Pera, 1998). These sandstones have very abundant low-grade metamorphic fragments, suggesting initial erosion and accretion of the Calabrian terranes. However, the Colle Cappella Sandstone Formation could reasonable be younger than proposed ages, and be considered as early Miocene in age (Aquitanian to Burdigalian; Figs. 8,15) (Critelli et al., 1994, 1995b).
During early Miocene an abrupt paleogeographic and geodynamic change occur along the Adria margin (Figs. 8, 9). Transgressive shallow-water calcarenite sediments were deposited on carbonate platform domains (Fig. 16; Selli, 1957; Carannante et al., 1988b; Patacca et al., 1992; Sgrosso, 1998). Within the Sicilide and Lagonegro basins a thick (up to 1000 m) quartzose turbidite sand, the Numidian Sandstone Formation (Patacca et al., 1992) represent the key signal of a mature quartzose (cratonic) provenance from the northern Africa continental margin (Fig. 9; Wezel, 1970a, 1970b; Patacca et al., 1992). This widespread quartzose material was deposited, during upper Burdigalian (?) to Langhian, within the nascent foredeep of the Sannio-Sicilide, on the forebulge of the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino units, and on the back-bulge Lagonegro depozones (Patacca et al., 1992). Syneruptive andesitic volcaniclastic layers are interbedded with the shallow-water calcarenites (Fig. 16), and quartzose sandstones testifying the volcanic activity on the Sardinia Arc (Patacca et al., 1992), as such as arkosic debris flows (cf. Carbone et al., 1987) recording signals of provenance from accreted crustal block of the Calabrian terranes.
The active volcanic source and the crystalline sources of the Calabria-Peloritani Arc are recorded within the Sicilide foredeep, forming distinct early Miocene siliciclastic turbidite systems having sand compositions ranging from volcanolithic (Tufiti di Tusa Formation) to quartzolithic and quartzofeldspathic (Albanella, Corleto and Colle Cappella Formations) (Fig. 15; e.g. Critelli et al., 1994; Fornelli and Piccarreta, 1997; Critelli and Le Pera, 1998; Perri et al., 2011). Volcaniclastic detritus, interbedded with quartzose sandstone strata, seem to be also deposited within the back-bulge Lagonegro depozone (Pescatore et al., 1988).
Final closure of the Liguride remnant ocean basin and onset of continental collision in the southern Apennines are dated as early Miocene (Burdigalian). The provenance of the detrital constituents of the Miocene foreland sandstones was dominantly from the Calabrian Arc terranes, the active growing front of the fold-thrust belt (Fig. 8). Nevertheless, folded and thrusted remnant oceanic sequences, active volcanics, and the forebulge of the flexed Adria margin were in time and space important detrital sources of the southern Apennines foreland basin system (Fig. 8).
a. The Basement rocks of the northern Calabrian Terranes. Initial signals of the provenance is during final closure of the Liguride Complex (Saraceno Formation). During accretionary processes of, thrust units of the Calabrian terranes along the Adria margin (Figs. 11, 12).
b. The uplifted subduction complex (the Calabro-Lucanian Flysch Unit), during the mid-late Miocene (Figs. 15,).
Schematic columnar sections of the upper portions of the Adria carbonate platform domains, involved in flexural features during southern Apennines foreland basin system. The three sections correspond with the forebulge depozone sedimentation during (a) Burdigalian to early Tortonian (Alburno-Cervati-Pollino units or inner platform domain), (b) late Tortonian to Messinian (Monte Alpi unit), and (c) early Pliocene to the present (Apulia unit). Reference stratigraphic data for: the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino platform are from
c. The Mesozoic to Tertiary Apulia/Adria basinal and platform domains (Lagonegro, Sannio, Sicilide units, the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino units, Verbicaro-San Donato-Bulgheria-Monti della Maddalena units, Monte Alpi unit, and the Apulia unit). The forebulge sources to the foredeep depozones, were the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino-Monti della Maddalena units from Burdigalian to Tortonian; the Monte Alpi unit, from early Messinian to lower Pliocene, and the Apulia unit, since Pliocene (Fig. 16).
d. An additional source of sediment is volcanic, that is mainly related to the calcalkaline volcanic arcs (between 32 and 11 Ma) was widespread along the western side of Sardinia (Cherchi and Montadert, 1982; Assorgia et al., 1986), or more recently to the intraorogenic alkaline volcanism in the Oligocene to Miocene.
The upper Sicilide Complex represents the oldest deposits of the foredeep basin (Critelli et al., 1995 b). In the forebulge and back-bulge depozones, a widespread quartz arenite, the Numidian sandstone, as well as shallow-water calcarenite and thin volcaniclastic layers were deposited (Selli, 1957, 1962; Perrone, 1987; Carbone et al., 1987; Carannante et al., 1988b; Santo and Sgrosso, 1988; Patacca et al., 1992; Sgrosso, 1998) (Fig.16).
Siliciclastic strata of the Sicilide Complex (Fig. 8) include quartzolithic, volcanolithic and quartzofeldspathic sandstones. Thick (up to 300m) volcanolithic strata of the Tufiti di Tusa include syneruptive (e.g. Critelli and Ingersoll, 1995) andesite and basaltic andesite sandstones, recording climax of volcanic activity of the calcalkaline volcanic arc (Critelli et al., 1990; Fornelli and Piccarreta, 1997). Interbedded with carbonatoclastic sequences of the Adria forebulge (the Capaccio-Roccadaspide, Cerchiara Formations; Carannante et al., 1988a), similar andesitic volcanolithic sand testifies to wide dispersal of the neovolcanic detritus in the forebulge and back-bulge depozones (Pieri and Rapisardi, 1973; Perrone, 1987; Pescatore et al., 1988; Critelli, 1991; Patacca et al., 1992). Metamorphiclastic quartzolithic and quartzofeldspathic sandstones occur in the lower portions of the Tufiti di Tusa below the volcaniclastic strata (Critelli et al., 1990), and characterize the Corleto, Colle Cappella and Albanella formations (Fig. 15; Critelli et al., 1994; Fornelli and Piccarreta, 1997). They are derived from low to middle grade metasedimentary terranes, and are partly derived from ophiolitic rocks (Fornelli & Piccarreta, 1997). Interbedded thick carbonatoclastic (calcarenite-marl) strata within Tufiti di Tusa, Albanella and Corleto Formations, testify a provenance from the forebulge.
The Cilento Group (Fig. 17) (
Proportions of volcanic and plutonic detritus increase upward in the upper Pollica Formation and lower San Mauro, Torrente Bruca and Albidona formations. A volcaniclastic interval in the lower San Mauro Formation includes abundant felsic (rhyodacite to rhyolite) calcalkaline volcanic clasts (Critelli and Le Pera, 1994).
Sandstone of the upper Cilento Group is plutoniclastic quartzofeldspathic, consisting of abundant phanerites of plutonic and metamorphic fragments. In the upper Cilento Group thick carbonatoclastic and olistostroma megabeds record major tectonic events on both active thrust belt and forebulge (e.g. Critelli and Le Pera, 1994, 1998). Carbonatoclastic megabeds record huge volumes of sand-sized and mud derived from flexed Adria margin. These beds have impressive volumes and basinal lateral continuity (Colella and Zuffa, 1988; Cieszkowski et al., 1995). Olistostroma beds are siliciclastics, and include mountain-sized blocks of Calabrian terranes and Liguride Complex terranes (including also oceanic crust rocks; Ietto et al., 1965; Cocco and Pescatore, 1968; Carrara and Serva, 1982; Di Girolamo et al., 1992; Valente, 1991, 1993). Liguride-derived detritus appear only in the middle-upper Cilento Group, suggesting initial signals of the Liguride Complex emersion. Clear signals of the Liguride Complex emersion and erosion are recorded within the Piaggine Sandstone (Fig. 15; Serravallian to Tortonian; Sgrosso, 1981, 1998; Castellano et al., 1997). Quartzolithic sandstone of the Piaggine is derived from abundant Liguride Complex detritus (over than 50%;, suggesting that near the Serravallian-Tortonian boundary, the Liguride Complex was in a subaerial position, probably representing the emerged frontal thrust of the mountain belt (Critelli and Le Pera, 1995a,\n\t\t\t\t\t1998).
The Serra Palazzo Formation (Selli, 1962; Ogniben, 1969) has been interpreted as the foredeep basin of the Langhian to Serravallian (Tortonian?) southern Apennines foreland region (Patacca et al., 1990). It has quartzofeldspathic sandstone (Fig. 15), hybrid arenite, and calcarenite, suggesting provenance from both thrust belt and forebulge. The middle-upper sedimentary succession, includes an olistostromal bed of carbonate clasts (olistoliths) (Loiacono and Sbarra, 1991) recording abrupt flexure along the passive margin.
Sandstone of the Gorgoglione Formation (Selli, 1962), upper Tortonian in age (Patacca et al., 1990), is quartzofeldspathic having similar provenance to that of the upper Cilento Group sandstone. The Cilento and Gorgoglione sandstone modes record accretionary processes of the Calabrian terrane, and initial unroofing of the crystalline terranes (Critelli and Le Pera, 1994, 1995a, 1998).
These foreland clastics, including Castelvetere, Monte Sacro, Oriolo, Serra Manganile, Nocara, and San Bartolomeo formations (Fig. 3), abruptly shift sand composition toward "ideal arkose" (e.g. Dickinson, 1985) or continental-block-derived sandstone (Fig. 18), suggesting deeply eroded Calabrian terranes. The previous forebulge of the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino-Monti della Maddalena units, during the late Tortonian were assembled within the fold-thrust-belt, and the new forebulge of the foreland basin system might be located on the Monte Alpi Unit (Fig. 10; Patacca et al., 1992).
Schematic columnar section of the Cilento Group. It rests unconformably on Liguride Complex and it is unconformably covered by late Tortonian-early Messinian clastic wedges (Monte Sacro, Serra Manganile and Oriolo Formations). Modified after
Forebulge sedimentation of the Monte Alpi Unit (cf. Sgrosso, 1988b, 1998; Taddei and Siano, 1992) is thin (20m to about 100m in thickness) and consists of shallow-water to coastal arenite, marl and carbonate conglomerate (Fig.16). Arenite and rudite of the Monte Alpi are dominantly composed of carbonate detritus. Arenites of this forebulge sequence, are pure to impure calclithite, composed of ancient extrabasinal carbonate grains (e.g. Zuffa, 1987) having Cretaceous to early Miocene tests, and the siliciclastic detritus includes rounded to subrounded quartz, plagioclase, radiolarian chert, fine grained quartz-siltite and quartzite, and rare serpentinite/serpentine schist and volcanic lithic fragments. Rare quartzolithic sandstones, having abundant quartz, carbonate lithic grains and plagioclase, are interbedded with the calcilithite strata. Plutonic and metamorphic detritus is absent in these arenites.
On the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino units, locally, thin arkosic sandstone strata unconformably overlain the Miocene forebulge sequence or are directly on Cretaceous to Paleogene carbonates (cf. Patacca et al., 1992; Sgrosso, 1998). These arkosic strata crop out on the Alburno-Cervati Mountains (Tempa del Prato Sandstone) and on the Pollino Mountains (Civita Sandstone) (Patacca et al., 1992; Sgrosso, 1998;, and include abundant plutonic and high-grade metamorphic detritus, as such as extrabasinal carbonate detritus.
Monte Sacro, Serra Manganile, Oriolo and Nocara Conglomerate formations (Figs. 5, 17) unconformably covering Liguride and Sicilide Complexes, and the Cilento Group, represent the wedge-top depozone sequences (Fig. 10, 17).
The Castelvetere Formation (Pescatore et al., 1970) has been interpreted as the foredeep basin (Patacca et al., 1990; Critelli and Le Pera, 1995b; Fig. 10). The Castelvetere has a thick olistostrome bed in the basal portions (Fig. 19), including mountain-block carbonate olistoliths (Pescatore et al., 1970; Pescatore, 1978; Carrara and Serva, 1982), that record involvement of the Langhian to Tortonian passive margin (e.g., the Alburno-Cervati Unit) within the thrust belt. Castelvetere sandstone modes are plutoni-metamorphiclastic, with up-section increases of sedimentary detritus (Critelli and Le Pera, 1995b). Sedimentary detritus is carbonate dominant in the lower Castelvetere; up-section increases of siliciclastic detritus suggests progressive erosion of older clastic wedges. Interbedded with quartzofeldspathic turbidite sandstone, the upper Castelvetere has a thick olistostrome bed composed of clastic detritus derived from Sicilide/Sannio and Liguride complexes, and a 1m thick volcaniclastic layer (Fig. 19). The siliciclastic olistostroma may be the signal of the syn-thrust accomodation of the Sicilide/Sannio Complex and possibly of the Liguride Complex. The syneruptive volcaniclastic layer consists of pyroclast fragments (pumice and shards) having felsic subalkaline composition (dacite) (Critelli and Le Pera, 1995b).
Messinian sandstones of the wedge-top and foredeep basins (Patacca et al., 1990, 1992; Sgrosso, 1998), the Monte Sacro, Serra Manganile, Oriolo, Nocara, Tempa del Prato, Caiazzo, San Bartolomeo, Agnone formations have homogeneous quartzofeldspathic compositions similar to the Castevetere sandstone (Fig. 18).
QtFL plot (with superposed provenance fields of
Unconformably conglomerate and sandstone strata having rich macro-fauna (Clypeaster sandstone Formation, Cotecchia, 1963; or San Nicola dell\'Alto Formation, Ogniben, 1955; Roda, 1964) represent the onset of the foreland basin system on advancing Calabrian thrust belt. These strata include diverse sedimentary facies associations, representing a depositional sequence (Roveri et al., 1992) and they are interpreted as a turbiditic system, having an overall fining and thinning upward trend, in the Crotone basin (where it is over 1000m in thickness; Roveri et al.,1992).
It represents the main reservoir of dry gas (Roveri et al., 1992) In the other areas, these strata include also continental strata (alluvial fans), nearshore and shallow-water deposits (area between Bocchigliero and Campana). These strata are overlain by fine-grained turbiditic systems and, toward the thrust culminations of the Sila Massif, by shelfal deposits. These strata, correspond with the Ponda Formation (Roda, 1964) of the Crotone basin, or the "Argilloso-marnosa Formation" of the Rossano basin (Ogniben, 1955) and may represent deposition during low-stand systems tract (Roveri et al., 1992).
The Rossano wedge-top depozone, during late Tortonian-early Messinian, abruptly receives huge volumes of Sicilide-derived olistostroma "Argille Scagliose Formation" (Ogniben, 1955, 1962) composed by variegated clay matrix and large blocks (olistholiths) of Cretaceous-Oligocene limestone, Miocene quartzolithic (similar to the Albanella-Colle Cappella sandstones) and quartzose sandstones (Numidian sands). These gravity flow deposits may be related to an out of sequence thrust accomodation or to a back-thrust of the Sicilide unit (Critelli, 1999). Infact, at the same time interval, within the foredeep depozone, the Castelvetere Formation has a similar olistostrome layer (Fig. 19) ; Critelli and Le Pera, 1995b).
On the successions of Rossano (north) and Crotone (south) Basins rests tectonically a sedimentary allocthonous succession defined named “Cariati Nappe” (Roda, 1967a; Ogniben, 1973). This succession is made up of turbiditic bodies with thinning-upward trend of Langhian-Serravallian in age, involved in backthrusting starting late Tortonian and involving the evaporitic and post evaporitic units in the Rossano Basin (Barone et al., 2008). The CN includes a Middle to Upper Miocene clastic succession unconformably covering an Oligocene to Burdigalian siliciclastic flysch. The Miocene and post Messinian emplacement of the so-called “Cariati Nappe” (CN) in the central sector of the area interrupts the lateral continuity and affects the sedimentary supply of a such configured wedge-top basin.
The Messinian sequence is characterized by evaporite deposits which record the Mediterranean salinity crisis. The evaporites consist mainly of gypsum and halite, followed by a thin mudstone interval, and thin clastic and evaporite beds (Ogniben, 1955; Roda, 1964; Romeo, 1967; Di Nocera et al., 1974). Overlying the evaporite sequence, an erosional unconformity marks the base of a Late Messinian to Pliocene depositional sequence within the Crotone Basin (Roveri et al., 1992). This depositional sequence consists of a basal conglomerate and sandstone strata with fining-upward trend (transgressive systems tract; Carvane Conglomerate Formation; Roda, 1964), overlain by basin-wide marine shales (high-stand systems tract; Marne argillose dei Cavalieri Formation; Roda, 1964) (Roveri et al., 1992).
The juxtaposition of authocthonous basinal successions (Rossano and Crotone successions) and allochthonous (Cariati Nappe) would suggest the detection, during the Serravallian-Tortonian, of the sedimentary basins developed in different contest; A basin on the inner set of the Arco Calabro Units which the western edge is well outcropping, and an outer external basin set on Sicilide units and Albidona formation.
Therefore, the Cariati Nappe would give the meaning of a backthruts of Tortonian age, related to the upper-middle Miocene accretionary phases that sharing the Foreland Basin system of the intersection of southern Apennines-Calabrian terrane.
Because of its sedimentary succession, the Cariati Nappe would include many tettonostratigrafic similarities with the sedimentary successions of the Upper Ionian Calabria and Lucania, which identify the area of the Montegiordano-Nocara-Rocca Imperiale ridge (Zuppetta et alii, 1984; Mostardini & Merlini, 1986; Patacca & Scandone, 1987, 2001; Carbone & Lentini, 1990; Cinque et alii, 1993; Critelli, 1999) where the successions of the Albidona and the hight portion of the Sicilidi Units, posed by the Argille Scagliose formation and Colle Cappella Sandstones, rests conglomeratic and arenaceous turbiditic successions belonging Serravallian-Tortonian of Oriolo Formation and Nocara Conglomerates Formation.
Synchronously with major tectonic events in the foreland thrust-belt, extensional tectonic activity affected the Tyrrhenian margin, just after the Tortonian compressive event; thereafter, evolution of the Tyrrhenian basin strongly influenced peripheral deformation of the Apennines foreland region (e.g., Malinverno and Ryan, 1986; Royden et al., 1987; Kastens et al., 1988; Lavecchia, 1988; Patacca et al., 1990; Sartori, 1990).
Since late Tortonian, the Calabrian terranes have provided abundant detritus to both the foreland region and intermontane basins of the backarc region (Figs. 3, 10) characterized by similar detrital provenances. Sandstones are "ideal arkose", and are identical in composition with the distal deep-marine upper Tortonian to Messinian foreland strata (e.g., Critelli and Le Pera, 1995a; Critelli et al., 1995b) (Fig. 18).
Marginal syn-rift strata of the Coastal Range of western Calabria (Amantea Basin) has Upper Tortonian to Messinian arkose, hybrid arenites and calcarenite, however, are similar to sandstone strata of the Crotone Basin (peri-ionian area) (Critelli, 1999; Barone et al., 2008).
Schematic columnar section of the Castelvetere Formation. It rests unconformably on Mesozoic carbonate platform unit. Reconstructed stratigraphy is from personal data and from
Estimated uplift rates are almost equal to late Quaternary denudation rates. Tectonics and climate have had a strong effect on the landforms of the Calabrian mountain ranges, resulting in the higher accumulation rates.
Additional Quaternary sediment sources for the Paola and Corigliano basins are active volcanic centres bordering the Paola Basin, and submarine structural highs, such as Amendolara embankment (Romagnoli and Gabbianelli, 1990), bordering the Corigliano Basin, producing reworking intrabasinal detritus. Quaternary sedimentation of both basins is strongly influenced by glacio-eustatic changes (Chiocci, 1994; Trincardi et al., 1995).
The Corigliano trough represents the Holocene submarine wedge-top depozone of the southern Apennines and northern Calabria foreland region (Pescatore and Senatore, 1986) (Fig. 7). It is morphologically characterized by a restricted shelf area, numerous gullies and canyons, and a submarine fan, the Crati Fan, developed during Holocene and connected with the torrential-type Crati delta on the shelf (Ricci Lucchi et al., 1984; Romagnoli and Gabbianelli, 1990).
The Crati River drains both the Calabrian crustal block to the west, east and south, and the southern Apennines Mesozoic to Tertiary sedimentary terranes to the north.
The Tyrrhenian margin of northern Calabria consists of diverse small coastal drainages, draining both Calabria continental block and the southern Apennines thrust belt, supplying sediments to the deep-marine Paola Basin. The basement of the basin consists of crystalline rocks of the Calabrian terranes or the upper Tortonian to Messinian sedimentary sequences. The basal unconformity is early Pliocene in age, and sediments of this age are bathyal (Fabbri et al., 1981). The main Pliocene to early Pleistocene unconformities seem to be related to the abrupt uplift of the Calabrian Coastal Range (“Catena Costiera”; e.g. Ortolani, 1978; Fabbri et al., 1981; Barone et al., 1982; Wezel, 1985).
Modern beach and fluvial sands of the Tyrrhenian margin of northern Calabria have three distinct petrofacies from north to the south, namely, (1) the calclithitic Lao petrofacies (at the northern end of the Paola Basin drainage area), having a provenance from the south-western flank of the southern Apennines slope, including dominantly Mesozoic carbonate rocks, (2) the quartzolithic Coastal Ranges petrofacies (in the central portion of the Paola Basin drainage area), having a provenance from dominantly metamorphic terranes (dominantly phyllite and schist, and gneiss) of the Coastal Ranges, and (3) the quartzofeldspathic Santa Eufemia Gulf petrofacies (at the southern end of the Paola Basin drainage area), having a provenance from metamorphic (dominantly gneiss, and phyllite and schist) and plutonic terranes of the Sila and Serre Mountains and from sedimentary terranes of the Catanzaro Graben. They represent the actualistic petrofacies of the mainland areas of the deep-marine Paola Basin (e.g. Le Pera and Critelli, 1997; Critelli and Le Pera, 2003).
Schematic columnar sections of the Crotone-Cirò and Rossano basins. The sedimentary successions rest unconformably on Paleozoic plutonic and metamorphic rocks of the northern Calabrian Arc (Sila Unit), or on Oligocene to lower Miocene Paludi Formation. These sequences represent the more proximal late Tortonian to Pliocene strata (wedge-top depozone) of the southern Apennines foreland basin system. Reconstructed stratigraphy is from personal data and from
Late Quaternary turbidite sands of the Paola Basin have distinct petrofacies (Fig. 21), that are: (a) a quartzolithic petrofacies, including also calclithitic turbidite sands, and (b) a volcanic-rich petrofacies, including distinctive syneruptive volcaniclastic sands (Critelli, 1999).
The quartzolithic sand petrofacies widely occurs into the Paola Basin and it is strictly related to the composition of the Coastal Range littoral province. At the northern end of the Paola Basin, distinct sedimentaclastic (calclithitic) turbidite sands, reflects a provenance from the Lao littoral province (Le Pera and Critelli, 1997; Le Pera, 1998; Critelli and Le Pera, 2003).
QtFL plot (with superposed provenance fields of
The volcanic-rich sand petrofacies also well represented within the Late Quaternary stratigraphic sequence of the Paola Basin. This petrofacies includes two main syneruptive volcaniclastic turbidites, one is located close to a datum plane at 20,000 y (calcalkaline volcanic provenance), and the upper one (alkaline volcanic provenance) is at the top of the basin-fill.
The unroofing history of the Calabrian terranes, started during final closure of the Liguride basin, abruptly increased during accretionary processes over the Adria margin, occurred during early Miocene (Fig. 8). Increasing detrital feldspars and metamorphic detritus in the early Miocene sandstones (lower Cilento Group; upper Sicilide Complex) suggest dissection of the frontal terranes of the northern Calabrian arc. Local huge arrivals of volcaniclastic detritus testifies the climax of activity of the calcalkaline volcanic arc of Sardinia (Fig. 8).
In middle Miocene (Serravallian to Tortonian) sandstone detrital modes recorded a major change from lower Cilento Group to upper Cilento Group and Gorgoglione Formation (Fig. 14), with marked increased in detrital feldspars, medium- to high-grade metamorphic and plutonic rock fragments (Critelli and Le Pera, 1994). This compositional change, related to rapid northeastern movement of the Calabrian terranes and thrust accomodation of the high-grade Hercynian metamorphic rocks (Fig. 12), reflects rapid rise of Calabria and sharp increase in denudation rates, as documented also by fission-tracks (e.g. Thomson, 1998).
At this stage, the Adria (Alburno-Cervati-Pollino-Monti della Maddalena units) forebulge was involved in tectonic deformation and assembled within the orogenic belt (Fig. 10); the Liguride subduction complex, that was part of the deep duplex system, locally emerges producing abundant detritus to the foreland (Piaggine Sandstone and Olistostroma beds of the upper Cilento Group; Critelli and Le Pera, 1995a, 1998) (Figs. 15, 17).
In upper Miocene (late Tortonian to Messinian) sandstone detrital modes recorded an other major change (increasing feldspars, high-grade metamorphic and plutonic fragments), and the composition shift toward "ideal arkose" (Fig. 17; Critelli and Le Pera, 1995a). This time is also marked by the onset of the Tyrrhenian rifting on the back of the orogenic belt, causing an increased eastern displacement of the thrust system (e.g., Cello et al., 1981, 1989; Carbone and Lentini, 1990; Patacca et al., 1990; Lentini et al., 1994; Sgrosso, 1998). This other compositional change of the foreland sandstones reflects an increasing of the uplift rates, and deep erosion levels into mid-crustal rocks along the core of the Calabrian thrust belt.
The syntectonic Miocene stratigraphic succession indicates episodic, eastern migration of the forebulge. The position of the flexural forebulge did not progress continuously eastward through time but appeared to stall at its initial position from Langhian to Tortonian during deposition of the Cilento Group, Gorgoglione Formation and “Cariati Nappe” succession (Fig. 9). Only during the upper Tortonian to Messinian the forebulge moved rapidly eastward during deposition of Castelvetere and San Bartolomeo formations (Fig. 10). Possible reasons for discontinuous migration of flexural features that may apply to the southern Apennines foreland are episodic migration of the thrust load and inhomogeneitis within the lithosphere (e.g. Boyer and Elliot, 1982; Waschbusch and Royden, 1992; Giles and Dickinson, 1995; Critelli, 1999).
The buildup and migration of an accretionary prism includes progressive cratonward outstepping of the thrust front incorporating new material into the thrust load as it migrates (e.g. Giles and Dickinson, 1995). Thrust loads may also build up by almost vertical stacking of thrust sheets along ramps within the hinterland, producing the critical taper needed for the thrust system to migrate (e.g. Boyer and Elliot, 1982). In this case, flexural features would not continuously migrate cratonward because the thrust load itself is not continuously migrating cratonward. Waschbusch and Royden (1992) suggest that discontinuous migration of flexural features may also be caused by inhomogeneities within the lithosphere that fix the position of the forebulge to a weak segment of the foreland lithosphere.
Flexed features of the southern Apennines foreland basin system change discontinuously during the last 23 my. The forebulge did not migrate from early Miocene to the Tortonian and it may have been fixed to a weak zone corresponding to the former miogeoclinal shelf margin of the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino inner platform domain (Figs. 9,16; Patacca et al., 1992). The Calabrian allochthon terranes and associated subduction zone progressively migrated toward the fixed forebulge until stresses reached a threshold during late Tortonian-early Messinian (Fig. 10), the time of deposition of the Castelvetere Formation (Critelli and Le Pera, 1995b).
At this time the forebulge migrated rapidly eastward causing deformation of the former back-bulge basin strata (Lagonegro basin). The inferred new forebulge may be the inner Apulia platform unit (or Monte Alpi Unit; Figs. 10, 16). The Monte Alpi Unit has an unconformable lower Messinian carbonatoclastic sequence (Figs. 16), that is transitional to shallow-water (cf. Sgrosso, 1988a, 1988b, 1998; Taddei and Siano, 1992), representing remnants of deposition on the forebulge. The last eastward forebulge migration occur during Pliocene, the new forebulge is the Apulia platform (Fig. 16), and the foredeep is the Bradanic trough (Fig. 6; e.g. Ricchetti, 1980; Ricchetti and Mongelli, 1980; Casnedi et al., 1982; Critelli, 1999).
In foreland settings, subsidence and uplift are profoundly affected by lithospheric flexure. Foreland basin subsidence is primarily controlled by downflexing of the lithosphere in response to thrust accommodation and loading. The interrelationships between lithospheric flexure, single thrust accomodation within the accretionary wedge and flexural subsidence experiences geometrically complexes entities within the foreland region (e.g. Critelli, 1999).
This chapter has examined clastic sediments and interpreted many stratigraphic sequences that were deposited in the southern Apennines foreland basin system during the complex orogenic history of the western Mediterranean, suggesting that interplay of lithospheric flexure and thrust accomodation were important factors in controlling accomodation trends. From late Paleogene to the present the siliciclastic sedimentary sequences of southern Italy filled basins that are directly related to this convergent setting, causing consumption of the oceanic lithosphere, and subsequent accretion of the Calabrian allochthonous terranes over the Adria-Africa plate generating post-Oligocene foreland basin systems.
Earliest onset of continental accretion on Adria margin occurred during late Burdigalian-early Langhian; foreland clastic strata of the upper Sicilide Complex were derived from dominantly metasedimentary and related sedimentary covers rocks of the frontal Calabrian terranes (e.g. Critelli, 1999). Sudden influx of neovolcanic detritus suggests continuing provenance from the active volcanic arc that was possibly hundred kilometers distant (Fig. 8).
Thick foreland clastic sequences formed during Langhian (Fig. 9) over accreted Liguride and Sicilide Complexes.
Langhian to Serravallian detrital modes of the Cilento Group (Fig. 17) have abrupt changes from quartzolithic (phyllite and schist source rocks) sandstone to quartzofeldspathic (plutonic and gneissic source rocks) sandstone. This change in detrital modes was accompanied by interbedded carbonatoclastic detritus derived from abrupt flexure of the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino forebulge (Figs. 17). These major changes in foreland clastic deposition occurred
During Serravallian to lower Tortonian (15 to about 10 Ma), abundant ophiolitic and pelagic detritus within the foreland basin (upper Cilento Group and Piaggine Sandstone) record emersion and erosion of the Liguride and Sicilide complexes. At c.11 Ma, volcanism of western Sardinia abruptly terminated, rendering Sardinia into a remnant arc.
During Late Tortonian to Early Messinian, abrupt changes in the southern Apennines foreland region occurred. The former forebulge (e.g., Alburno-Cervati-Pollino units) was involved in tectonic deformation and incorporated within the thrust belt, and an eastward shifting of the foredeep depozone occurred. Foredeep and wedge-top sandstone strata shifted in composition toward continental block or arkose, suggesting major uplift of the Calabrian thrust belt. Coeval thrust accomodation of Sicilide-Sannio units, recorded as large gravitative deposits within foredeep and wedge-top depozones (Figs. 19, 20) and recycling of older sedimentary sequences are important signals of accretionary processes within the thrust-belt. Signals of post-8 Ma volcanism are recorded in the foreland sequences, but sources are unknown.
Since Late Tortonian (10-8 Ma; Fig. 10), backarc rifting has produced the Tyrrhenian Sea. At this time, the northern Calabrian Arc has been the western border of the northern Ionian foreland region and the eastern margin of the Tyrrhenian backarc basin (Fig. 10). Intermontane and syn-rift basins of the western Calabria and proximal and distal foreland basins of eastern Calabria and southern Apennines have identical sand composition, plotting within ideal arkose or continental block provenance field (e.g., Dickinson, 1985, 1988) (Fig. 18). The maximum rate of foreland thrust advancement (8 cm yr-1) occurred in late Tortonian to Messinian (Patacca et al., 1990); major changes in uplift rate in the northern Calabrian Arc correspond with the abrupt change in sandstone detrital modes (Critelli and Le Pera, 1995a; Critelli, 1999; Barone et al. 2006).
Upper Tortonian to Messinian nonmarine to shallow-marine and deep-marine successions, cropping out on the western and eastern Calabrian Arc, representing synrift clastic wedges related to backarc rifting in the peri-Tyrrhenian area (western sequences), or foreland clastic wedges in the peri-Ionian area (eastern sequences; Barone et al., 2008).
Pliocene and Quaternary of the northern Calabrian Arc, represented by foredeep and related wedge-top basins on the eastern side (Gulf of Taranto and Corigliano Basin), and a slope basin on the western side, the eastern Tyrrhenian margin (Paola Basin). These receive detritus primarily from deep erosion of northern Calabria. The modern deep-marine basins of offshore northern Calabria have many similarities to the middle to upper Miocene clastic sequences in both foreland and backarc regions of the southern Italy. The type of sedimentary provenance of the southern Italy foreland basin system, providing an example of the changing nature of the orogenic belt through time, may contribute to general understanding and application of other major orogens.
Quaternary erosional rates for same areas of Calabria are over 200 mm/Ka with maximum values exceeding 800 mm/Ka (Ibbeken and Schleyer, 1991). The enormous sediment production of Calabria crosses the river-mouth areas and the beaches, and is spread over shelf and slope or is transferred via submarine canyons to lower bathyal plains of the Ionian seas. The Corigliano Basin, in the Ionian Sea, record the sedimentary processes acting on the northen Calabrian Arc terranes and can be considered as a modern analogue of /thrust-belt/foreland transect. During Quaternary, in the southern Apennines thrust-belt, other major thrust accomodations, as such as normal faulting, sinistral strike-slip movement, block rotation and strong uplift occur defining the morphotectonic zones of the orogenic belt. The northern Ionian Sea and the Bradanic River basin represent the submarine and subaerial foredeep depozone, respectively. The Corigliano-Amendolara submarine basins, and the Sant\'Arcangelo basin represent the wedge-top depozones,. The forebulge is finally located to the western Apulia platform, while the back-bulge depozone is located to the southern Adriatic Sea (Critelli, 1999).
The flexed foreland lithosphere and its forebulge has played an important rule to the development of the foreland basin system. The initially formed forebulge is interpreted to have been in the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino domain, and the final position of the forebulge is the present Apulia platform domain (Figs. 6, 7, 16). Thus the forebulge migration distance was over 150 km. Forebulges contributed to the sediment supply within the foreland basin, even if it is minor with respect to the orogenic provenance. Forebulges have produced istantaneous huge volumes of single carbonatoclastic megabeds testifying major forebulge instability (Critelli, 1999).
An estimation of detrital supply from Calabria during the last 25 my suggests that at least 5 to 8 km of crust has been removed from the Calabrian orogenic belt and deposited in the marine basins (Critelli and Le Pera, 1998; Critelli, 1999). Erosional budgets and accumulation rates document the immense volume of detrital sediments transferred from deeply weathered crystalline rocks of the Calabrian Arc to marine basins.
The clastic compositions of the southern Apennines foreland basin strata reflect the changing nature of the thrust belt through time, recording the history of accretion of the Calabria microplate over the Adria margin. The type of sedimentary provenance analysis, providing an example of the close relations between clastic compositions and growing orogen in southern Italy orogenic system, may contribute and have general application to other major orogens.
Recycling is the process of converting materials from all kinds of waste to produce new products. Textile recycling implies the reuse and reprocessing of clothing scraps or any fibrous textile material [1]. All types of consumer or industry discarded textile goods are used as textile wastes for recovery. It is obvious that recycling, which has evolved into sustainability over time and its importance has been understood even in ancient times. It can be applied in many fields of the textiles as textile-to-textile (closed-loop) recycling or textile-to-nontextile (open-loop) recycling [2].
The demand for textiles and clothing is increasing day by day as a result of the increasing population, rising living standards, and the fast changing fashion trends [3, 4, 5]. Consequently, the amount of textile waste increases, and there are accumulations in landfills [4]. In addition to the consumption of high amounts of textile products, the packaging of these products also causes an increase in waste piles [6].
Textile and clothing waste causes environmental problems and deterioration of ecological balance. Therefore, the reclaim and disposal of waste clothing and textiles are important issues. Unfittingly and uncontrolled disposal of waste cause major problems [5]. The importance of recycling is considered in three subjects by Ref. 7 as economic, social, and environmental subjects [7]. Recycling of textile waste and diversifying the content of recycled raw materials could be a way to support the country’s economy. The employment opportunities in the textile sector as in other sectors increase with well-run waste management. The recycling sector is an important supplier to many industries, and wastes are considered as cheap raw materials [8]. A wide variety of garment brand companies offer their products that contain recycled materials at certain rates, as a social responsibility issue in the market and to increase their prestige. It also adds profit to the company by paying less for recycled materials obtained from waste products.
Although there are several methods for the disposal of clothing waste, the most effective methods are recycling and reuse. Evaluation of waste clothing is very complex since clothes are made from different raw materials and may contain various accessories. Clothing may have many components such as labels, sewing threads, buttons, zippers, and interlining, and these components make the separation process difficult. Clothing recycling and textile recycling are two independent topics that are needed to be considered separately [5]. Textile wastes arise out of many production processes, such as fiber and filament manufacture, spinning, weaving, knitting, nonwoven, and clothing manufacturing [9]. In this context, textile wastes can be classified as pre-consumer and post-consumer wastes [10, 11]. Pre-consumer textile waste includes manufacturing waste from the processing of fibers, yarn, fabric, and nonwovens and clothing manufacturing [12]. Pre-consumer textile waste is generally seen as “clean waste” as it is released during the textile production process [13, 14].
When all these wastes are well managed, positive results emerge both in terms of providing economic gains via the recycling of materials and reducing the ecological damage to the world. Despite all advantages, there are recycling limits for all kinds of textile wastes. Not only for textile wastes but also for other solid wastes recyclability variates. Some types of wastes can be easily and well recycled, whereas some types cannot or can formidably be recycled [1]. These limits pave the way for the emergence of new recyclable fibers for the textile industry.
The purpose of this chapter is to present a systematic study for recycling of textiles mentioning the limits and alternative sustainable fibers. The content started with the history of recycling, continued with processes, standards, and certificates about textile recycling. Subsections of recyclable common textile fibers and new recyclable textile fibers are given in detail.
Recycling dates back to ancient times [15]. It is claimed that waste management and waste disposal processes date to BC in several references [16, 17]. Recycling is known as an efficient and effective solid waste management system [18]. In 4000 BC, silkworm wastes were used as protein source food in fish raising in China [19]. Scientifically, the foundations of recycling were laid in the 1980s [20].
When we consider textile recycling, it is known that it is as old as recycling in other fields. There are even references stating that it is one of the oldest fields, so textile recycling is called original recycling [21]. China hosted applications where recycled fibers from used clothing were obtained by hand carding and mixed with virgin fibers BC [14]. The textile recycling industry took its first steps in the thirteenth century [22]. In pre-modern societies, there were sustainability models based on the reuse and recycling of textiles [14]. For example, recycling has been done for years in India, both at the household and industrial level [23]. In the early and mid-1800s, reclaimed spin waste and rags were used for the manufacture of new products, and the invention of carbonization made it a unique technique to separate textile waste comprising of cellulose-based and wool fibers blend [22].
Environmental awareness concept had been newly introduced in the 1960s. The conscious interest of consumers and producers had just begun to turn to recycle at that time. Today, it is argued that this interest has evolved into sustainability [24].
Early academic studies conducted in the 1990s focused on presenting a model for the textile waste lifecycle [25]; detailing biological, physical, and chemical treatments of textile wastes [26]; determination of the number of sewn product manufacturers that support recycling in an American state [27]; the recyclability of post-consumer fibers, and market applications, while revealing the advantages of recycling [28]. After this decade, a positive acceleration was observed in the studies on both recycling and textile recycling. When “textile” and “recycling” terms are searched in a topic currently 1843 documents in WOS were encountered at all times. Moreover, 188,487 documents were encountered with the only term “recycling” at all times. The variation of the number of publications by years are given in Figure 1 and in the first quarter of 2022, 41 documents were published about the textile recycling topic. As can be seen from the graph, the number of research on textile recycling has increased in parallel with the number of research on recycling over the years.
The number of publications encountered with search terms “recycling” and “recycling and textiles” in WOS.
Recycled fibers are used to make a variety of products. By producing yarns from recycled fibers, knitted or woven fabrics can be produced, or non-woven surfaces are obtained directly from these fibers. Recycled pre-consumer textile wastes are utilized in the construction, automotive, furniture, paper, and clothing industries. However, fibers obtained from pre-consumer textiles are used especially in coarse yarn production [29]. Many researchers studied about using pre-consumer waste and its conversion into a valuable product in the literature. Jamshaid et al. [30] span open-end rotor yarns from fibers in different blends reclaimed from yarn and fabric wastes. They evaluated the impact of various textile wastes on fiber and yarn quality. They underlined that the length and uniformity values of the fibers recycled from yarn wastes are better than those of the fibers recycled from fabric wastes. However, in terms of yarn manufacturing costs, it has been stated that yarns produced from recycled fabric/rag wastes are more economical than yarns produced from yarn wastes. The impact of cotton waste and various spinning conditions on rotor yarn quality was investigated by Halimi et al. [31]. The results showed that the quality of the rotor yarn is not affected by the addition of 25% waste in the first passage of the draw frame. Yilmaz et al. [32] produced yarns by blending the fiber wastes taken from the blow room, the carding and sucked in the draw frame, roving, and conventional ring spinning machines with the virgin cotton fibers at 5 different amounts varying from 5% to 40%. They emphasized that by designing machinery and process steps based on waste fiber type, it can be possible to produce yarns that are in comparable quality values and low cost.
The post-consumer textile wastes consist of clothing and home textiles that consumers no longer need for various reasons, such as damage, pulling on, or going out of fashion [14]. Contrary to pre-consumer wastes, post-consumer wastes are known as dirty and household waste [33]. Post-consumer wastes are evaluated with reuse and recycling techniques or incineration. The options to be applied to post-consumer waste vary according to many criteria such as the wear condition of the clothing, fiber content, and the technology of the recycling facilities [34]. The progress in recycling technology supports the sustainable disposal of waste clothing, and recycling is far more environmentally friendly and socially beneficial than incineration. In addition to this, technological advancements are required to produce upcycle products from waste clothing. Improvements in the collection and disposal of post-consumer textiles can be made with the application of environmental protection policies [5].
Post-consumer waste of sufficient quality is utilized as second-hand clothing by other consumers or sold to third-world countries. The volume of consumer waste is quite high, and clothes that cannot be worn again are shredded into fibers and used in new products, similar to pre-consumer wastes [6, 14]. The process of producing new clothing from post-consumer waste includes collecting waste, obtaining fiber from waste, and producing yarn by using a certain amount of blend in the yarn production stage [34].
When compared to original fibers, recycled fibers have different properties. The processes that the fibers are exposed to during the recycling process damage them and shorten their length. Fiber length is important factor in converting recycled fibers into yarn or producing nonwovens from these fibers, and the fibers must be long enough. Due to the short length of recycled fibers and the presence of non-fiber remnants such as fabric and yarn fragments, defining some quality parameters of these fibers is difficult. Fiber length, material break down degree, and fiber length distribution are three of the most widely analyzed properties of recycled fibers [35].
There are four different approaches to recycling (Figure 2) [36, 37]:
Primary approach,
Secondary approach,
Tertiary approach, and
Quaternary approach
Various recycling approaches.
Primary recycling is the most beneficial method, and in this approach, the product is recycled to its original form. This approach is also known as “original recycling.” It is aimed at synthetic fibers such as PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PA (polyamide) [37]. In this method, which can also be blended with the similar original raw material in order to increase the product quality, cleaned and pure scraps from waste are collected and recycled. In addition to the important advantages of this process such as being cheap and easy, it also has the disadvantage that the type of recyclable material is limited [38].
Secondary recycling is the process of converting waste into a product with different physical or chemical properties than the original [39]. Secondary recycling, which converts post-consumer wastes into raw materials, includes the collection and recycling process [40]. The content of textile waste, the degree of purity of the end product, availability, cost, and processing techniques are important factors for secondary recycling.
In tertiary recycling, known as feedstock recycling, wastes are separated into chemicals through pyrolysis, gasification, hydrolysis, and condensation [41]. Tertiary recycling, which is preferred for converting plastic wastes into chemicals, monomers, or fuels, utilizes clean and well-sorted pre-and post-consumer wastes [40].
Quaternary recycling is the use of heat produced by the incineration of fibrous solid wastes [42]. In summary, primary and secondary recycling usually involve the mechanical processes of industrial by-products and waste, while tertiary and quaternary recycling includes the pyrolysis and incineration of textile wastes for energy generation [41].
Mechanical recycling is a low-cost and easy method [11], which is the preferred method for recycling a diverse variety of textile waste [43]. The recycling of post-consumer textile waste is generally carried out by mechanical recycling [42]. In the mechanical recycling technique, the fabric is broken down into fibers by cutting, shredding, carding, and other mechanical processes [44, 45]. Mechanical recycling machines gradually break the fabric into small pieces and make it fibrous, and these obtained fibers are reused in the production of yarn or nonwovens. In the mechanical recycling process, initially, wastes are sorted. Foreign components, such as metals and labels, are eliminated. After the fabric is cut into small pieces with rotary blades, it is separated into fibers by tearing [40].
Since garments are usually made from different raw materials, it is better to use pre-consumer waste instead of post-consumer waste in mechanical recycling. Fibers obtained by mechanical recycling from pre-consumer wastes such as denim scraps can be used to make higher-quality yarns. The length of the fibers recycled by the mechanical recycling process is short, despite the use of clean pre-consumer wastes [40]. The fiber length is shortened by the shredding/tearing process. The main reason for this is the friction between the fibers. Friction causes wear of fibers and melting of synthetic fibers. Lubricants are used to reduce friction between fibers during shredding and thus longer fiber lengths can be obtained [46]. In addition to the lubrication process, product quality is increased by blending original fibers with recycled fibers [45].
Recycled fiber properties such as length, fineness, and strength indicate the field the fibers can be evaluated in [47]. Good quality recycled fibers can be spun into fabrics, while lower quality fibers are used as decoration materials, construction materials [48], automotive components, insulation materials, and nonwovens [45, 47].
In thermal recycling, synthetic fibers are melted to be reshaped. The thermal recycling method is preferred for recycling synthetic fibers [48, 49]. Chips and pellets obtained by mechanical process from synthetic wastes are turned into fibers by melt extrusion [50].
Chemical recycling, which is another method used in the recycling of textile waste, is the depolymerization of polymers or the process of dissolving polymers [2]. Polymers are converted or broken down into their original monomeric building blocks by chemical and biological methods [51].
Monomer and polymer recycling are the two forms of chemical recycling. The polymer chain is frequently degraded during polymer recycling. As a result, the quality of the recycled fiber decreases. In monomer recycling, original quality fibers are obtained. While monomer recycling is only used for synthetic fibers, chemical recycling is applicable to many textile fibers [49]. In addition to the chemical recycling of synthetic fibers, such as polyesters, polyamides, and polyolefins, in cotton and polyester blend products, the fibers can be chemically separated and then converted into new fibers [47].
Downcycling occurs when the quality and economic value [40] of a product obtained from recycling processes is lower than that of the original product [2, 50]. The use of recycled clothing and home textile wastes in agriculture and gardening products, decoration materials [48], insulation materials, low-quality blankets, and upholstery fabrics are the examples of downcycling (Figure 3) [2, 50].
Downcycling applications in textile.
When the quality of the recycled material is the same or higher than the original product, this process is called upcycling [2, 50]. Upcycling is a process in which existing resources are used and converted into more useful products. This environmental-friendly process is an important step for a zero-waste policy [52]. Within the scope of sustainability and circular economy, the production of raw materials such as cotton fibers and yarns from textile wastes with polymer and monomer recycling is an example of upcycling [2, 50].
Open-loop recycling is defined as the use of a product’s raw material in a different production area. Secondary products obtained through open-loop recycling are generally destroyed after their lifetime [40]. The use of fibers obtained by recycling PET bottles in the textile industry (Figure 4) [40] and the usage of recycled textile fibers as insulation material in the construction industry are examples of open-loop recycling.
Open-loop recycling.
The reuse of recycled textile waste in the textile industry is called closed-loop recycling [2]. The use of mechanically recycled pre-consumer or post-consumer textile waste in garment production is an example of a closed-loop recycling (Figure 5) [40].
Closed-loop recycling.
The subject of recycling in textiles comes up with a lot of research based on the advantages created by the recycling process and with a limited number of studies based on recycling limits. In this subsection of the chapter, the limits of recycling in materials traditionally used in textiles are addressed.
Despite the approaches expressing that recycling is a process that only delays the conversion of waste to nature [53], several articles emphasized the importance of process development studies about the determination of recyclability limits [54]. Since it is impossible to apply a uniform recycling method for recycling all kinds of waste materials, different recycling techniques and their combinations have emerged over time [53]. For example, chemical recycling is raised in order to eliminate the limits in mechanical recycling [55]. As recycling can be classified as mechanical, chemical, thermal, and thermomechanical methods; each of them has numerous disadvantages in terms of the imperfections created on the recycled material. Considering these limits, alternatives purposed for the disposure of textile waste as anaerobic digestion, fermentation, composting, and acquisition of construction material [13].
An assessment can be made on the basis of fiber source for recycling limits. Based on the disadvantages, such as shortening or shredding the fibers created the fibers by each recycling cycle, it is stated in the literature that an average of 8 recycling cycles for synthetic fibers and an average of 5 cycles for natural fibers can be actualized [56, 57]. While the recyclability limits are more evident in natural fibers, the same rule is not valid for the fibers formed from thermoplastic polymers. This is the main reason why thermoplastic polymer-based textile waste is the most recycled waste [58].
To increase the quality of the recycled end product in cotton mechanical recycling, there is an obligation to use virgin fibers in addition to recycled fibers at a predetermined ratio. This can be attributed to the decrease in strength according to the recycling cycles as each cycle results in a lower degree of polymerization [59]. The upper usage limit of 30% for recycled cotton in fabrics is specified due to the shortened fibers. The amounts higher than this value causes decreases in fabric quality and performance [60]. Another study in the literature supported this result [61]. Since the fiber breakages are created in the mechanical recycling of cotton [59, 62], low-performance fabrics may be obtained not suitable for professional wear such as workwear, personal protective equipment, career wear, and uniforms [63].
Recycling is classified as primary and secondary recycling in several references. Secondary recycling can be handled as mechanical recycling and the limits mentioned above are also valid for this type of recycling. On the other hand, in primary recycling, the features of waste such as being from a single source and being pure are indisputable, while the low cycle number for each material and even the non-recyclability of some materials constitute these limits [64].
An important factor limiting the chemical recycling process of cotton is the use of harmful chemicals in the industry. While trying to minimize the damage to nature with waste disposal, the use of harmful chemicals which refers to the duality in this phenomenon creates greater harm to both nature and the consumer [59]. Moreover, the need for the separation of textile waste according to color and/or product type is inconvenient. One of the problems encountered in cotton recycling is that most of the cotton products are dyed ones and it is difficult to work with mixed-colored wastes [63]. Besides, there are studies proving that cotton fibers recycled from colored fabrics tended to possess lower quality values [65]. Thus, the demand for more environmentally friendly approaches continues [59].
Wool is a natural fiber that can only be mechanically recycled. The staple length of wool gets shorter with recycling, and it is used in blend ratios with virgin wool up to 70 recycled/30 virgin. The limited market of recycled wool is also a huge obstacle to the recycling of this fiber [63].
Nylon is a polymer with a wide variety of types that is stated as an infinitely recyclable polymer [66]. It is difficult to recycle nylon with mechanical recycling in the industry. In addition, the low number of nylon suppliers makes recycled nylon fibers more expensive [63]. Vidakis et al. studied the effects of multiple recycling cycles of PA12 on its properties. There was a decrease in mechanical properties above 5 recycling cycles. This weakening in mechanical properties is explained by the decrease in crystallinity and the beginning of degradation [67]. When the thermal recycling of polyamide 6 is evaluated, it was seen that a drying process is suggested before melting. It is revealed that the drying process prevents hydrolytic chain scission in wet materials and the intrinsic properties of PA6 polymer are remained [68].
Various studies were conducted in the literature in the last two decades for the determination of recycling cycle limits of polymers. PET which is a thermoplastic polymer widely used in the textile sector one of the polymers tested. Högg performed four recycling cycles on PET and characterized the basic polymer properties. He revealed that there was a considerable decrease in Young’s modulus according to the decrease in intrinsic viscosity [69].
The polyolefin fibers react with oxygen in remelting cycles. High temperature or UV light applied in remelting cycles result in molecular weight loss. The dissolution/reprecipitation process for the recycling of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been suggested to overcome this limit by Poulakis and Papaspyrides. It is remarked that both the polymer and the solvent has been recovered efficiently. According to this process applied as two recycling cycles to HDPE, no changes in molecular weight, distribution of grain sizes, crystallinity, and mechanical properties were observed [70]. The same researchers applied this technique to virgin PET in pellet form and PET in blow-molded bottle form in two cycles. It was observed that the properties of recycled PET did not change [71].
The effects of seven recycling cycles on PLA (polylactic acid) polymer which is also a polyester was evaluated by Pillin et al. They observed a notable decrease in the molecular weight of the polymer. They attributed the changes in stress and strain at break, modulus, and hardness via recycling cycles to the decrease in molecular weight [72]. Another group studied eight recycling cycles of PLA and concluded that there were no changes in the mechanical properties of the polymer due to the successive cycles [73].
PAN (polyacrylonitrile) is another polymer commonly used in the production of textile products as an alternative to wool. The most critical factors limiting the recycling of PAN are the easy accessibility of perfect virgin PAN and the harsh processing conditions. From this point of view, economic conditions come into play in the recycling of PAN. The high temperature applied during recycling is also shown as a disadvantage for acrylic, which is a polymer inclines to open-loop recycling [74].
Textile wastes consisting of blends of various fibers complicate the recycling process and sometimes even make it impossible. These fibers need to be separated, which should be done by expert workers to avoid problems with the recycled final product. In addition, when it is impossible to recycle these wastes, they reach their end-of-life by utilization in energy recycling [75].
From a different point of view, there are basically two main factors limiting the recycling of textile fibers. The first one is the technological limits of recycled fibers and their inability to be used within virgin fiber, yarn, or fabric production methods. The second is that the expected product quality value cannot be reached by using these recycled fibers [76].
There are two types of sustainable fashion drivers in a sustainable fashion as production and consumption drivers. Material, human and intellectual resources form the production drivers and purchasing decisions, usage, and post usage form the latter. While technical limits are considered in the first derivatives, unawareness of consumption causes a considerable increase in waste [77]. The fact that recycled materials are generally suitable for downcycling emphasizes an important point that should be evaluated economically. Another economic point is the low consumer demand for recycled products. The reason behind the low market demand is the use of dangerous chemicals in recycled products. In addition, waste sorting is a big problem and if it is not done properly, it negatively affects the recycling process from the beginning. Finally, the relevant standards are still in their infancy. All of these may be listed as examples of the limits of recycling [78].
Cotton and polyester are the most recycled fibers as referred before. Cotton is the most used type of natural fiber in the textile and clothing industry global consumption is reported as 26.16 million tons and the production rate is 26.43 million tons by the year 2021. When we evaluate cotton cultivation in terms of environmental aspects, it requires a large quantity usage of land occupation, water, and also pesticides. Due to pesticides, it pollutes clean water resources. In the textile production process, cotton dyeing needs a high amount of energy consumption, water, steam, and chemicals, such as bleaching agents, soap, softeners, and salts for obtaining the desired color [55, 79, 80]. Polyester is a non-biodegradable fiber in the environment. Its production process is very similar to polyamide. But polyester is extensively recycled especially as plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate to reduce the landfills. Polyamide is used especially in carpets as referred before. But its recycling process is difficult because of the used dyes and chemicals added to its polymer solution [10].
Besides these types of common fibers, there have also been come out brands with the increasing recycling trend. Renewcell® technology is the upcoming brand from Sweden since 2017. For this process, used garments and textile production waste with high cellulosic content such as viscose, lyocell, modal, acetate, and other types of regenerated fibers (also called man-made cellulosic fibers) are used. Their accessories, such as buttons, zips are removed from the textile material, then it is turned into a slurry. Contaminants and non-cellulosic contents are sorted out from this slurry. This blend, brand named as Circulose® that is consisted of dissolved pulp from 100% recycled textiles dried and packaged as bales for being involved in the textile production process [81, 82].
Repreve® is known as the r-PET staple and filament yarns which are made from post-consumer water bottles and pre-consumer waste, and their fibers are used in many types of industrial product categories. Accessories, apparel, automotive, bedding, flooring, footwear, furnishings, medical accessories, military, outdoor, socks, and hosiery are some of them. As they stated they eliminated the processes; crude oil wellhead, crude oil refinery, Naptha, Xylenes, Paraxylene, TA (Terephthalic Acid) & MEG (Mono Ethylene Glycol). They have chip production (polymerization), extrusion, and texturing for Repreve® polyester filament yarns and feed stock preparation (polymerization), extrusion, and staple processing for Repreve® staple polyester fibers [83, 84]. Moreover, there is a recycled Nylon brand that is Repreve® Nylon 6 fibers. In production, they have also eliminated the processes; crude oil wellhead, crude oil refinery, benzene, cyclohexane, HMD (Hexamethylenediamine), adipic acid, and nylon salt. They have only chip production (polymerization), extrusion, and texturing processes [85].
Trevira® Sinfineco is the brand used for textiles that contain sustainable Trevira® products. They worked together with Thailand-based parent company Indorama whose manufactures recycled chips from PET bottles. They have certificates for recycled chips, fibers, and filaments from GRS (Global Recycled Standard) and RCS-NL (Recycled Claim Standard). Their products are mainly used in the automotive and apparel sectors. Trevira® Sinfineco PLA fibers and filaments are produced from plant sugars (sugar beet, sugar cane, and maize). So, they are recyclable and 100% biodegradable (industrially compostable) fiber materials. The plant sugar is subjected to the fermentation process and it is transformed into lactic acid. Besides their advantageous properties such as UV stability, fastness to light resistance, good wicking properties, it has less environmental impacts. 70% less CO2 is emitted and 42% less energy is consumed in the raw material production process. They have ISEGA certification for PLA fiber types used in hot water filtration applications (tea and coffee filters) and packaging materials contacting with food [86].
rPET companies supply post-consumer materials in different ways. One of these interesting materials is Bionic®, which collects its source from the coastline of the oceans and waterways to produce rPET PES. Besides environmental benefits, they also get community support both for collecting and cleaning, building up waste management systems including sorting by material and color, compacting, grinding, and warehousing. Besides, they teach the system wherever their collecting point is. Then, they send them for pelletizing. Finally, the recycling process goes in the traditional way. They have three kinds of yarns; FLX® from marine plastics, DPX® from recycled plastics, and natural or synthetic fibers for gaining softer texture, HLX® from 3 layers; core, recovered with rPET and natural fibers in the outer sheath [87].
As technological sustainability process Lenzing™ introduced Refibra™ Technology which is called as reborn Tencel® Fiber Technology and they addressed that it is one of the circular economy solutions. It is a closed-loop technology in which cotton scraps and wood are used for pulping processes. For cotton scraps, they use a special and patented method for transforming colored cotton rags into the lyocell grade pulp by dye removal process and degree of polymerization adjustment. Recycling and upgrading of cotton scraps to new virgin lyocell fibers are free from water and solvent usage. It is certified according to Recycled Claim Standard (RCS) and Global Recycle Standard (GRS) [88, 89]. Lenzing™ EcoVero™ fibers are sustainable viscose fibers that are produced by the use of certified and controlled sustainable wood sources, ecological production process, and supply chain transparency as stated. It has 50% lower emissions and water impact than generic viscose. Lenzing™ EcoVero™ fibers are certified with the EU Ecolabel. It means that the production method has a lower impact on the environment compared with other products in the market [90]. Livaeco by Birla Cellulose™ is eco-enhanced viscose manufactured using a closed-loop process. As they declared, they make a series of changes in the process to be more environmental-friendly. They used a molecular tracer so that they can follow the product from fiber stage to garment form and they can verify the product easily. They emphasize that their source is from certified sustainable forests, they consumed lower water compared with other types of natural fibers, lower greenhouse gas emissions and biodegrades in 6 weeks. They stated that cost of Livaeco™ is 4–5% higher than the conventional type of their fibers produced [91]. Livaeco™ has the FSC® C135325 certificate that refers wood is sourced from the forests following the principles of Sustainable Forestry Management provided environmental, social and economic benefits. They also have various certificates, tools, and documents about sustainability for different processes. They have Forest Stewardship Council (FSC®) certificate for obtaining wood, pulping, fiber production processes regularly; Rainforest Alliance certificate in pulping process; Higg Index, Thinkstep in fiber production step; Tracer tool (fiber, yarn, fabric, garment), OEKO-TEX 100, Sustainable Textile Solution for their Livaeco™ viscose fiber, BLOCKCHAIN for Fiber 2 Retail Process. Besides these certificates, they achieved Dark Green Shirt, Ranking in Canopy’s Hot Button Report in 2020 [92]. Kelheim Fibers have also CELLIANT Viscose which is introduced as the first in-fiber sustainable viscose infrared (IR) solution that is an alternative to synthetic fibers. They use natural minerals and embedded them into plant-based fibers. It is certified by FSC® or PEFC™ about raw material used. They are also awarded with a dark green/green shirt in Canopy’s 2021 Hot Button Report, which is a sustainability indicator for viscose fiber producers [93].
When polyamide is considered, one of the brand marks is Econyl® by Aquafil S.P.A. It has two types of nylon textile filament yarns; ECONYL® FDY yarns on beam and ECONYL® texturized yarns on cones that are both types of yarns produced via using 100% recycled post-consumer and post-industrial recycled content. They use fishnets, carpets, oligomers (generated by polymer industries), and other types of PA6 materials as wasted content. In ECONYL® plant operation processes has two steps as depolymerization step (where the specific mix of waste is transformed back into secondary raw material-caprolactam) and the purification step of caprolactam [94].
Fulgar is another company that has various types of sustainable fibers with the brand names; Q-NOVA®, Q-CYCLE®, EVO®, AMNI SOUL ECO®. Q-NOVA® PA 6.6. yarn has an eco-friendly process called as MCS (Spinning Continuous Melting). MCS is a mechanical regeneration system that does not involve using chemical materials which would lessen the sustainability of the end product. More than half of it is produced by pre-consumption waste. This waste is remolded using a mechanical regeneration process, then after, it is turned into a form of a polymer. Its prominent features are stated as lightness, breathability, having bright colors. It has certificates as The Global Recycled Standard (GRS), EU ECOLABEL, Higg index [95]. Q-CYCLE® yarn is their new eco-sustainable PA 6.6 yarn produced with their interaction with BASF’s ChemCycling™ recycling project. They use post-consumer recycled contents like plastic wastes (used tires) that is not possible to be mechanically recycled. Its certifications are under the evaluation process [96]. EVO® is the other trademark of Fulgar that is a bio-based origin polyamide that its polymerization is partially or completely sourced from castor oil (from castor seeds) [97]. AMNI SOUL ECO® has enhanced PA 6.6 formula, developed by Rhodia-Solvay group, which enables garments to be a biodegradable feature when left in landfills [98].
Considering the polyurethane known as elastane in the market, COREVA™ can be mentioned. It is a plant-based yarn obtained from natural rubber for replacing synthetic, petrol-based yarns and is patented by Candiani Denim. Organic cotton is wrapped around a natural rubber core, so they produce plastic-free yarn by replacing conventional synthetic and petrol-based elastomers. As they declared, Candiani has created an innovative, biodegradable stretch denim fabric but still, it has the features such as elasticity, physical qualities, and durability that are important factors for producing jeans [99].
Environmental issues are trending topic and their importance increase gradually. There are some international treaties to regulate the behavior of the countries to reduce greenhouse gases and protect the ozone layer. Kyoto Protocol and Montreal Protocol are exemplary treaties for the sign of industrialized countries, describing the precautions that they should take [55]. The carbon footprint is the amount of the greenhouse gases released from fossil fuels used for electricity, heating, and transportation purposes. Textile and clothing sectors are the leading sectors that have high carbon footprint generation and greenhouse gases emissions [37]. Energy is the other critical case for the textile industry. The consumed energy according to textile processes can be given as 34% for spinning, 23% for weaving, 38% for chemical process, and 5% for various purposes [100].
All the efforts for sustainability including getting certifications, discovering new sustainable processes, producing new sustainable fibers, getting textile ecolabels, United Nations’ The Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs) are playing a major role. United Nations’ 17 goals can be listed regularly as; no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic growth, industry, innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, climate action, life below water, life on land, peace, justice and strong institutions, partnerships for the goals. There are various studies about the relationship between UNSDGs and fashion brands, certifications, and new type of sustainable fibers [101, 102].
In the past, products are disposed of after the end-of-life or disuse of the products. But today, solutions and precautions for sustaining the environmental cycle are steadily taken. ISO 14040:2006 (Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Principles and Framework) is the valid standard to evaluate the sustainability of the product cycle [103, 104]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology that is determined by the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 [80]. It merges the environmental impacts of the studied product or service through the value chain [104]. It is possible to determine the potential environmental benefits of various systems of textile reuse and recycling processes within the methods of LCA [50]. LCA does not contain design and development stages because it is considered that design of the product has not environmental impact. But the design of the product can be affected by the other life cycle stages such as emissions to air, water, and land at each stage of manufacture, use, and disposal of the product [105].
There are various textile sustainability standards and certifications. EU Ecolabel supports Europe strategy for zero pollution and circular economy targets by minimizing products’ harmful impact on the environment. Products labeled with EU Ecolabel make a reduction in water consumption, make less pollution in the air, restrict the use of hazardous chemicals, and minimize the waste [106, 107]. Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) is claimed itself as the world’s leading sustainability initiative for cotton. Their mission is to help cotton communities survive and thrive while protecting and restoring the environment. They have selected five impact areas consisted of climate change mitigation, soil health, pesticide use, smallholder livelihoods, and women’s empowerment [108, 109]. In BCI’s Better Cotton Assurance Model, they have a roadmap for Better Cotton Farmers and farmer groups to move from baseline performance to meeting the key indicators of the Better Cotton Principles and Criteria and ultimately achieving long-term improvement goals. The model has four overarching goals. The first one is giving license to sell their cotton as Better Cotton if they can meet the standards and criteria to license for selling their cotton as Better Cotton. The second one is improvement in the framework for making sustainable practices. The third one is the development in the improvement of connection between producers and partners. The last one is measuring the sustainability performance of the farmers [109, 110].
Besides OEKO-TEX Standard 100, OEKO-TEX has series of Sustainability Standards comprising of Oeko-Tex Sustainable Textile Production (STeP), Made in Green by OEKO-TEX®, ECO PASSPORT by OEKO-TEX®, OEKO-TEX® DETOX TO ZERO. ECO PASSPORT by OEKO-TEX® is used for chemical products (textile and leather chemicals, colorants, and auxiliary agents) that are used in the textile, leather, and clothing industry. Oeko-Tex Sustainable Textile & Leather Production (STeP) is the standard for modules, such as chemical management, environmental performance, environmental management, social responsibility, quality management, health, and safety in production chain. To get Made in Green by OEKO-TEX® certificate, some criteria (some OEKO-TEX® certificates) should be taken due to finished products that consumers can buy at retailers or semi-finished products sold to companies within the supply chain. This certificate means that textile or leather products’ materials are tested for harmful substances, produced as environmentally, safe, and socially responsible workplaces are supplied [111].
GOTS is also one of the textile processing standard for organic fibers, also both for ecological and social criteria. It comprises the whole textile supply chain starting with harvesting of the raw materials till packing and labeling. It is important to use dyes and chemicals that have a low impact on environment and even it has water norms in production, besides this, it also considers fiber requirements, environmental criteria, social criteria, and traceability. GOTS have various production criteria limits. For example, additional fiber limits for natural fibers both for vegetable and animal fibers (linen, hemp, wool, silk, mohair, etc.) is up to 30%; for sustainable regenerated fibers is (Lyocell® & protein based fibers: from organic, FSC(Forest Stewardship Council™)/Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) certified recycled raw materials is up to 30%; for Recycled Claim Standard (RCS from Textile Exchange), Global Recycle Standard (GRS from Textile Exchange), Recycled Content Standard (from SCS) certified synthetic fibers (polyester, polyamide, polypropylene, and polyurethane) is up to 30%. There are also restricted fibers in blends like conventional cotton, virgin polyester, conventional angora hair, acrylic, asbestos, and carbon, silver. They have also an obligation for using virgin synthetic and regenerated fibers like viscose, modal, polyamide, elastane, and polypropylene in fiber blends as the maximum ratio is 10%. They have given some more examples like it is permitted to use 70% organic cotton, 30% lyocell from the organic plantation; but, it is not permitted to use 70% organic cotton, 30% lyocell from conventional wood [112, 113].
BlueSign® is one of the sustainability standards that offer a system with solutions for industry and brands for increasing their sustainability performance. They have various criteria such as chemical products for end-consumer use, surface treatment of metals, and plastics/non-textile substrates, fiber manufacturing, textile manufacturers, down and feathers processing, flame retardants, nanoscale materials/structures [114]. They have also a restricted substances list (RSL). In fiber manufacturing for production sites, it is stated that 99% solvent recovery (lyocell, acetate, etc.) rate should be aimed at dry spinning or wet spinning. They encourage their partners to develop fibers that meet their requirements for supporting a circular economy and to give ahead manufacturers to produce and use of recyclable and recycled fibers for circular textile production. It is obligatory for fiber manufacturing sites to pass the chemical assessment that they use Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEO), free agents, in all preparation and sizing agents used. It is possible to give more examples for other type of fibers. In polyester fiber production, they have limited values of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) not only for year, but also limited emission factors per PET chips (one kg) and filament fiber (one kg). It is also important to have wood policy for cellulosic regenerated fibers, such as viscose, lyocell, and acetate. In production, 25% of sourced pulp fibers/pulp should be used from the wood certified by independent third-party certification with the label of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC®). Besides this, independent third-party risk assessments, audits and on-site visits should be taken with positive results by audits (preferably a CanopyStyle Audit with at least bronze status) or independent third-party certification of sustainable forest management programs (e.g. Rainforest Alliance) [115].
The Higg Index is used as a tool for the standardization of sustainability measurement. It is comprised of five tools; the Higg Facility Environmental Module (FEM), Higg Facility Social & Labor Module (FSLM), Higg Brand & Retail Module (BRM), Higg Materials Sustainability Index (MSI), and Higg Product Module (PM). They evaluate the social and environmental performance of the value chain together with the environmental impacts of products. It gives an opportunity to consumers using the Higg Index to inform their individual sustainability strategies in crosswise topics, such as water use, carbon emissions, labor conditions, consumer goods brands, retailers, manufacturers, and governments [116].
The Recycled Claim Standard (RCS) and Global Recycled Standard (GRS) are stated as international and voluntary standards. They set requirements for third-party certification about recycled input and chain of custody. Their aim is to raise the usage ratios of recycled materials. The GRS contains also social and environmental processing requirements and chemical restrictions as additional criteria compared with RCS [117]. For RCS, labeling can be applied to all products containing at least 5% recycled material for textiles. It also enhances the traceability of recycled raw materials, transparent communication, clear labeling, and stakeholder engagement [118]. The GRS label assured that there are high percentages of recycled contents in products, the harmful impact is reduced both for people and the environment, traceability and stakeholder engagement are supplied [119].
Cradle to Cradle Certified® is another global standardization for safe, circular, and responsibly made products. It evaluates the safety, circularity, and responsibility of materials and products in five categories of sustainability performance such as material health, product circularity, clean air & climate protection, water and soil stewardship, and social fairness [120].
Forest Stewardship Council® (FSC) forest management certification endorsed that the management of forests is made by taking care of biological diversity and benefits the lives of local people and workers. There are 10 principles for forest operation for receiving FSC forest management certification. These principles include a broad range of issues, from maintaining high conservation values to community relations and workers’ rights, as well as monitoring the environmental and social impacts of forest management [121].
There are also some other sustainability standards like Cotton Made in Africa, Organic Content Standard (OCS), Soil Association Organic Standard, Responsible Down Standard (RDS), Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) [122, 123, 124, 125, 126].
Recycling has shown continuity since ancient times as a technique that people comprehended its importance towards the purpose of living with scarce resources and applied it even if not in a scientific sense. Recycling has reached scientific meaning throughout history, and then the subject has evolved towards sustainability. Textile recycling has a great place within the scope of this subject, which has been on the agenda for a long time and will also continue to be, with the advantages it creates in both environmental and economic terms. Human beings fall into textile products from the moment that they are born, they need these textile products throughout their lives (even when they die in some cultures—due to the rituals of burial with various fabrics). The indispensability of textile has always kept it at the forefront in various areas for years.
Engineering-based scientific research always aims to increase the quality of life and make the world habitable for a longer period. In this context, these purposes are embodied as the main objectives in the studies on recycling and sustainability. As the decrease in natural resources, population growth, changes in fashion causing excessive consumption of resources, and technological developments continue, the interest in recycling and sustainability will increase acceleratingly. As emphasized herein, recycling in textiles, recycling limits in textile wastes, and the search for sustainable new textile resources will continue to be hot topics of the area. In conclusion, approaches on more effective utilization of traditional fibers, the discovery, commercialization, and popularization of new sustainable fibers, and the representation of new models for the management of textile waste will be the focus of researchers for years.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. 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Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10220,totalCrossrefCites:97,totalDimensionsCites:228,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. 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Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:5918,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82384",title:"Phytochemicals from Solanaceae Family and Their Anticancer Properties",slug:"phytochemicals-from-solanaceae-family-and-their-anticancer-properties",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104462",abstract:"Cancer is one of the most dreadful disease conditions all over the world. With the side effects and cost of conventional treatment, there is a demand for new therapies to prevent cancer. Research studies proved many plant products possess anticancer properties. Currently, a few plant-based drugs are used to treat it. The phytochemicals are investigated by in vitro and in vivo to assess their mechanism of action against cancer. This chapter is an overview of anticancer compounds extracted from plants of Solanaceae family with the potentials results. Many research has confirmed the anticancer efficiency of the biomolecules, such as solanine, solamargine, tomatidine, Withanolides, scopoletin, capsaicin found in Solanaceae, and their mode of action, such as cell cycle arrest, inhibiting signaling pathways, autophagy, suppression of enzymes in various human cancer cell lines of breast, pancreas, colorectal, liver, and cervical and also in animal models. This chapter seeks to provide an outline of key examples of anticancer activity of phytochemicals from the Solanaceae family, which offers a track for the development of novel medicines for cancer treatment as a single drug or in combinational drug. This chapter helps to identify the novel bioactive molecule for cancer treatment as lead molecule with less side effects in future.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"Sangilimuthu Alagar Yadav and Feba Sara Koshi"},{id:"82386",title:"Nutraceutical Approach for the Treatment of Retinal Inflammation after Infections",slug:"nutraceutical-approach-for-the-treatment-of-retinal-inflammation-after-infections",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105687",abstract:"This chapter described the ability of Zika virus, a hemostat-borne flavivirus, to infect retinal pigment epithelium cells and to generate chronic inflammation capable of generating permanent damage in the host that can progress eventually to the onset of pathology related to retinal degeneration. In addition, given the lack of an effective vaccine against ZIRK, the possibility of using as a therapeutic strategy the reduction of inflammatory processes that are established as a result of viral infection through the use of bioactive phytonutrients was analyzed.",book:{id:"11702",title:"Eye Diseases - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Therapeutic Options",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11702.jpg"},signatures:"Ilaria Piano, Francesca Corsi and Claudia Gargini"},{id:"82365",title:"Endovascular Treatment for Acute Mesenteric Ischemia",slug:"endovascular-treatment-for-acute-mesenteric-ischemia",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104943",abstract:"The current standard care for acute mesenteric ischemia involves urgent revascularization and resection of the necrotic bowel. A dedicated protocol for early treatment and urgent revascularization is pivotal to improving diagnostic rate and patient survival. In this chapter, the critical components of diagnosis and treatment protocol are reviewed. Different treatment choices with endovascular approaches are discussed. After endovascular revascularization, a dedicated team consisting of surgeons and critical care specialists are needed to provide post-intervention care and second-look laparoscopy when necessary. In geographic regions where healthcare resources are lacking, a time-efficient strategy adopted by interventional radiologists or cardiologists should be considered to improve patient survival.",book:{id:"10712",title:"Thrombectomy - Recent Advances in Ischaemic Damage Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10712.jpg"},signatures:"Mu-Yang Hsieh"},{id:"82361",title:"Autonomic Neuroregulation in the Larynx and Its Clinical Implication",slug:"autonomic-neuroregulation-in-the-larynx-and-its-clinical-implication",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105363",abstract:"The central nervous system controls autonomic function through interconnected areas distributed throughout the neural axis known as central autonomic network (CAN). Central nervous systems are organized and control functions of the body and secretion of brain neurotransmitter. The autonomic nervous system includes all regions controlling autonomic, unconscious, and involuntary functions in body homeostasis. Vagal nerve is the longest and most complex nerve of the autonomic nervous system and plays a role in regulating innervation in the larynx. Altered vagal nerve activity caused by impaired autonomic regulation was thought to be responsible for clinical entities related to laryngology diseases, such as laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR), sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), chronic cough (CC), and vocal cord dysfunction (VCD). This chapter reviews the pathogenesis and clinical findings of laryngeal disease related to autonomic nerve dysfunction.",book:{id:"11086",title:"Laryngology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11086.jpg"},signatures:"Syahrial M. Hutauruk, Elvie Zulka Kautzia Rachmawati and Khoirul Anam"},{id:"1081936",title:"Overcoming the Achilles’ Heel of Hemodialysis Vascular Access: From Creation, Maintenance and Salvage",slug:null,totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000178",abstract:'
Vascular access (VA) is the life line for hemodialysis (HD) but also Achilles’ heel. VA consists of HD catheters, arterio-venous fistula and arterio-venous grafts. From the earlier ‘Fistula First’ initiative, we later moved to ‘Fistula First, catheter last’ approach and have now realized that we need to follow the recommendation for End Stage Kidney Disease (ESKD) patients, given by Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative (KDOQI). It says, “Patient First: ESKD Life-Plan” to attain the “right access, in the right patient, at the right time, for the right reasons”. However, this applies to the creation of VA. It is essential to monitor and do VA surveillance to maintain the VA, as it can malfunction. When the VA malfunctions, it needs intervention. Depending upon the type of VA, the intervention varies. It could be endovascular or surgical. These issues will be highlighted in this chapter.
',book:{id:"11287",title:"Chronic Kidney Disease - Beyond the Basics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11287.jpg"},signatures:"Hemant J. Mehta"},{id:"1084735",title:"Evidence for Novel Pharmacotherapies in Diabetic Kidney Disease",slug:null,totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000199",abstract:'Chronic kidney disease, defined as abnormal kidney function for more than 3 months, affects roughly 15% of the US, and approximately 40% of people with chronic kidney disease have type 2 diabetes. In the last decade, pharmacotherapies have been approved that may reduce chronic kidney disease progression and its complications. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is) are recommended for diabetic kidney disease as they may reduce chronic kidney disease progression and cardiovascular events. Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) are recommended for those with diabetic kidney disease who have not achieved glycemic targets with metformin and SGLT2Is. Finerenone (a nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist [MRA]) may reduce chronic kidney disease progression and cardiovascular events. This chapter will review the evidence for these pharmacotherapies for diabetic kidney disease.
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/166905",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"166905"},fullPath:"/profiles/166905",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()