\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"769",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Clinical Applications of Pharmacogenetics",title:"Clinical Applications of Pharmacogenetics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The rapidly evolving field of Pharmacogenetics aims at identifying the genetic factors implicated in the inter-individual variation of drug response. These factors could enable patient sub-classification based on their treatment needs thus expediting drug development and promoting personalized, safer and more effective treatments. This book presents Pharmacogenetic examples from a broad spectrum of different drugs, for different diseases, which are representative of different stages of evaluation or application. It has been designed so as to serve both the unfamiliar reader through explanations of basic Pharmacogenetic concepts, the clinician with presentation of the latest developments and international guidelines, and the research scientist with examples of Pharmacogenetic applications, discussions on the limitations and an outlook on the new scientific trends in this field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0389-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6928-4",doi:"10.5772/1277",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"clinical-applications-of-pharmacogenetics",numberOfPages:306,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"bc4dfeab3f9ad2c3423c83f2ef44cb26",bookSignature:"Despina Sanoudou",publishedDate:"March 21st 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/769.jpg",numberOfDownloads:33457,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 1st 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 1st 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"65710",title:"Dr.",name:"Despina",middleName:null,surname:"Sanoudou",slug:"despina-sanoudou",fullName:"Despina Sanoudou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/65710/images/2121_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Despina Sanoudou: BSc Molecular Biology University of Hertfordshire (UK)/ PhD Department of Pathology of the University of Cambridge/ Instructor Department of Genetics, Children\\'s Hospital Boston and Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School (USA). Trained at Brigham and Women\\'s Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital and Genzyme Inc, and certified by the American Board of Medical Genetics on Clinical Molecular Diagnostics. Currently she is an Assistant Professor at the Pharmacology Department, Medical School, University of Athens, focusing on Genomics/Pharmacogenomics. She has published over 50 publications in international scientific journals, has over 950 citations, and held more than 100 invited lectures. She is an expert reviewer for multiple international funding and publishing organizations, and serves on the editorial board of 7 scientific journals. Dr Sanoudou has received multiple awards including the National L’Oreal-UNESCO award for young women in science.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1199",title:"Pharmacogenetics",slug:"pharmacogenetics"}],chapters:[{id:"33377",title:"Pharmacogenetics: Matching the Right Foundation at Personalized Medicine in the Right Genomic Era",doi:"10.5772/25824",slug:"pharmacogenomics-matching-the-right-foundation-at-personalized-medicine-in-the-right-genomic-era-",totalDownloads:3238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Roxana-Georgiana Tauser",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33377",authors:[{id:"64676",title:"Prof.",name:"Roxana-Georgiana",surname:"Tauser",slug:"roxana-georgiana-tauser",fullName:"Roxana-Georgiana Tauser"}],corrections:null},{id:"33378",title:"Multiplexed Pharmacogenetic Assays for SNP Genotyping: Tools and Techniques for Individualizing Patient Therapy",doi:"10.5772/29396",slug:"multiplexed-pharmacogenetic-assays-for-snp-genotyping-tools-and-techniques-for-individualizing-patie",totalDownloads:2960,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Susan J. Hsiao and Alex J. Rai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33378",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33378",authors:[{id:"77648",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Rai",slug:"alex-rai",fullName:"Alex Rai"},{id:"123645",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",surname:"Hsiao",slug:"susan-hsiao",fullName:"Susan Hsiao"}],corrections:null},{id:"33379",title:"Role of Pharmacogenetics in Gastrointestinal Cancer",doi:"10.5772/29966",slug:"role-of-pharmacogenetics-in-gastrointestinal-cancer",totalDownloads:2078,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Suayib Yalcin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33379",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33379",authors:[{id:"80128",title:"Prof.",name:"Suayib",surname:"Yalcin",slug:"suayib-yalcin",fullName:"Suayib Yalcin"}],corrections:null},{id:"33380",title:"Pharmacogenomics of Thiopurine S-Methyltransferase: Clinical Applicability of Genetic Variants",doi:"10.5772/26588",slug:"pharmacogenomics-of-thiopurine-s-methyltransferase-clinical-applicability-of-genetic-variants",totalDownloads:1972,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Sonja Pavlovic, Branka Zukic and Gordana Nikcevic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33380",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33380",authors:[{id:"67195",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonja",surname:"Pavlovic",slug:"sonja-pavlovic",fullName:"Sonja Pavlovic"},{id:"73795",title:"Dr.",name:"Branka",surname:"Zukic",slug:"branka-zukic",fullName:"Branka Zukic"},{id:"73796",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Nikcevic",slug:"gordana-nikcevic",fullName:"Gordana Nikcevic"}],corrections:null},{id:"33381",title:"S-Adenosylmethionine: A Novel Factor in the Individualization of Thiopurine Therapy",doi:"10.5772/27070",slug:"s-adenosylmethionine-a-novel-factor-in-the-individualization-of-thiopurine-therapy-",totalDownloads:3521,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Irena Mlinaric-Rascan, Miha Milek, Alenka Smid and Natasa Karas Kuzelicki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33381",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33381",authors:[{id:"68756",title:"Prof.",name:"Irena",surname:"Mlinaric-Rascan",slug:"irena-mlinaric-rascan",fullName:"Irena Mlinaric-Rascan"},{id:"74065",title:"Dr.",name:"Miha",surname:"Milek",slug:"miha-milek",fullName:"Miha Milek"},{id:"74066",title:"Prof.",name:"Natasa",surname:"Karas Kuzelicki",slug:"natasa-karas-kuzelicki",fullName:"Natasa Karas Kuzelicki"},{id:"74068",title:"MSc.",name:"Alenka",surname:"Smid",slug:"alenka-smid",fullName:"Alenka Smid"}],corrections:null},{id:"33382",title:"Current Status of Pharmacogenetics in Antithrombotic Drug Therapy",doi:"10.5772/28459",slug:"current-status-of-pharmacogenetics-in-antithrombotic-drug-therapy-",totalDownloads:2635,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Eva Gak and Rivka Inzelberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33382",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33382",authors:[{id:"73949",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Gak",slug:"eva-gak",fullName:"Eva Gak"},{id:"74556",title:"Prof.",name:"Rivka",surname:"Inzelberg",slug:"rivka-inzelberg",fullName:"Rivka Inzelberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"33383",title:"Clinical Implications of Genetic Admixture in Hispanic Puerto Ricans: Impact on the Pharmacogenetics of CYP2C19 and PON1",doi:"10.5772/28567",slug:"clinical-implications-of-genetic-admixture-in-hispanic-puerto-ricans-impact-on-the-pharmacogenetics-",totalDownloads:2310,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,signatures:"Jorge Duconge, Odalys Escalera, Mohan Korchela and Gualberto Ruaño",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33383",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33383",authors:[{id:"74436",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Duconge",slug:"jorge-duconge",fullName:"Jorge Duconge"},{id:"74439",title:"BSc.",name:"Odalys",surname:"Escalera",slug:"odalys-escalera",fullName:"Odalys Escalera"}],corrections:null},{id:"33384",title:"Neuropharmacogenetics of Major Depression: Has the Time Come to Take both Sexes into Account?",doi:"10.5772/26634",slug:"neuropharmacogenetics-of-major-depression-has-the-time-come-to-take-both-sexes-into-account-",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Pothitos M. Pitychoutis, Despina Sanoudou, Christina Dalla and Zeta Papadopoulou-Daifoti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33384",authors:[{id:"65710",title:"Dr.",name:"Despina",surname:"Sanoudou",slug:"despina-sanoudou",fullName:"Despina Sanoudou"},{id:"67375",title:"Prof.",name:"Zeta",surname:"Papadopoulou-Daifoti",slug:"zeta-papadopoulou-daifoti",fullName:"Zeta Papadopoulou-Daifoti"},{id:"74719",title:"Dr.",name:"Pothitos",surname:"Pitychoutis",slug:"pothitos-pitychoutis",fullName:"Pothitos Pitychoutis"},{id:"74722",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina",surname:"Dalla",slug:"christina-dalla",fullName:"Christina Dalla"}],corrections:null},{id:"33385",title:"Pharmacogenetics of Asthma",doi:"10.5772/27131",slug:"pharmacogenetics-of-asthma",totalDownloads:4648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Andrzej Mariusz Fal and Marta Rosiek-Biegus",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33385",authors:[{id:"68913",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej M.",surname:"Fal",slug:"andrzej-m.-fal",fullName:"Andrzej M. Fal"},{id:"136211",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Rosiek-Biegus",slug:"marta-rosiek-biegus",fullName:"Marta Rosiek-Biegus"}],corrections:null},{id:"33386",title:"Pharmacogenomics in Gastroenterology",doi:"10.5772/28636",slug:"pharmacogenomics-in-gastroenterology",totalDownloads:1935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Maria Ana Redal, Waldo Horacio Belloso, Paula Scibona, Leonardo Garfi and Santiago Isolabella",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33386",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33386",authors:[{id:"74766",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",surname:"Redal",slug:"maria-ana-redal",fullName:"Maria Ana Redal"},{id:"133683",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldo Horacio",surname:"Belloso",slug:"waldo-horacio-belloso",fullName:"Waldo Horacio Belloso"},{id:"133687",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Scibona",slug:"paula-scibona",fullName:"Paula Scibona"},{id:"133688",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo Guillermo",surname:"Garfi",slug:"leonardo-guillermo-garfi",fullName:"Leonardo Guillermo Garfi"},{id:"133692",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Isolabella",slug:"santiago-isolabella",fullName:"Santiago Isolabella"}],corrections:null},{id:"33387",title:"The Pharmacogenetics of the Antimalarial Amodiaquine",doi:"10.5772/26662",slug:"the-pharmacogenetics-of-the-antimalarial-amodiaquine",totalDownloads:1722,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"José Pedro Gil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33387",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33387",authors:[{id:"67480",title:"Dr.",name:"José Pedro",surname:"Gil",slug:"jose-pedro-gil",fullName:"José Pedro Gil"}],corrections:null},{id:"33388",title:"Pharmacogenetics and Obstetric Anesthesia and Analgesia",doi:"10.5772/29862",slug:"pharmacogenetics-in-obstetric-anaesthesia-and-analgesia",totalDownloads:2776,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"C. Ortner, C. Ciliberto and R. Landau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33388",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33388",authors:[{id:"79679",title:"Prof.",name:"RUth",surname:"Landau",slug:"ruth-landau",fullName:"RUth Landau"}],corrections:null},{id:"33389",title:"Beyond Pharmacogenetics",doi:"10.5772/25795",slug:"beyond-pharmacogenetics",totalDownloads:1791,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Roberto Canaparo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33389",authors:[{id:"64577",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Canaparo",slug:"roberto-canaparo",fullName:"Roberto Canaparo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1785",title:"Pharmacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b348683369ba1d19f0384156a871dc06",slug:"pharmacology",bookSignature:"Luca Gallelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79424",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Gallelli",slug:"luca-gallelli",fullName:"Luca Gallelli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68990",slug:"erratum-application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodies",title:"Erratum - Application of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly: Development of a Multifeedstock Biodiesel Processor",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68990.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68990",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68990",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68990",chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10708",leadTitle:null,title:"Topics in Regional Anesthesia",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe goal of this book on Topics in Regional Anesthesia is to review selected subjects of importance in daily practice. Since the first years of the introduction of cocaine by Carl Koller in 1884, the evolution of regional anesthesia has been continuous, gradual and safe. Its development has been based on anatomy, the pharmacology of local anesthetics and adjuvant drugs, as well as advances in the various blocking techniques, with ultrasound guidance being the most recent advent. The use of ultrasound in regional anesthesia has shown the reduction of complications, which makes it mandatory to knowledge and acquire skills in all ultrasound-guided techniques.
\r\n\r\n\tUltrasound-guided regional blocks will be reviewed extensively, as well as intravenous regional anesthesia, thoracic spinal anesthesia. The role of regional anesthesia and analgesia in critically ill patients is of paramount importance. In addition, we will review the current role of regional techniques during the Covid-19 pandemic. Complications and malpractice is another topic that should be reviewed. Regional anesthesia procedures in some specialties such as pediatrics, orthopedics, cancer surgery, neurosurgery, acute and chronic pain will be discussed.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-570-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-569-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-571-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo, Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna and Dr. Guillermo A. Castorena-Arellano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",keywords:"Regional Anesthesia, Ultrasound-Guided Regional Anesthesia, Local Anesthetics, Preventive Analgesia, Peripheral Blocks, Pediatric Regional Anesthesia, Intravenous Regional Anesthesia, Techniques, Complications, Adjuvants in Regional Anesthesia, Opioids, Alfa2 Agonists",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Whizar-Lugo has published more than 100 publications on Anesthesia, Pain, Critical Care, and Internal Medicine. He works as an anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as an associated researcher.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169249/images/system/169249.jpg",biography:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and completed residencies in Internal Medicine at Hospital General de México and Anaesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán in México City. He also completed a fellowship at the Anesthesia Department, Pain Clinic at University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Currently, Dr. Whizar-Lugo works as anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group, and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as associated researcher. He has published many works on anesthesia, pain, internal medicine, and critical care, edited four books, and given countless conferences in congresses and meetings around the world. He has been a member of various editorial committees for anesthesiology journals, is past chief editor of the journal Anestesia en México, and is currently editor-in-chief of the Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care. Dr. Whizar-Lugo is the founding director and current president of Anestesiología y Medicina del Dolor (www.anestesiologia-dolor.org), a free online medical education program.",institutionString:"Institutos Nacionales de Salud",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"345887",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:"Ramon",surname:"Saucillo",slug:"jose-saucillo",fullName:"José Saucillo",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000033rFXmQAM/Profile_Picture_1611740683590",biography:"Graduated from the Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara, he specialized in anesthesiology at the Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente in Guadalajara, México. He is one of the most important pioneers in Mexico in ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia. Dr. Saucillo-Osuna has lectured at multiple national and international congresses and is an adjunct professor at the Federación Mexicana de Colegios de Anestesiología, AC, former president of the Asociación Mexicana de Anestesia Regional, and active member of the Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional.",institutionString:"Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"346513",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo A.",middleName:null,surname:"Castorena-Arellano",slug:"guillermo-a.-castorena-arellano",fullName:"Guillermo A. Castorena-Arellano",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000034VWIyQAO/Profile_Picture_1611740569514",biography:"Graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, completed his residency in Internal medicine, Anesthesia and Critical care at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán in México City. Fellowship in Intensive respiratory therapy at the Massachussets General Hospital Harvard Medical School in Boston, USA. Currently, he is professor of anesthesiology at the Fundación Clínica Médica Sur-UNAM. Dr Castorena-Arellano has many publications on anesthesia, internal medicine and critical care journals/books, edited a book on perioperative medicine, and has given numerous conferences in congresses and meetings around the world. He is an active member of several medical societies in Europe and America.",institutionString:"Fundación Clínica Médica Sur-UNAM",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3819",title:"Topics in Spinal Anaesthesia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7bf34d33972bf5002ed97828eb508ad",slug:"topics-in-spinal-anaesthesia",bookSignature:"Victor M. Whizar-Lugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3819.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8720",title:"Topics in Local Anesthetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"593b219700438225954cb0905332ae9f",slug:"topics-in-local-anesthetics",bookSignature:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Enrique Hernández-Cortez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6221",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a0c61779ec291eb0cf0adfafe2c274e",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",bookSignature:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6221.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56424",title:"Bending of Laminated Composite Plates in Layerwise Theory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69975",slug:"bending-of-laminated-composite-plates-in-layerwise-theory",body:'Composite materials are obtained by a combination of two or more materials which together have characteristics that separately usually cannot be achieved with reasonable costs. During the last decades, a sudden increase of the use of modern composite materials is based on the achieved advanced properties which include their lower weight and higher strength and resistance compared to the classical and conventional composite materials. It is clear that the modern composite materials are materials of the future, because they allow the designers to choose the appropriate characteristics of the elements structure depending on the applicable problem. Due to its complexity, the researches of modern materials involve several scientific fields, and each of them, in their own way, contributes to their development.
Composite plates, made of layers of the various material and geometric characteristics, are called laminated plates. Ply or layer is the basic element of the laminated plate and it is made of fibers installed into the matrix. The fibers can be discontinuous, continuous unidirectional, bidirectional, woven unidirectional, or woven bidirectional. In the unidirectional laminated composites, the fibers are load‐bearing elements of the layer, while the matrix has a role to protect the fibers from external influences, to hold the fibers together and to perform uniform distribution of the influences to each of the fibers. The materials used for fibers have better material property and greater capacity compared to the matrix, and the geometrical characteristics of the fiber cross section are significantly smaller than its length. Materials used for fibers can be aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, steel, titanium, or organic materials such as glass, carbon, and graphite. A layer with unidirectional fibers has significantly better characteristics in fiber direction than in a direction perpendicular to the fiber.
Heterogeneity of anisotropic laminated composite plates often causes the appearance of a large number of imperfections that can occur at the level of the laminated plate or at the level of the layer, as well as at the local level of the fiber/matrix. General deformation of laminated plates is often defined by complex coupling between the axial deformation, bending, and shear deformation. In laminated composite plates for smaller aspect ratio, the importance of shear deformation is higher than in the corresponding homogeneous isotropic plates.
At the level of the layer, composites often contain concentrations of transverse stresses near the geometrical and material imperfections which lead to damage. Discontinuity between adjacent layers can occur in the stages of production, transportation, installation, or exploitation. This phenomenon in the literature is known as delamination. Delamination and its increase during exploitation is one of the most important parameters that affect the bearing capacity of the plate. Plates with delamination have reduced bearing capacity to bending. In the analysis of these plates, it is necessary to choose the mathematical models which can successfully incorporate delamination in the calculations.
Mathematical models for these particular problems need to determine the real stress‐strain state in the laminated plate, which requires the application of more accurate theories. In addition, it is important to find a balance between the desired accuracy and calculation costs.
The literature that studies the problems of laminated composite plates is significant and extensive. Available mathematical models for the laminated plates are based on assumptions of Equivalent Single Layer (ESL) theories and assumptions of LayerWise (LW) theories, see Refs. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. ESL theories consider plate as one layer with equivalent stiffnesses. The most commonly applied ESL theories of laminated composite plates are Classical Laminated Plate Theory (CLPT), First-Order Shear Deformation Theory (FSDT), Third-Order Shear Deformation Theory (TSDT), and other high‐order shear theories. ESL theories are recommended to apply for thin and very thin laminated plates. More accurate ESL plate theories introduce shear deformation in the calculation which increases accuracy compared to the classical laminated theory. Layerwise theories consider laminated composite plate at the level of the layer. LW theories are recommended for moderately thick and thick laminated plates and for plates with a pronounced anisotropic behavior for which it is necessary to define a more realistic internal stresses distribution, as well as where it is necessary to include delamination and the other geometrical and material imperfections in calculation. On the basis of LW theories, many calculation procedures, analytical, and numerical methods were created in order to accurately analyze mentioned stresses of the laminated composite plates.
This chapter describes the application of layerwise theories in solving problems of bending of laminated plates, whereby the three‐dimensional (3D) problem of elasticity is reduced by solving differential equations with two‐dimensional (2D) variables in the plane plate. Additionally, the approximation of the displacement through the thickness of the plate is conducted with one‐dimensional interpolation functions of coordinate perpendicular to the plane of the layer. Mathematical model is based on the Generalized Laminated Plate Theory (GLPT) developed by Reddy and Reddy et al. [10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Based on the adopted assumptions of the layerwise theory, bending equations are obtained by applying the principle of virtual displacements. In this chapter, the governing differential equations of LW theory are solved by applying analytical and numerical methods. Closed analytical solution of bending equations in LW theory is done by using the double trigonometric series of the simple supported rectangular plate with the angle of the layers orientation 0 and 90°, see Refs. [10, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
Analytical solution for this mechanical problem is difficult to determine in case of complex plate geometry, arbitrary angles of layers orientation, arbitrary boundary conditions, as well as for various forms of nonlinearity. These are the reasons why the applied Finite Element Method (FEM) as one of the most used numerical methods was used, see Refs. [1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21]. The idea of the FEM is a representation of the domain as the sets of appropriate simple geometrical shapes called the finite elements. Discretization of the domain with finite elements makes this method a valuable tool in solving a large number of complex engineering problems.
Since the FEM is a method of discretization, errors can be classified into two categories: geometric discretization errors and interpolation errors. Accuracy of the results obtained by applying FEM depends on the choice of interpolation function in the plane (
Laminated composite plate, loaded by transversal load, is considered in Cartesian coordinate system (
It is assumed that the dilation
Displacement components
where
The governing equations of the laminated composite plates in case of bending are solved by displacement method of analysis, so that the primary variables are displacement components defined by Eqs. (1) and (2). The primary variables can be conveniently displayed in a vector form:
where
By relations (Eq. (2)), the discretization through the plate thickness is performed, wherein the
where
For linear interpolation
where
Graphical display of the laminated composite plates with linear interpolation through the plate thickness is shown in Figure 1. By analyzing separate layers, this LW theory can be understood as a first‐order shear deformation theory for each layer of the observed laminated plate. A layer of the layered plates has an effect on the previous and the next layer of the laminate.
3D geometry of the laminated composite plates and discretization through the plate thickness with linear interpolation.
Based on Eqs. (1) and (2), strain components can be expressed as follows:
where the members of the vector
where members of matrix
For an orthotropic material, the constitutive equations of the
In the previous equation,
where
Transverse stresses
The internal forces in a cross section of the laminated plate are defined as integrals of stresses
where
The internal forces can be expressed in terms of the displacements by inserting Eq. (6) into Eq. (7) and then in the integrals in Eq. (10):
where
For the adopted linear interpolation functions (Eq. (5)) from Eqs. (12)–(14) can be obtained
It is noted that the elements of matrix A are determined for the laminated plate as a whole and do not depend on the adopted discretization through the thickness of the plate.
The governing equations of motion can be derived by using the principle of displacements. For zero values of stiffnesses
where
The system of Eq. (16) contains (3+2
This chapter shows the analytical solution that is obtained by using the double trigonometric series for simply supported plate, as well as the numerical solution obtained by using the finite element method as one of the currently most applied numerical methods.
Simply supported rectangular laminated plate
where
Boundary conditions for simply supported plate are met:
Transverse load is displayed in the form of double Fourier series:
where
When derivatives of the displacement (Eq. (17)) are substituted into Eq. (16), for each pair (
Elements of the submatrices
By solving Eq. (20), the unknown coefficients
The strains are determined using Eq. (6) and then the stresses using Eq. (8). Stresses in the plane of the plate are determined by the expressions:
Shear stresses
A more realistic change of shear stresses
For a simply supported rectangular plate, stresses are determined in dimensionless form:
where
All layers of the laminated plate have the same thickness and material properties. For predefined material characteristics of layers
The components of displacement of finite element can be written as a combination of two‐dimensional interpolation function
Interpolation functions
where
According to Eqs. (6) and (25), matrices H and
where
The first derivatives of the
where
The second derivatives of the interpolation functions, which are used during determinations of the shear stresses perpendicular to the plane plate, are
where
According to the principle of stationary potential energy, the first variation of the potential energy must be zero for equilibrium conditions. The first variation of the potential energy of the finite element is
By using Eq. (7), the strains can be written in the following form:
where
Inserting Eq. (35) into Eq. (34), the first variation of the potential energy of the finite element becomes
After multiplication, the stiffness matrix of the finite element takes the form:
The stiffness matrix of the finite element can be written in a matrix from as
From the structure of the matrix (Eq. (39)), four submatrices can be noticed, where elements (see Eq. (38)) are determined as follows:
The area integral can be written in the form of the natural coordinates:
as follows:
where
Thereafter, the submatrices of the stiffness matrix (Eq. (39)) are given by
Interpolation or shape functions in finite element analysis depend on the dimensionality of the problem and type of elements used for discretization of the problem. Layerwise theory introduces two types of interpolation functions. The first type is the interpolation functions in the plane (
For the models of rectangular finite element, it is possible to implement a wide range of standard 2D interpolation functions in the plane of the plate, as well as 1D interpolation functions through the thickness of the layer. At our disposal are 2D finite elements such as E4—four‐node Lagrange rectangular element, E8—eight‐node Serendipity rectangular element, E9—nine‐node Lagrange rectangular element, E12—12‐node Serendipity rectangular element, and E16—16‐node Lagrange rectangular element. Each of these elements can be combined with one or more 1D Lagrange elements: L—linear element, Q—square element, C—cubic element, in order to create a wide spectrum of a variety of finite elements based on the layerwise theory. We use notation E16‐L4 to denote 2D element with 16 nodes combined with four linear 1D elements through the thickness of the plate.
For laminated plate containing
Rectangular finite element E8–L3.
To determine the stiffness matrix of elements, it is necessary to perform numerical integration. If Gauss‐Legendre integration is used, then the integral is calculated by
where
Governing equations in the finite element method are calculated from the principle of virtual displacements. The first variation of the potential of the system of finite elements is
By applying the principle of virtual displacements, the system of algebraic equations of the finite element method is obtained:
where
Methods of forming the stiffness matrix
A square four‐layer simply supported laminated plate with the arrangement of layers 60°/‐45°/‐45°/60° with boundary conditions
Material characteristics of the layers are
Stresses are determined in a dimensionless form according to Eq. (23) described in Section 2 of this chapter, wherein the shear stress in the plane of the plate is also given in the same dimensionless form as the normal stresses. Stresses are calculated in points with coordinates:
Changing of dimensionless stresses through the thickness of the laminated plate is presented in Figures 7–9.
This chapter refers to the application of Reddy\'s layerwise theory, based on the assumption that dilatation perpendicular to the middle plane of the laminated plate is neglected. In the bending equations for laminated plates, the primary variables of node
Analytical solution of the bending equations in the layerwise theory is presented for simply supported rectangular laminated plate which contains orthogonal layers. A graphical representation of the distribution of dimensionless stresses
In Chapter 4, a graphical representation of the distribution of dimensionless stresses
Aside the drawbacks and disadvantages of the analytical solution, the same should not be excluded from the engineering and scientific practice, since it represents the ultimate convergence and accuracy criteria for any other numerical or approximate methods, including the finite element method presented in this chapter.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been used for decades as flame retardants in a wide variety of products. Notable among these are building insulations, upholstered furniture, electrical goods, vehicles and aircrafts, foams, textiles, electrical insulations, and a variety of technical plastics such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymers (ABS), high impact polystyrene (HIPS), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), or plain paper (PAP), where PBDEs were used in concentrations of 5–30 percent by weight. Despite a spectrum of 209 PBDE congeners, only three formulations were of technical relevance, namely pentabromodiphenyl ether (penta-BDEs), octabromodiphenyl ether (octa-BDEs), and perbrominated diphenyl ether (deca-BDE, BDE-209). The global demand (EU demand) of these mixtures in 2001 was about 7500 tons (EU:150 tons), 3790 tons (EU: 610 tons), and 56,100 tons (EU: 7600 tons) [1]. The use of BDE-209 reached its peak in 2003–2006 with 30,000 tons (China), 9600 tons (EU), 5000–10,000 tons (Northern America), and 1600 tons (Japan) [2]. Because of their endocrine-disrupting properties, neurotoxicity, and negative impacts on fertility as well as their high environmental persistence, the use of these mixtures was strictly regulated by the Stockholm Convention of 2001 and finally banned in 2004 (penta-BDEs, octa-BDEs) and severely restricted for BDE-209 in 2019 according to the lower toxicity in case of higher degree of bromination [3, 4].
\nAs former high-volume chemicals PBDEs are ubiquitous in environment today, but are mainly detectable in soil and dust samples. E-waste sites and waste water sludge were identified as main sources with BDE-209 as dominant congener [5, 6]. Hence, BDE-209 levels of 6.3–12,194.6 ng g DM−1 (dry matter) at a ratio of 35–89.6% of the total PBDE where detected on e-waste recycling sites [7, 8, 9], while currently highest ∑PBDE levels of 8.70–18,451 ng g DM−1 were reported for soil at an industrial production site of plastic parts in electrical industry in Changzhou [10]. PBDE levels of 7240–10,469 ng g DM−1, 180–370,000 ng g DM−1, and 270–110,000 ng g DM−1 were also reported as currently highest levels in dust of industrial environment, house dust, and office dust samples in the UK, respectively [11]. In sludge samples of both municipal and industrial waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) in the USA, Turkey, and Hessian (Germany) levels of 85.5 ng g DM−1 up to 2.5 w% of ∑PBDE were reported [12, 13, 14]. The annual input of PBDEs into the environment in the USA was quantified as 47.9–60.1 tons, where 24.0–36.0 tons were located in sewage sludge [6].
\nAs WWTP sludge is commonly used as fertilizer in agriculture, PBDE contamination is not restricted to hotspots like e-waste sites, and ubiquitous spread is further increased by gaseous and particulate-based transport of PBDEs. Consequently, soil samples were positively tested towards PBDE contaminations in grassland and forest soils of UK and Norway (∑PBDE: 65–12,000 pg. g DM−1) [15], Western Austria (∑PBDE: 10.4–2744 pg. g DM−1) [16], Germany (BDE-47: <27–505 pg. g DM−1, BDE-209: <156–461 pg. g DM−1) [17], and the Artic (∑12PBDEs ex BDE-209: 120 pg. g DM−1, and ∑PBDE: 1.7–416 pg. g DM−1) [17, 18].
\nGiven the widespread distribution of PBDEs in soils, it can be assumed that they are absorbed by plants to a significant extent and are then introduced into humans via the food chain. The following sections are intended to show the factors influencing the plant uptake of PBDEs and their degradation products and to examine in detail the uptake and transport behavior of twelve selected crops. From these data, generally valid relationships for other crops will be derived using simple key parameters.
\nBecause PBDEs show a wide range of molecular weight (328–959 g mol−1), lipophilicity (log KOW = 6–10), and volatility (log KOA = 9–16) [19, 20], BDE congener specific transport and plant uptake mechanisms (soil-air-plant vs. soil–soil moisture-root-plant) are highly different and dependent on specific substance parameters (vapor pressure, Henry coefficient, air-plant partition coefficient, KOW value, KOA value), meteorological parameters (temperature, wind rate, precipitation, temporal rainfall distribution, deposition kinetics of gaseous and particulate BDEs), long range transport, plant specific characteristics (species, lipid content, carbohydrate content, fiber content, foliage morphology, non-lipid plant parts, rind consistency), and rhizosphere factors [18, 21, 22, 23]. Under aspects of transport, low brominated BDEs (Br2-Br3) are mainly and medium brominated BDEs (Br4-Br5), depending on the study, are minorly to dominantly distributed as gaseous compounds (BDE-15: 100%; BDE-28: 35–60%), while transmission and deposition of higher brominated congeners (Br6-Br10) are obligatorily characterized by adsorption of BDEs on a particulate phase [17, 22, 23, 24, 25]. As a result of the particle-bound lower-range transport of the latter PBDEs, the PBDE pattern in soil and plant samples from densely populated regions and near hotspots shows high agreement with the present PBDE emission spectrum, while in sparsely populated regions the PBDE spectrum is dominated by low brominated congeners [7, 23]. Additionally, a significant concentration gradient of ∑PBDEs from both densely populated to sparsely populated regions and from emission sites to adjacent region can be observed [7, 26]. Hence, various studies around the world showed a wide range of PBDE concentrations in dust samples of 4.33–370,000 ng g DM−1 [11, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31] with a clear domination of BDE-209 in the range of 69.2–99.6% [11, 20, 25].
\nDue to the high molar mass and the lipophilicity of high brominated BDEs, plant uptake by the soil–soil moisture-root-plant pathway is of low relevance and restricted to low and medium brominated BDEs (Br2-Br5) like BDE-47, BDE-99 and BDE-100 [21, 32], even though intrinsic transport of BDE-209 was reported by single studies [33, 34, 35], but disproved by Wu et al. [36], where plant availability of BDE-209 was quantified as 0.3–0.5% of the initial soil concentration and 99.5–99.7% of BDE-209 are solely adsorbed on the soil matrix and the outer side of the roots. Hence, atmospheric uptake of high brominated BDEs is the dominant pathway, even though BDE-209 reveals a low ratio of 0.1% of the atmospheric PBDE pattern [24, 37].
\nAs a result of the presence of gaseous and particulate PBDEs in air, the human PBDE uptake is dominated by inhalation, but the relevance of this pathway is strongly affected by atmospheric PBDE levels. Hites and Sjödin et al. reported concentrations of 5.27–301 pg. m−3 in ambient air and 0.06–67 ng m−3 at indoor air, but increased levels up to 312.1 ng BDE-209 m−3 at a Swedish e-waste recycling site [38, 39]. Average BDE-209 levels of 0.13 ng m−3 (gaseous) and 140 ng m−3 (particulate) were reported by Li et al. in 14 Chinese air samples and total BDE-209 uptake by inhalation was quantified as 3000 ng d−1 (respiration) and 69 ng d−1 (dust uptake), equivalent to 84% of the total daily uptake [40]. This finding was validated by multiple studies. As a consequence, 16% of daily PBDE uptake, and even higher ratios in case of lower ambient PBDE levels, are assigned to dietary uptake underlining the relevance as second dominant pathway.
\nWhile PBDEs in the atmosphere are photolytically transformed by hydroxylation und subsequent transformation to lower brominated congeners or ring closure to the corresponding dibenzofurans [41, 42] and PBDEs in soil and sediments are mainly mineralized by stepwise debromination or detoxified by hydroxylation (OH-BDE) or methoxylation reactions (MeO-BDE) in the rhizosphere, strongly affected by the degree of bromination, concentration of oxygen, organic matter and microorganisms [43], intrinsic PBDEs in plants can be transformed by the same three transformation pathways. Exemplarily, transformation of BDE-28 and BDE-47 in maize was analyzed in detail by Wang et al. [44]. BDE-47 (Br4) was dominantly converted to 6-MeO-BDE-47 (275 ng∙g−1 DM) in the root phase, followed by 5-MeO-BDE-47 (40 ng∙g−1 DM), ∑Br2-BDEs (23 ng∙g−1 DM), ∑Br3-BDEs (20 ng∙g−1DM), and small quantities of two unidentified hydroxylated BDEs (8 ng∙g−1 DM) with continued decrease over time, similar to the transformation behavior against BDE-28 (Br3). Similar results were observed in plants of pumpkins, rice, wheat and soybean for BDE-47 and BDE-99 with formation of 5-OH-BDE-47, 6-OH-BDE-47, 4’-OH-BDE-49, 4’-OH-BDE-42, 4-MeO-BDE-42, and BDE-28 in case of BDE-47 as parent congener, and with formation of 4-OH-BDE-99 and 4-MeO-BDE-99 in case of BDE-99 as soil contaminant [45, 46]. The total PBDE levels clearly dropped in all studies. In liver cells, transformation of both low and moderate brominated BDEs was shown by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and glutathione-S-transferase, two enzyme complexes also found in plants, where they can potentially catalyze the same reactions. However, both enzyme sets were induced by BDE-209, but this congener was not converted [47]. In difference, various study showed comparable PBDE patterns both in soil and plant tissues at almost unchanged concentration levels over time, underlining negligible metabolism of PBDEs in plants [6]. In summary, PBDEs might be transformed in plants by debromination, hydroxylation and methoxylation reactions, but transformation behavior strongly depends on the plant species and the established microbial consortium in the rhizosphere [48].
\nAs a result of high bromination, high molecular weight, low mobility and high lipophilicity, BDE-209 as the dominant PBDE in soil is only marginally available for plants at levels of 0.3–0.5% of the initial concentration [36]. Despite the apparently low relevance, the soil – soil moisture – root uptake pathway is still of high relevance as tests with living and non-living roots of different plants showed 3.5–6 times higher BDE-209 levels in the living tissues [49]. Additional analysis of small-scale soil-based BDE gradients within the root plexus underlined the assumption of active BDE-209 uptake by plants [9] and was clearly proved by greenhouse experiments cultivating six different plant species in contaminated and non-contaminated soil in parallel [50]. In comparison to BDE-209 levels in contaminated soil, BDE-209 levels reached 5.2–10.4 ng g DM−1 and, therefore, less than 5%, i.e. more than 95% of BDE-209 contamination in plants could be attributed to root uptake and intrinsic plant transport. Both processes are coupled to plant transpiration elevating PBDE levels in shoots and leaves at dry weather conditions [51].
\nTo increase comparability of PBDE uptake and intrinsic transport, both the root concentration factor (RCF) and the translocation factor (TF) were introduced in literature and correlated to the log KOW value of PBDEs [9]. Both parameters can be correlated in a clearly negative way, i.e. higher RCF values were detected in case of lower brominated PBDEs and, therefore, compounds with lower log KOW values than in case of higher log KOW values [9]. In detail, plant specific RCFs of BDE-209 were up to ten times lower than the RCFs of BDE-28 [7, 9, 19]. This observation may be explained both by the lack of water solubility and thereby restricted root uptake with the soil moisture phase, and the strong adsorptive behavior of higher brominated PBDEs in soil. Hence, with exception of some plants like radish, green squash, and soft-stem bulrush, which are well adapted for phytoremediation processes, RCFs are clearly less than 1 for all PBDE congeners [52]. However, PBDE uptake is significantly affected by the presence of organic solubilizers in the soil like extracts of wheat straw or pig manure, where BDE-47 uptake by wheat as an example was elevated by a factor of 3.1 (wheat manure) and 1.9 (pig maure), respectively [53]. Hence, PBDE uptake increases with increasing surfactant activity, whereas decreases at weak surfactant activity and thereby increase of the organic content in soil [54]. Furthermore, PBDE uptake and RCFs as consequence are strongly affected by plant species specifics, physical and chemical soil properties, initial concentration levels of PBDEs, relevance of both gaseous and particulate atmospheric uptake, duration of the growth period, and organic soil content. Details will be described in Section 6.
\nIn contrast, a positive correlation of both RCF and TF value was observed for maize in case of BDE-15, BDE-28, and BDE-47, which can be explained by an increased transpiration of the plants as these low-brominated congeners reveal higher water solubility [51].
\nThe ratio of PBDE levels in shoots to the levels in roots is defined as translocation factor (TF). In contrast to the RCF, a general statement about the correlation of log KOW and TF is not appropriate, since no clear positive or negative correlation occurs as the TF value depends on numerous parameters like plant species specifics, initial PBDE levels in soil, the lipid content of the shoots, plant age, distance of the plant issue from the root plexus, and the hardly quantifiable effect of the soil-air-plant exposure pathway. In principle, a negative correlation may be assumed as lower log KOW values correlate with higher water solubility and, hence, higher intrinsic transport. As PBDE accumulate in the root area, stem and shoots show significantly lower contamination levels and relevance of atmospheric PBDE uptake significantly increases [51]. Nevertheless, the bioaccumulation and translocation behavior of PBDE in plants is not conclusively clarified and depends on numerous, partially insufficiently determined parameters.
\nNumerous studies focused on both physico-chemical and substance specific properties affecting plant uptake and biodegradation behavior of PBDE, where PBDE specifics (vapor pressure, KOW value, air-water distribution KAW value, air-plant distribution KAP value), environmental parameters (temperature, wind rate, precipitation, temporal rain distribution, kinetics of both gaseous and particle-bound deposition), plant properties (species, lipid content, foliage morphology, ratio of non-lipid plant parts, rind thickness, contents of both sugar and fibers), as well as the presence of an microbial active rhizosphere were generally found to be highly germane. For bioavailability and thus biodegradability of PBDEs pH value and soil composition are of particular importance [18, 22, 23]. In detail, relevant parameters are:
\nEasy metabolizable intermediates as amino acids, organic acids, sugars and exozenzymes are excreted by plants as detoxification strategy to improve microbial bioavailability and biodegradability of PBDE in the rhizosphere [33]. For example, hexose was excreted by
Plant specifics like plant morphology, wax layers of bay leaves and the lipid content of both leaf and roots strongly affect both atmospheric and soil-based uptake of PBDEs. Hence, accumulation of Br3-BDEs to Br10-BDEs in the wax layer of wheat was determined as 29–93% of the total plant uptake [25], while BDE-209 accumulation in six different plant species at initial soil levels of 4700 ng g DM−1 ranged 1822–10,933 ng plant−1 with alfalfa showing lowest and maize showing highest levels [56].
\nThe release of plant eluates into the mycorrhizal is part of the symbiosis between the plant and the mycorrhizal fungi promoting the plant’s uptake of nutrients and the growth of microorganisms in the mycorrhizal area. Its secondary effect of enhanced microbial biodegradation and detoxification of PBDEs in the mycorrhizal area was shown several times in literature. As an example, increased depletion of 470 ng g DM−1 towards 2250 ng g DM−1 was observed for BDE-209 comparing rice plants with and without mycorrhizal fungi [57].
\nA correlation between accumulation of PBDEs and high specific plant surface was clearly shown for BDE-209 in roots of radish, lettuce and taro [58, 59] and for Br2-BDE to Br10-BDE in both pine needles and eucalyptus leaves [60].
\nThe lipid content of a plant, especially of the roots, shows strong effects on PBDE uptake and was successfully evaluated for various mosses, lichens, ryegrass, alfalfa, maize, radish, squash, and pumpkin. A positive correlation between lipid content and PBDE uptake (RCF), as well as a negative correlation in lipid content and intrinsic PBDE mobility (TF) was observed [19, 22, 61, 62].
\nSimilar to the lipid content an increase in organic content of soil evokes higher PBDE accumulation in the soil and, therefore, reduced PBDE plant uptake [20, 33, 63]. Exemplarily, PBDE uptake in carrots was reduced by 31.5–69.8% and soil-based biodegradation increased by 8.6–28.5% by addition of 1–4 w% of swine manure to the soil fraction [63]. Differentiation between TOC and DOC showed a clear improvement in adsorption of PBDE in the soil matrix at higher TOC levels, whereas no effect was observed in case of increased DOC levels [54].
\nSince biochar is insoluble and thus is considered as a TOC increase of the soil, elevated accumulation of PBDE in the soil phase may occur [64].
\nAs sewage sludge reveals a high TOC content, but also enhanced contamination levels with PBDE or their detoxification and degradation products, sewage sludge is a dominant PBDE exposure pathway. Hence, using contaminated sludges as agricultural fertilizers, increasing concentration levels and accumulation of PBDE in the soil phase and, finally, elevated PBDE plant uptake are observed. However, relevance of this effect strongly depends on the original PBDE contamination levels of the sludge. An overview of PBDE levels in different sewage sludges was previously presented [52]. Similar to both lipid content and TOC content, a negative correlation between BDE-209 uptake and organic content, implemented by sewage sludge out, was observed [37].
\nIn difference to sewage sludge, the PBDE load of compost and digestates is rather low as confirmed by various studies due to the low contamination levels of the plant educts (leaves, green waste, fruit and food residues). For instance, a broadly based study of biocompost, green waste compost and digestates in Baden-Wuerttemberg showed comparable median concentrations of 13 ng g DM−1, 5.4 ng g DM−1, and 13.7 ng g DM−1 and confirmed to low relevance of these materials as PBDE emissions sources [65].
\nAs a result of the low water solubility of PBDE, high soil moisture effectively prevents evaporation of BDEs as well as plant uptake [64]. Correspondingly, a longer PBDE load may be expected at wet locations.
\nPlastics may reveal partition coefficients of PBDEs of several orders of magnitude higher than those towards sewage sludge or soil at levels of 0.04–1.6 w% [66, 67]. In detail, accumulation of PBDEs in low density polyethylene films (LDPE), an adequate and commonly accepted model for diffusive transport phenomena across biomembranes, showed accumulation factors against the aqueous phase (KPEW) of 105–107 in case of 23 BDE congeners covering the total spectrum of bromination [68]. Furthermore, a curvilinear correlation between the log KPEW and log KOW factor, very similar to the correlation of BCF and log KOW shown in Figure 1 was observed and explained by energy barriers for diffusive transport into the LDPE structure [68]. The statement of rising KPEW levels at higher lipophilicity of BDE congeners was further confirmed [67]. However, KPEW levels are strongly affected by the type of plastic and the temperature level during test conditions as adsorption is an endothermic process. While enhanced accumulation of BDE congeners was observed for polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyamide, low accumulation levels were observed for polyvinylchloride [66, 67, 68]. Hence, the hypothetical potential of injection of plastic particles into the soil as sink for PBDE and thereby soil remediation was positively investigated.
\nCorrelation of log KOW and log BCF of 25 BDEs of high environmental relevance (−3, −7, −17, −28, −30, −47, −49, −66, −85, −99, −100, −123, −153, −154, −155, −183, −184, −191, −197, −201, −202, −206, −207, −208, −209) applying simple mathematical models with/without correction.
Additional additives like graphene, TiO2, Al2O3, Ag, and carbon nanotubes were considered as relevant for BDE-209 uptake in spinach, pumpkin, cucumber, corn and water spinach [36]. Indeed, an increased plant uptake was observed for all of these additives. Combinations of clay minerals like bentonite and oxidizing agents like sodium persulfate have also been positively tested for increased bioavailability of Br3-Br10 – BDEs [69].
\nThe addition of surfactant-active additives elevates both mobility of PBDE in the soil matrix and plant uptake as previously described.
\nApart from undisputed relevance of macro- and trace elements both in the development of the microflora in the rhizosphere and in plant growth, positive effects on the degradation of BDEs were observed in individual cases. Exemplarily, nitrate as additive caused intensified desorption and biodegradation of BDE-99, but might cause inhibition in case of high levels [70, 71].
\nPresence of elevated concentrations of heavy metals shows ambivalent effects. Metals like Ni or Fe cause an enhanced uptake of PBDE, which was justified by chemical debromination of BDE-209 and enhanced mobilization, uptake and transport of Br8- to Br10-BDEs in the roots and shoots of the plants [64].Enhanced plant uptake of low brominated BDEs like BDE-47 was also observed (24.76% vs. < 1.5%) [72]. In contrast, reduced BDE-209 uptake of up to 50% by pumpkins was reported after addition of 300 mg Cu kg DM−1 and microbial mineralization was negatively affected at more elevated levels [70, 73]. Similar effects were shown for lead, where BDE-209 uptake was reduced by a factor of 2.9–3.7 by tall fescue at levels up to 1950 mg Pb kg DM−1 [74]. Heavy metal induced effects on PBDE plant uptake are also plant specifics as shown for cadmium, where levels of up to 14,800 ng g DM-1 had no effect on BDE-209 uptake in case of black nightshade, but lifting effects in case of amaranth [75, 76].
\nIn summary, presence of essential heavy metals like iron or copper at adequate concentrations might have a positive effect on PBDE degradation, while non-essential heavy metals at non-toxic levels reveal no effect.
\nDue to the broad spectrum of food plants, attempts were made to develop simple but sensitive models to predict PBDE plant uptake based on simple chemical conditions and input variables as distribution equilibria, lipid content, organic matter, and initial PBDE soil-water concentration to achieve predictive statements about RCF, SCF (shoot concentration factor) or TF.
\nWhile these models provide comparatively good correlations for the RCF, they commonly fail in prediction of the TF, because this value is strongly influenced by intrinsic and atmospheric transport of BDEs in addition to the plant specific uptake of PBDE in the root plexus. Therefore, deviations in the range of two decades can be observed comparing model and real situation [77, 78]. Even after restriction of models to single pollutant situations instead of congener mixtures with variable concentration levels, and after focusing on single and simplified plants like lettuce, where differentiations between shoot and fruit or over the height of the shoot are not applicable, deviations of 25.3–58.2% of the model compared to real situation were reported for the insecticide chlorpyrifor [79].
\nAnother highly relevant error is caused by incorrect analysis of intrinsic PBDE levels in roots in contrast to adsorptive fractions at the outer root surface affecting quality of environmental data. Hence, Briggs et al. [80] showed a significant decrease in BCF levels and thus RCF values of PBDE starting at a log KOW value of approx. 6.5 (corresponds to a log BCF value of approx. 4.6) after elimination of externally adsorbed congeners (see Figure 1). This chart corresponds to Bintein’s bilinear model [81], which was confirmed by Meylan et al. [82] for 610 non-ionic pollutants. This negative correlation at high log KOW values and thus high lipophilicity bases on three restrictions of lipophilic compounds as follows:
Following the extensive literature evaluation by Dobslaw et al. [52] twelve crops with the highest documented data density were selected and the occurring RCF and TF values for BDE-47 and BDE-209 were compared. The highest data density regarding the transition of PBDEs from soil to root or from root to plant was available for BDE-209 followed by BDE-47. In contrast to lower brominated BDEs the concentrations of BDE-209 found in literature range over several decades, which facilitates an evaluation of the literature data concerning transition rates. In particular, the following species were selected: Rice (
\nFigure 2 shows the concentrations of BDE-209 in the roots of these crops as a function of the corresponding soil concentrations (RCF), indicating the dependency of BDE-209 uptake on the soil concentration with a ratio of about 1:10 (croot:csoil). Comparing shoots and corresponding soil a similar dependency on soil concentration with a ratio of about 1:18 (croot:csoil) was found (Figure 3). This representation was chosen because of the higher data density being available. However, a TF could be derived from the comparison of the existing data pairs, which points to the dependence of the shoot concentrations on the concentrations in the root (Figure 4) with a ratio of about 1:9 (cshoot:croot).
\nBDE-209 – Root concentration factor (RCF), concentration in root as function of corresponding soil concentration.
BDE-209 – Concentration in shoot as function of corresponding soil concentration.
BDE-209 – Translocation factor (TF), concentration in shoot as function of corresponding root concentration.
The extent of transition of the tetrabrominated BDE-47 from soil to root and shoot was also determined by the concentration of the flame retardant in the soil (Figures 5 and 6). For BDE-47, despite its lower logKOW in comparison to BDE-209, the transition rates are higher with about 1.1:1 (croot:csoil) and 1:6 (cshoot:csoil). Too few corresponding data pairs were available for the representation of the TF. A graphical summary of the results for the congeners 47 and 209 is given in Figure 7. The results are consistent with the prediction models described in Section 7 (see also Figure 1). Due to its high log KOW, BDE-209 is expected to have a lower uptake compared to BDE-47. With the models mentioned above, it is possible to adequately describe the uptake behavior of lipophilic PBDEs. Of particular interest is the trend that the uptake of the substances is primarily determined by the concentration of the compounds in soil. A dependency of the uptake on the crop species might have been expected, but cannot be proven by the present data set.
\nBDE-47 – Root concentration factor (RCF), concentration in root as function of corresponding soil concentration.
BDE-47 – Concentration in shoot as function of corresponding soil concentration.
BDE-47 and BDE-209 – Comparison of concentrations in soil, root and shoot (normalized, c(soil) =1).
PBDEs were widely used as flame retardants. Due to their effects as endocrine disruptors, neurotoxins, and on reproductive capacity as well, knowledge of terrestrial accumulation behavior and, in particular, their uptake by plants for food production is highly relevant. Uptake can occur viasoil-air-plant pathway as well as soil–soil water-root-plant pathway. Transport and plant uptake behavior strongly depend on physical and chemical properties of the BDEs, environmental factors, large-scale atmospheric transport processes, plant properties as well as terrestrial rhizospheres. During both atmospheric and terrestrial transport PBDEs are subject to UV-induced (atmospheric) or microbial induced (terrestrial) transformation and degradation processes like debromination, hydroxylation, methoxylation and ring closure to dibenzofurans. As PBDEs reveal high lipophilicity they tend to adsorption on lipophilic soil matrices and thereby show low uptake via soil–soil water-root-plant pathway and subsequent intrinsic transport. Hence, uptake and intrinsic transport are only expected for low brominated BDEs. Therefore, declining concentrations of PBDEs could be detected from soil via roots to shoots and final fruits, i.e. RCF and TF show negative correlation with their log KOW values. Consistent with this statement, 84% of the human PBDE intake are attributed to respiration and inhalation of dust, while only 16% were correlated with dietary uptake. The actual exposure of vegetarian foods to PBDEs depends on the following parameters:
Both microbial degradation and plant uptake of PBDE are elevated by release of easily biodegradable plant extracts like amino acids, organic acids, sugars and exoenzymes as commonly observed in symbiosis with rhizobia.
The presence of rhizobia enhances microbial degradation and plant uptake of PBDE.
Both atmospheric and terrestrial PBDE uptakes are strongly affected by the morphology of the plant (specific surface of leaves and roots) and the increasing lipid content of plant tissues accelerating PBDE uptake.
PBDE immobilization and accumulation in soil is promoted by increasing TOC levels caused by implementation of compost, sewage sludge, digestates, or biochar.
In contrast, increasing levels of DOC show no effect on plant uptake of PBDEs as long as there is no solubilizing effect by surfactants.
As sewage sludge shows PBDE contamination up to 2.5 w%, it is an important emission source of PBDEs affecting soil contamination. In contrast, PBDE loads of compost and digestates are very low and commonly pollution effects are negligible.
A decrease in evaporation losses and an enhanced immobilization tendency of PBDE can be observed in case of raising soil moisture.
Solubilizers, ionic additives and nanoscale organic substances act as mobilizing agents increasing mobilization and plant uptake of PBDEs.
Macroelements as nitrate favor terrestrial PBDE degradation through its function as alternative electron acceptor. Hence, plant’s load is reduced.
The presence of trace elements supports microbial transformation of PBDE in soil and therefore causes lower contamination of plants. In contrast, heavy metals seem to enforce PBDE uptake by plants by inhibition of terrestrial biodegradation processes.
Current mathematical models allow high quality in prediction of the RCF value with a minimum of input parameters. In opposite, the prediction of SCF and TF values is not suitable due to the insufficient coverage of plant-specific parameters.
According to Lipinski’s ‘Law of 5’ Br4- and Br5-BDE congeners reveal the highest RCF levels. Higher polarity is required to gain high TF factors. Within the same isomers, even small differences in lipophilicity significantly change these values.
Available PBDE data only show a linear correlation between soil concentration and plant uptake. Plant specific uptake effects cannot be observed.
The poor biodegradability of PBDEs means that both the accumulation of PBDEs in the food chain and inhalation exposure will continue to be highly relevant issues in the next few decades. Problems comparable to those described for PBDEs are also expected for alternative brominated flame retardants such as hexabromobenzene, pentabromotoluene, 1,2-bis-(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane, or decabromodiphenylethane due to the likewise high degree of bromination, high persistence and thus a high bioaccumulation potential [20, 84]. A ubiquitous presence of these compounds was already proven [19].
\nEspecially remarkable is the partial lack of metadata in existing publications, which makes an comprehensive evaluation, as it was tried in this publication, difficult. This concerns, for example, more detailed information about the soil composition, the content of organic carbon, lipid, and water of roots and shoots. Thinning of data, such as the aggregation of single congener data to sums (e.g. ∑PBDE) without further information about the composition makes a valuable data set useless.
\nWe would like to thank Lukas Lesmeister (DVGW, Karlsruhe), Melanie Mechler and Jörn Breuer (Center of Agricultural Technology Augustenberg, Karlsruhe) and Prof. Karl-Heinrich Engesser (ISWA, Stuttgart) for their continuous support. This work was supported by the German Federal Environment Agency at grant number FKZ 3718 74 210 0; AZ: 91 007 – 2/82.
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5820},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5289},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1761},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10546},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15932}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119318},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"6"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10801",title:"Uric Acid",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d947ab87019e69ab11aa597edbacc018",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10800",title:"Ligase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f10ff112edb1fec24379dac85ef3b5b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10800.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10837",title:"Peroxisomes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0014b09d4b35bb4d7f52ca0b3641cda1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"64617cf21bf1e47170bb2bcf31b1fc37",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10741",title:"Synthetic Genomics - From Natural to Synthetic Genomes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eb1cebd0b9c4e7e87427003ff7196f57",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miguel Fernández-Niño and Dr. Luis H. Reyes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10741.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"158295",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Fernández-Niño",slug:"miguel-fernandez-nino",fullName:"Miguel Fernández-Niño"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10886",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms - New Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a71558dd7dfd16ad140168409f887f7e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10886.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10794",title:"Potassium in Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0fbab5c7b5baa903a6426e7bbd9f99ab",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jie Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10794.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"181267",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",surname:"Tang",slug:"jie-tang",fullName:"Jie Tang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"40482",title:"Prof.",name:"Rizwan",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Tutar and Dr. Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:28},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:48},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:13},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics",parent:{title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology"},numberOfBooks:143,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:3401,numberOfWosCitations:3946,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1614,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3509,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"physics ",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9984",title:"Geophysics and Ocean Waves Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"271d086381f9ba04162b0dc7cd57755f",slug:"geophysics-and-ocean-waves-studies",bookSignature:"Khalid S. Essa, Marcello Di Risio, Daniele Celli and Davide Pasquali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9984.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102766",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid S.",middleName:null,surname:"Essa",slug:"khalid-s.-essa",fullName:"Khalid S. Essa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10042",title:"Noise and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11e8fca2f0f623d87dfbc3cf2b185e0d",slug:"noise-and-environment",bookSignature:"Daniela Siano and Alice Elizabeth González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10042.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9960",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Siano",slug:"daniela-siano",fullName:"Daniela Siano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10075",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"From Solitons to Similaritons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b034b2a060292c8511359aec0db1002c",slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",bookSignature:"İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",middleName:null,surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10074",title:"Recent Techniques and Applications in Ionizing Radiation Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"129deeec2186f6392f154ed41f64477a",slug:"recent-techniques-and-applications-in-ionizing-radiation-research",bookSignature:"Ahmed M. Maghraby and Basim Almayyahi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10074.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102209",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed M.",middleName:null,surname:"Maghraby",slug:"ahmed-m.-maghraby",fullName:"Ahmed M. Maghraby"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8679",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a994b17ac471c6d414d63c74a7ab74de",slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",bookSignature:"Suvanjan Bhattacharya, Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani, Ranjib Biswas and R. C. Mehta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8679.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"56358",title:"Dr.",name:"R. C.",middleName:null,surname:"Mehta",slug:"r.-c.-mehta",fullName:"R. C. Mehta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56358/images/system/56358.jpeg",biography:"R. C. Mehta obtained his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. He has worked as the Head of Aerodynamics\nDivision of Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre/Indian Space Research\nOrganization. He has participated in the design of launch and\nreentry vehicles. He has served as a Senior Fellow in the School\nof Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He is the recipient of the Life Time\nAchievement Award from the Flow Physics Society of India. He is a senior member\nof AIAA. He has published over 120 papers in peer-reviewed national and international journals. He has published five chapters and co-authored two books. He is a\nreviewer for many international journals. He is presently Dean in the Noorul Islam\nCentre for Higher Education, Kumaracoil, India.",institutionString:"Noorul Islam University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Noorul Islam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8490",title:"Selected Topics in Plasma Physics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0fe936bfad77ae70ad96c46de8b7730d",slug:"selected-topics-in-plasma-physics",bookSignature:"Sukhmander Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8490.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282807",title:"Dr.",name:"Sukhmander",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"sukhmander-singh",fullName:"Sukhmander Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9211",title:"Single Photon Manipulation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"567ddcc14b68fa14e54df3bce2f51acc",slug:"single-photon-manipulation",bookSignature:"Keyu Xia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9211.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210723",title:"Prof.",name:"Keyu",middleName:null,surname:"Xia",slug:"keyu-xia",fullName:"Keyu Xia"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10076",title:"Quantum Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78f2b316d6bb97464dbbf9b683164aff",slug:"quantum-mechanics",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10076.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7965",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb83772cea6200bdd685b8a1b93ee35d",slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",bookSignature:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari and Irina Carlescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7965.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64949",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Sasani Ghamsari",slug:"morteza-sasani-ghamsari",fullName:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9276",title:"Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03a2501c6fc0ac90a8b328850b712da7",slug:"computational-fluid-dynamics-simulations",bookSignature:"Guozhao Ji and Jiujiang Zhu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9276.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190139",title:"Dr.",name:"Guozhao",middleName:null,surname:"Ji",slug:"guozhao-ji",fullName:"Guozhao Ji"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10162",title:"A Diffusion Hydrodynamic Model",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a8c90b653db4fa7a59132d39cca185d8",slug:"a-diffusion-hydrodynamic-model",bookSignature:"Theodore V. Hromadka II, Chung-Cheng Yen and Prasada Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10162.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"181008",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore V.",middleName:"V.",surname:"Hromadka II",slug:"theodore-v.-hromadka-ii",fullName:"Theodore V. Hromadka II"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:143,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32842",doi:"10.5772/34901",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:73518,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:58,book:{slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"49652",doi:"10.5772/61720",title:"Sample Preparations for Scanning Electron Microscopy – Life Sciences",slug:"sample-preparations-for-scanning-electron-microscopy-life-sciences",totalDownloads:8115,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:54,book:{slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mogana Das Murtey and Patchamuthu Ramasamy",authors:[{id:"176330",title:"Dr.",name:"Mogana",middleName:"Das",surname:"Murtey",slug:"mogana-murtey",fullName:"Mogana Murtey"},{id:"181159",title:"Mr.",name:"Patchamuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"patchamuthu-ramasamy",fullName:"Patchamuthu Ramasamy"}]},{id:"26791",doi:"10.5772/28067",title:"Optical Vortices in a Fiber: Mode Division Multiplexing and Multimode Self-Imaging",slug:"optical-vortices-in-a-fiber-mode-division-multiplexing-and-multimode-self-reproducing",totalDownloads:3952,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research"},signatures:"S.N. Khonina, N.L. Kazanskiy and V.A. Soifer",authors:[{id:"72613",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Khonina",slug:"svetlana-khonina",fullName:"Svetlana Khonina"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71926",title:"An Overview of Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystals Composite Films and Their Applications",slug:"an-overview-of-polymer-dispersed-liquid-crystals-composite-films-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:561,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology"},signatures:"Anuja Katariya Jain and Rajendra R. Deshmukh",authors:[{id:"34437",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajendrasing",middleName:"Rajesing",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"rajendrasing-deshmukh",fullName:"Rajendrasing Deshmukh"},{id:"318245",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuja",middleName:null,surname:"Katariya-Jain",slug:"anuja-katariya-jain",fullName:"Anuja Katariya-Jain"}]},{id:"72824",title:"Applications of Diffusion Hydrodynamic Model",slug:"applications-of-diffusion-hydrodynamic-model",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"a-diffusion-hydrodynamic-model",title:"A Diffusion Hydrodynamic Model",fullTitle:"A Diffusion Hydrodynamic Model"},signatures:"Theodore V. Hromadka II and Chung-Cheng Yen",authors:[{id:"181008",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore V.",middleName:"V.",surname:"Hromadka II",slug:"theodore-v.-hromadka-ii",fullName:"Theodore V. Hromadka II"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:8488,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:22,book:{slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]},{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:73518,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:58,book:{slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"71638",title:"Plasma Antennas",slug:"plasma-antennas",totalDownloads:300,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"selected-topics-in-plasma-physics",title:"Selected Topics in Plasma Physics",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Plasma Physics"},signatures:"Theodore Anderson",authors:null},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:4902,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"68746",title:"Optically Clear Adhesives for OLED",slug:"optically-clear-adhesives-for-oled",totalDownloads:1490,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-oled-technology-and-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - OLED Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Joel T. Abrahamson, Hollis Z. Beagi, Fay Salmon and Christopher J. Campbell",authors:null},{id:"59379",title:"Graphene, Transition Metal Dichalcogenides, and Perovskite Photodetectors",slug:"graphene-transition-metal-dichalcogenides-and-perovskite-photodetectors",totalDownloads:1643,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"two-dimensional-materials-for-photodetector",title:"Two-dimensional Materials for Photodetector",fullTitle:"Two-dimensional Materials for Photodetector"},signatures:"Zhi Yang, Jinjuan Dou and Minqiang Wang",authors:[{id:"225612",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"zhi-yang",fullName:"Zhi Yang"},{id:"238944",title:"MSc.",name:"Jinjuan",middleName:null,surname:"Dou",slug:"jinjuan-dou",fullName:"Jinjuan Dou"},{id:"238946",title:"Prof.",name:"Minqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"minqiang-wang",fullName:"Minqiang Wang"}]},{id:"70578",title:"Gallium-68: Radiolabeling of Radiopharmaceuticals for PET Imaging - A Lot to Consider",slug:"gallium-68-radiolabeling-of-radiopharmaceuticals-for-pet-imaging-a-lot-to-consider",totalDownloads:717,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"medical-isotopes",title:"Medical Isotopes",fullTitle:"Medical Isotopes"},signatures:"Michael Meisenheimer, Yury Saenko and Elisabeth Eppard",authors:null},{id:"58452",title:"Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Photodetectors",slug:"transition-metal-dichalcogenide-photodetectors",totalDownloads:1545,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"two-dimensional-materials-for-photodetector",title:"Two-dimensional Materials for Photodetector",fullTitle:"Two-dimensional Materials for Photodetector"},signatures:"Inturu Omkaram, Young Ki Hong and Sunkook Kim",authors:[{id:"210186",title:"Dr.",name:"Inturu",middleName:null,surname:"Omkaram",slug:"inturu-omkaram",fullName:"Inturu Omkaram"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"physics ",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"76308",title:"Quarks Mixing in Chiral Symmetries",slug:"quarks-mixing-in-chiral-symmetries",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95233",book:{title:"Quantum Chromodynamic"},signatures:"Zbigniew Szadkowski"},{id:"76271",title:"Double Pole Method in QCD Sum Rules for Vector Mesons",slug:"double-pole-method-in-qcd-sum-rules-for-vector-mesons",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97421",book:{title:"Quantum Chromodynamic"},signatures:"Mikael Souto Maior de Sousa and Rômulo Rodrigues da Silva"},{id:"76259",title:"Paramagnetic Transitions Ions as Structural Modifiers in Ferroelectrics",slug:"paramagnetic-transitions-ions-as-structural-modifiers-in-ferroelectrics",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95983",book:{title:"Paramagnetism - Fundamentals, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Veronica Lucero Villegas Rueda"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:35},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/166206/carlos-ramos",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"166206",slug:"carlos-ramos"},fullPath:"/profiles/166206/carlos-ramos",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()