Neutrophilic granulocyte subpopulation phenotypes and their function and diagnostic significance (Nesterova I.V. et al., 2010–2016).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6732",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Desalination and Water Treatment",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The need for fresh water is increasing with the rapid growth of the world's population. In countries and regions with available water resources, it is necessary to ensure the health and safety of the water supply. However, in countries and regions with limited freshwater resources, priority is given to water supply plans and projects, among which the desalination strategy stands out. In the desalination process, membrane and thermal processes are used to obtain fresh water from salty water that is in abundant amounts in the sea. This book will outline valuable scientific contributions to the new desalination and water treatment technologies to obtain high quality water with low negative environmental impacts and cost. The editors would like to record their sincere thanks to the authors for their contributions.",isbn:"978-1-78923-759-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-758-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-679-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72352",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",numberOfPages:424,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"eee2f03e0328f289e68fde28738c333f",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6732.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28778,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:37,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:87,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:160,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 26th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 25th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for many indexed journals. Dr. Eyvaz has four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"176701",title:"Prof.",name:"Ebubekir",middleName:null,surname:"Yüksel",slug:"ebubekir-yuksel",fullName:"Ebubekir Yüksel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176701/images/system/176701.png",biography:"Prof. Ebubekir Yüksel is a faculty member of the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, watershed management, flood control, deep-sea discharges, membrane processes, spectrophotometric analyses, chromatographic analyses, and geographic information systems. He has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He has produced more than thirty peer-reviewed publications in indexed journals. He has one patent on pump/turbine design and four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"837",title:"Hydrology",slug:"hydrology"}],chapters:[{id:"61066",title:"Using Desalination to Improve Agricultural Yields: Success Cases in Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76847",slug:"using-desalination-to-improve-agricultural-yields-success-cases-in-mexico",totalDownloads:1041,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Water scarcity is a global problem, motivating growth and development of new technologies for water treatment, reuse and desalination. For many arid regions in Mexico, especially in the northwest, agriculture is an important economic activity. The Yaqui Valley in Sonora, Mexico, faces problems related to aquifer overexploitation and saline intrusion, which have increased salt concentration in well water to 2000–9000 mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS) and led to soil salinization and low crop yields. This work evaluates the effect of TDS in irrigation water on crop yield. A 150 m3/d desalination plant was used, consisting of 12 SWC4B-MAX membrane modules, with 98% rejection and 75% recovery. Two crops were irrigated with control (4000 mg/L) and desalinated water (200 mg/L). Sorghum (Sorghum) had yields of 7.9 and 8.8 ton/ha, whereas tomatillo (Physalis philadelphica) had yields of 30.82 and 35.88 ton/ha, respectively. Evidently, the desalination process influences agricultural yields.",signatures:"Germán Eduardo Dévora-Isiordia, María del Rosario Martínez-\nMacías, Ma. Araceli Correa-Murrieta, Jesús Álvarez-Sánchez and\nGustavo Adolfo Fimbres-Weihs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61066",authors:[{id:"234981",title:"Dr.",name:"German Eduardo",surname:"Devora-Isiordia",slug:"german-eduardo-devora-isiordia",fullName:"German Eduardo Devora-Isiordia"},{id:"238809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Fimbres-Weihs",slug:"gustavo-fimbres-weihs",fullName:"Gustavo Fimbres-Weihs"},{id:"238810",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Álvarez-Sánchez",slug:"jesus-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Jesús Álvarez-Sánchez"},{id:"239031",title:"Dr.",name:"María Araceli",surname:"Correa Murrieta",slug:"maria-araceli-correa-murrieta",fullName:"María Araceli Correa Murrieta"},{id:"239032",title:"Dr.",name:"María Del Rosario",surname:"Martínez Macías",slug:"maria-del-rosario-martinez-macias",fullName:"María Del Rosario Martínez Macías"}],corrections:null},{id:"61156",title:"Activated Carbon Cloth for Desalination of Brackish Water Using Capacitive Deionization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76838",slug:"activated-carbon-cloth-for-desalination-of-brackish-water-using-capacitive-deionization",totalDownloads:1460,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Capacitive deionization (CDI) is an emerging technology that is currently being widely explored for brackish water desalination. The theory behind the CDI technology depends on ion electrosorption at the surface of a pair of electrically charged porous carbon electrodes. Salt ions are removed upon applying an electrical low voltage of 1.2 V between two electrodes. Activated carbon cloth (ACC) electrodes have a significant potential for energy-efficient CDI water desalination due to the high surface area and salt storage capacity in which salt ions will be temporarily immobilized. The current state of the art of CDI technology is critically reviewed and evaluated to understand and summarize CDI background, phenomenon, advantages, operating conditions, performance metrics and equations, carbon electrode materials, cell architectures and CDI designs. We also provide a review study to evaluate the performance and feasibility of utilizing ACC-CDI systems for brackish water desalination.",signatures:"Hisham A. Maddah and Mohammed A. Shihon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61156",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61156",authors:[{id:"239317",title:"Mr.",name:"Hisham",surname:"Maddah",slug:"hisham-maddah",fullName:"Hisham Maddah"},{id:"244029",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Shihon",slug:"mohammed-shihon",fullName:"Mohammed Shihon"}],corrections:null},{id:"60193",title:"Energy Recovery in Capacitive Deionization Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75537",slug:"energy-recovery-in-capacitive-deionization-technology",totalDownloads:1294,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Capacitive deionization technique (CDI) represents an interesting alternative to compete with reverse osmosis by reducing energy consumption. It is based on creating an electric field between two electrodes to retain the salt ions on the electrode surface by electrostatic attraction; thus the CDI cell operates as a supercapacitor storing energy during the desalination process. Most of the CDI research is oriented to improving the electrode materials in order to increase the effective surface and ionic retention. However, if the CDI overall efficiency is to be improved, it is necessary to optimize the CDI cell geometry and the charge/discharge current used during the deionization process. A DC/DC converter is required to transfer the stored energy from one cell to another with the maximum possible efficiency during energy recovery, thus allowing the desalination process to continue. A detailed description of energy losses and the DC/DC converter used to recover part of the energy involved in the CDI process will provide the hints to optimize the efficiency of the CDI technique for water desalination. The proposed chapter presents an electric model to characterize the power losses in CDI cells and the power converter required for the energy recovery process.",signatures:"Alberto M. Pernía, Miguel J. Prieto, Juan A. Martín-Ramos, Pedro J.\nVillegas and Francisco J. Álvarez-González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60193",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60193",authors:[{id:"238991",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto M.",surname:"Pernía",slug:"alberto-m.-pernia",fullName:"Alberto M. Pernía"},{id:"241816",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel J.",surname:"Prieto",slug:"miguel-j.-prieto",fullName:"Miguel J. Prieto"},{id:"241817",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan A.",surname:"Martín-Ramos",slug:"juan-a.-martin-ramos",fullName:"Juan A. Martín-Ramos"},{id:"241819",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",surname:"Villegas Saiz",slug:"pedro-j.-villegas-saiz",fullName:"Pedro J. Villegas Saiz"},{id:"241820",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco J.",surname:"Álvarez-González",slug:"francisco-j.-alvarez-gonzalez",fullName:"Francisco J. Álvarez-González"}],corrections:null},{id:"61479",title:"Computational Study of Liquid Film Condensation with the Presence of Non-Condensable Gas in a Vertical Tube",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76753",slug:"computational-study-of-liquid-film-condensation-with-the-presence-of-non-condensable-gas-in-a-vertic",totalDownloads:1281,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main objective of this chapter is to study the liquid film condensation in a thermal desalination process, which is based on the phase change phenomenon. The external tube wall is subjected to a constant temperature. The set of the non-linear and coupled equations expressing the conservation of mass, momentum and energy in the liquid and gas mixtures is solved numerically. An implicit finite difference method is employed to solve the coupled governing equations for liquid film and gas flow together with the interfacial matching conditions. Results include radial direction profiles of axial velocity, temperature and vapour mass fraction, as well as axial variation of the liquid film thickness. Additionally, the effects of varying the inlet conditions on the phase change phenomena are examined. It was found that increasing the inlet-to-wall temperature difference improves the condensate film thickness. Decreasing the radius of the tube increased the condensation process. Additionally, non-condensable gas is a decisive factor in reducing the efficiency of the heat and mass exchanges. Overall, these parameters are relevant factors to improve the effectiveness of the thermal desalination units.",signatures:"Adil Charef, M’barek Feddaoui, Abderrahman Nait Alla and Monssif\nNajim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61479",authors:[{id:"231851",title:"Dr.",name:"M\\'Barek",surname:"Feddaoui",slug:"m'barek-feddaoui",fullName:"M\\'Barek Feddaoui"},{id:"235690",title:"Dr.",name:"Adil",surname:"Charef",slug:"adil-charef",fullName:"Adil Charef"},{id:"241577",title:"Dr.",name:"Monssif",surname:"Najim",slug:"monssif-najim",fullName:"Monssif Najim"},{id:"241580",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahman",surname:"Nait Alla",slug:"abderrahman-nait-alla",fullName:"Abderrahman Nait Alla"}],corrections:null},{id:"61137",title:"Distilled Water Production by Vacuum Heat Pump",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76839",slug:"distilled-water-production-by-vacuum-heat-pump",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A new machine to produce distilled water was provided, which includes a heat pump system and a vacuum system. And in the vacuum system of this new machine, the ejector is the key component. Three kinds of ejectors were studied by using FLUENT software to simulate their parameters. The simulation results showed that a vacuum is formed in the ejector throat, where the speed also reached its maximum value. The optimized ratio between the area of the throat and that of the mixing section can be obtained according to theoretical calculations. The ejector with the ratio 0.0156 can be used to prepare distilled water, and the experimental results show that the energy consumption of 1 kilogram distilled water is lower than 0.3 kWh. In the heat pump system, the capillary is the key component. Five kinds of capillaries were studied by using CFD software to simulate their parameters. The simulation results showed that the larger the degree of supercooling of the refrigerant in the capillary, the larger the liquid volume fraction of the outlet refrigerant. The experimental results show that suitable capillary can greatly improve the efficiency of the system.",signatures:"Liu Bin, Cai Ling, Li Tianyin and Sajid Muhammad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61137",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61137",authors:[{id:"103474",title:"Dr.",name:"Liu",surname:"Bin",slug:"liu-bin",fullName:"Liu Bin"}],corrections:null},{id:"61464",title:"Renewable Energy-Driven Desalination Hybrids for Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77019",slug:"renewable-energy-driven-desalination-hybrids-for-sustainability",totalDownloads:1423,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The expansion trend of current desalination processes is expected to boost brine rejection to 240 km3 and CO2 emission to 400 million tons per year by 2050. This high brine rejection and CO2 emission rates are copping COP21 goal, maintaining temperature rise below 2°C. An innovative and energy-efficient process/material is required to achieve Paris Agreement targets. Highly efficient adsorbent cycle integration is proposed with well-proven conventional desalination processes to improve energy efficiency and to reduce environmental and marine pollution. The adsorbent cycle is operated with solar or low-grade industrial waste heat, available in abundance in water stress regions. The proposed integration with membrane processes will save 99% energy and over 150% chemical rejection to sea. In case of thermally driven cycles, the proposed hybridization will improve energy efficiency to 39% and will reduce over 80% chemical rejection. This can be one solution to achieve Paris Agreement (COP21) targets for climate control that can be implemented in near future.",signatures:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad, Doskhan Ybyraiymkul, Muhammad\nBurhan and Kim Choon Ng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61464",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61464",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"}],corrections:null},{id:"61215",title:"Solar Desalination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76981",slug:"solar-desalination",totalDownloads:2932,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There is an increasing demand for advancing conventional desalination technologies and developing novel solar powered desalination processes. In this chapter, the use of solar powered thermal desalination will be discussed comprehensively. The different existing methods of solar energy utilization for seawater desalination will be discussed, which includes solar stills, solar powered humidification-dehumidification (HDH) desalination, solar diffusion driven desalination, solar membrane distillation, concentrated solar power (CSP) based desalination, and solar pond distillation. The advantages and limitations of these thermal desalination technology will be discussed. In addition, the environmental impacts of solar desalination will be discussed due to its importance for adoption.",signatures:"Fadi Alnaimat, James Klausner and Bobby Mathew",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61215",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61215",authors:[{id:"151722",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadi",surname:"Alnaimat",slug:"fadi-alnaimat",fullName:"Fadi Alnaimat"},{id:"245337",title:"Prof.",name:"James",surname:"Klausner",slug:"james-klausner",fullName:"James Klausner"},{id:"245338",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobby",surname:"Mathew",slug:"bobby-mathew",fullName:"Bobby Mathew"}],corrections:null},{id:"61068",title:"Factors Affecting the Yield of Solar Distillation Systems and Measures to Improve Productivities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75593",slug:"factors-affecting-the-yield-of-solar-distillation-systems-and-measures-to-improve-productivities",totalDownloads:1233,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a numerical model to estimate the performance of solar basin-type distillation systems, both for conventional passive solar stills and active (forced circulation) stills with enhanced heat recovery. It also analyzes the factors affecting the distillate outputs of the still, including environmental factors (external factors or natural), elements of the design and operation (subjective factors). The subjective elements as well as the measures taken to optimize these factors are thoroughly analyzed. With these measures, the distillate yields of solar stills are increased from 30 to 68% compared with traditional distillation systems. This has scientific significance and practicality enabling the application of this technology to solar water distillation using a source of clean and renewable energy. It provides a viable way to alleviating the problem of the availability of clean water, especially in those areas and communities in countries where water resources are increasingly polluted and salty.",signatures:"Bao The Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61068",authors:[{id:"235395",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bao",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"bao-nguyen",fullName:"Bao Nguyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"61501",title:"The Use of Renewable Energy for the Provision of Power to Operate Reverse Osmosis Desalination Facilities at Massawa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76837",slug:"the-use-of-renewable-energy-for-the-provision-of-power-to-operate-reverse-osmosis-desalination-facil",totalDownloads:1004,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The following energy sources, in a various combinations were assessed to provide potable water using seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) for around 50,000 people in Eritrea: wind power and solar power. Various types of SWRO technology were employed and the cost of scenarios that were able to meet the users’ water needs was compared with the costs of the equivalent diesel generator powered scenario over 25 years. The most financially-attractive scenario, a hybridised power plant using solar and wind power was compared with the equivalent conventionally (diesel generator) powered scenario using present and net present value (NPV) methodology. The discount rate used for NPV calculations was found to be pivotal for this comparison, so the logic of the appropriate discount rate was investigated and a discount rate of 3.6% was considered the most appropriate. This resulted in the renewable powered solution for this scenario being financially attractive when compared to the diesel generator powered scenario. This conclusion was mainly due to recent changes in the prices of diesel fuel in Eritrea and solar power generally. Research conducted on this scenario previously, and published in 2014 based on 2010 prices, concluded that this scenario was not financially attractive in comparison to diesel power.",signatures:"Cliff Dansoh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61501",authors:[{id:"236468",title:"Dr.",name:"Cliff",surname:"Dansoh",slug:"cliff-dansoh",fullName:"Cliff Dansoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"62350",title:"Research Trend of Membranes for Water Treatment by Analysis of Patents and Papers’ Publications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76694",slug:"research-trend-of-membranes-for-water-treatment-by-analysis-of-patents-and-papers-publications",totalDownloads:1734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the beginning of water shortage by disasters such as global warming, environmental pollution, and drought, development of original technology and studies have been undertaken to increase the availability of water resources. Among the technologies, water treatment technology using membranes has a better water quality improvement than existing physicochemical and biological processes. Moreover, it is environmental-friendly technology that does not use chemicals. Water treatment membranes are applied to various fields such as wastewater treatment, water purification, seawater desalination, ion exchange process, ultra-pure water production, and separation of organic solvents. Furthermore, water treatment technologies using membranes will increasingly expand. The core technology of the water treatment membrane is to control the size of pores for membrane performance and is being researched to improve performance. In this chapter, the frequencies of presentation are filed by country, institution, and company through technology competitiveness and evaluation of patents and papers. In addition, evaluation of technologies for wastewater treatment, water purification, seawater desalination, and ion exchange process was carried out in the same way as before. Finally, future research directions were suggested by using evaluation results.",signatures:"Chang Hwa Woo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62350",authors:[{id:"238845",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Woo",surname:"Chang Hwa",slug:"woo-chang-hwa",fullName:"Woo Chang Hwa"}],corrections:null},{id:"61804",title:"Alumina Membranes for Desalination and Water Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76782",slug:"alumina-membranes-for-desalination-and-water-treatment",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, there has been a growing interest in utilizing inorganic membranes, particularly alumina (Al2O3) ceramic membranes (CMs), and to address a variety of separation problems in miscellaneous industry. Al2O3 membranes are commercially predominant in CMs market. Al2O3 material is generally used either as membrane support and/or as membrane layer due to advantages provided by this material and its derivatives such as availability in tonnage quantities, chemical inertness, good hardness, and thermal stability of the porous texture during elaboration steps. In this chapter, we comprehensibly look at the recent studies related to desalination and water treatment by ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF) Al2O3 membrane, and highlight the separation properties of the membrane in specific environmental pollution. The influences of membrane operating conditions and water quality on the rejection of pollutant by Al2O3 membrane are reported through a series of bench-level experiments.",signatures:"Saad Alami Younssi, Majda Breida and Brahim Achiou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61804",authors:[{id:"221702",title:"Dr.",name:"Brahim",surname:"Achiou",slug:"brahim-achiou",fullName:"Brahim Achiou"},{id:"238951",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",surname:"Alami Younssi",slug:"saad-alami-younssi",fullName:"Saad Alami Younssi"},{id:"244049",title:"Ms.",name:"Majda",surname:"Breida",slug:"majda-breida",fullName:"Majda Breida"}],corrections:null},{id:"61056",title:"Development, Characterization, and Applications of Capsaicin Composite Nanofiltration Membranes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76846",slug:"development-characterization-and-applications-of-capsaicin-composite-nanofiltration-membranes",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biofouling in reverse osmosis (RO) membranes is a severe problem, causing a decrease in both permeate flux and salt rejection and increasing transmembrane pressure. Capsaicin extract inhibits bacterial growth and is therefore used in this study to prepare a thin-film composite membrane and membrane support. Four types of nanofiltration (NF) membranes were prepared by interfacial polymerization onto a porous support prepared by the phase inversion method. Membrane A was the control membrane with no capsaicin extract, membrane B contains capsaicin in the polyamide thin film, membrane C contains capsaicin in the porous support, and membrane D contains capsaicin in both the thin film and support layers. Three different salts (Na2SO4, MgSO4, and NaCl) were used at different concentrations (1000, 3000, and 5000 ppm) to test the performance of the membranes in terms of salt rejection and permeate flux. Membrane B showed the highest rejection for all the salts and concentrations tested. For 5000 ppm NaCl, the permeate flux for membrane B was 14.81% higher, and salt rejection was 19.6% higher than membrane A. Future work will evaluate the anti-biofouling properties of the membranes prepared with capsaicin, when exposed to seawater microorganisms.",signatures:"Jesús Álvarez-Sánchez, Griselda Evelia Romero-López, Sergio Pérez-\nSicairos, German Eduardo Devora-Isiordia, Reyna Guadalupe\nSánchez-Duarte and Gustavo Adolfo Fimbres-Weihs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61056",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61056",authors:[{id:"238809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Fimbres-Weihs",slug:"gustavo-fimbres-weihs",fullName:"Gustavo Fimbres-Weihs"},{id:"238810",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Álvarez-Sánchez",slug:"jesus-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Jesús Álvarez-Sánchez"},{id:"238811",title:"Dr.",name:"German",surname:"Devora Isiordia",slug:"german-devora-isiordia",fullName:"German Devora Isiordia"},{id:"249815",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Pérez Sicairos",slug:"sergio-perez-sicairos",fullName:"Sergio Pérez Sicairos"},{id:"249816",title:"Dr.",name:"Reyna Guadalupe",surname:"Sánchez-Duarte",slug:"reyna-guadalupe-sanchez-duarte",fullName:"Reyna Guadalupe Sánchez-Duarte"},{id:"249817",title:"MSc.",name:"Griselda",surname:"Romero-López",slug:"griselda-romero-lopez",fullName:"Griselda Romero-López"}],corrections:null},{id:"61967",title:"Automatic Control Technologies to Enhance Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76841",slug:"automatic-control-technologies-to-enhance-water",totalDownloads:999,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the explosive population growth, the demand of adequate hygiene drinkable water has been increased. Therefore, it has become more necessary to apply the automatic control system for water treatment production, in order to attain the health required outcomes. According to complexities of the process and the intersection of the treatment states, the suggested methodology in this chapter anticipates for the development of an automatic control based on wireless sensing networks (WSNs) to be applied in water treatment process. The wireless automatic systems are deployed in order to manage the processes of the production and increase the efficiency to the maximum level, along with the minimum cost. It is, therefore, important that the automated system works professionally, in order to get the utmost profit from the processes of the production. Practically, an effective control models have been designed and implemented using simulation software. Therefore, the research successfully managed to automatically control in the working pumps operation. The addition of purification and disinfection chemicals doses successfully calculated and added to the water in a real-time operation mode. In filtration phase, the process of filters backwashing has been completely automated. The obtained results were essential, beneficial and prove the system’s applicability with minimum cost.",signatures:"Magdi Osman Ali Hamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61967",authors:[{id:"234853",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Magdi",surname:"Ali",slug:"magdi-ali",fullName:"Magdi Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"61700",title:"A Survey of Deep Learning Methods for WTP Control and Monitoring",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77196",slug:"a-survey-of-deep-learning-methods-for-wtp-control-and-monitoring",totalDownloads:1570,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Drinking water is vital for everyday life. We are dependent on water for everything from cooking to sanitation. Without water, it is estimated that the average, healthy human won’t live more than 3–5 days. The water is therefore essential for the productivity of our community. The water treatment process (WTP) may vary slightly at different locations, depending on the technology of the plant and the water it needs to process, but the basic principles are largely the same. As the WTP is complex, traditional laboratory methods and mathematical models have limitations to optimize this type of operations. These pose challenges for water-sanitation services and research community. To overcome this matter, deep learning is used as an alternative to provide various solutions in WTP optimization. Compared to traditional machine learning methods and because of its practicability, deep learning has a strong learning ability to better use data sets for data mining and knowledge extraction. The aim of this survey is to review the existing advanced approaches of deep learning and their applications in WTP especially in coagulation control and monitoring. Besides, we also discuss the limitations and prospects of deep learning.",signatures:"Bouchra Lamrini and El-Khadir Lakhal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61700",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61700",authors:[{id:"237888",title:"Dr.",name:"Bouchra",surname:"Lamrini",slug:"bouchra-lamrini",fullName:"Bouchra Lamrini"},{id:"238644",title:"Prof.",name:"El-Khadir",surname:"Lakhal",slug:"el-khadir-lakhal",fullName:"El-Khadir Lakhal"}],corrections:null},{id:"60730",title:"Fluorescent Markers in Water Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76218",slug:"fluorescent-markers-in-water-treatment",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Both phosphonate- and polymer-based scale inhibitors have a broad spectrum of applications in water treatment technologies. However, the “online” monitoring of antiscalant content in an aqueous phase is still a challenge for researchers. A possible solution is provided by the fluorescent markers added to the feeding water. These can be either an antiscalant tagged or may represent the independent species. The review summarizes both the advantages and the drawbacks of these approaches along with such markers’ classification, with a special emphasis on the novel fluorescent-tagged phosphonates. Besides, some unique opportunities provided by the fluorescent-tagged antiscalants for reverse osmosis membrane mapping, scale inhibition traceability, and a scale inhibitor localization in a circulation water facility are also considered and discussed.",signatures:"Maxim Oshchepkov and Konstantin Popov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60730",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60730",authors:[{id:"238344",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantin",surname:"Popov",slug:"konstantin-popov",fullName:"Konstantin Popov"},{id:"238355",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",surname:"Oshchepkov",slug:"maxim-oshchepkov",fullName:"Maxim Oshchepkov"}],corrections:null},{id:"63043",title:"Desalination of Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78659",slug:"desalination-of-water",totalDownloads:3554,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water is very essential for all living beings. It covers nearly 70% of earth’s surface. Even though the major portion of earth is covered by water, there is severe shortage of drinking water in most of the countries across the world. Safe drinking water is vital for all forms of life though it does not provide any calories. Desalination of sea water appears as a solution for this problem. Advanced desalination technologies that are applied to seawater and brackish water prove to be effective alternatives in a variety of situations. This study mainly focuses on upcoming trends in modern desalination technologies and emphasizing the options offered by them. Desalination is a technique where the excess salts are removed from sea water or brackish water converting it into safe potable or usable water. Desalination methods are categorized into thermal processes and membrane processes. In this chapter we discuss about different thermal processes like multistage flash distillation, multiple effect distillation, vapour compression evaporation, cogeneration and solar water desalination. We also discuss about various categories of membrane processes like reverse osmosis, electro dialysis and membrane distillation methods. This chapter also concentrates on advantages and disadvantages and economical parameters involved in each of these methods.",signatures:"Manish Thimmaraju, Divya Sreepada, Gummadi Sridhar Babu,\nBharath Kumar Dasari, Sai Kiran Velpula and Nagaraju Vallepu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63043",authors:[{id:"249016",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish Kumar",surname:"Thimmaraju",slug:"manish-kumar-thimmaraju",fullName:"Manish Kumar Thimmaraju"},{id:"256566",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sreepada",surname:"Divya",slug:"sreepada-divya",fullName:"Sreepada Divya"}],corrections:null},{id:"61240",title:"Experimental Study of Standard Aeration Efficiency in a Bubble Column",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76696",slug:"experimental-study-of-standard-aeration-efficiency-in-a-bubble-column",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water aeration is a major feature in many industrial applications, for example, hydraulic turbines, fish farms, water treatment, and so on. A key consideration is the efficiency of the aeration itself, that is, the effectiveness of the transfer of oxygen from air to water in relation to the energy consumed by injection. In this chapter, several configurations of the aerator are analyzed for overall efficiency optimization. Two different parameters are investigated (the arrangement of aeration apertures and aperture diameters between 0.2 and 1.6 mm) using aerators with perforated metal plates and, for comparison, ceramic and fritted (sintered) glass plates. For the arrangement of the apertures on the perforated metal plates, bubble coalescence and contraction coefficients are measured. Each configuration’s results (Kla, SOTR, SAE) are compared and analyzed.",signatures:"Florentina Bunea and Gabriel Dan Ciocan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61240",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61240",authors:[{id:"90061",title:"Dr.",name:"Florentina",surname:"Bunea",slug:"florentina-bunea",fullName:"Florentina Bunea"},{id:"103231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel Dan",surname:"Ciocan",slug:"gabriel-dan-ciocan",fullName:"Gabriel Dan Ciocan"}],corrections:null},{id:"62590",title:"Extraction and Use of Plant Biopolymers for Water Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77319",slug:"extraction-and-use-of-plant-biopolymers-for-water-treatment",totalDownloads:1543,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The action of promoting the removal of particles in water requires coagulant substances, which destabilize the equilibrium of the mixture in aqueous solution; this is needed to perform the coagulation and flocculation operations, in the treatment of drinking water and wastewater; especially for the removal of solids with diameters smaller than 0.2 mm; this operation is carried out with chemical compounds capable of breaking the ionic stability of a mixture and segregating the solids that cannot be separated without this operation; The plants tested to be used as coagulants or flocculants have had a traditional use, which indicates their ability to carry out the separation of solids. The plants described in this chapter are Melocactus sp., Opuntia sp., Stenocereus griseus, Cereus forbesii, Aloe arborescens, Aloe vera, and Kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), of these plants have been used different parts, either their stems, their fruits, or other parts of the plant that have demonstrated a coagulating or flocculating capacity.",signatures:"Jesús Epalza, Jhoan Jaramillo and Oscar Guarín",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62590",authors:[{id:"237847",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jesús Manuel",surname:"Epalza",slug:"jesus-manuel-epalza",fullName:"Jesús Manuel Epalza"},{id:"238670",title:"MSc.",name:"Oscar Darío",surname:"Guarin Villamizar",slug:"oscar-dario-guarin-villamizar",fullName:"Oscar Darío Guarin Villamizar"},{id:"238672",title:"MSc.",name:"Jhoan Sebastian",surname:"Jaramillo Peralta",slug:"jhoan-sebastian-jaramillo-peralta",fullName:"Jhoan Sebastian Jaramillo Peralta"}],corrections:null},{id:"59707",title:"Artificial Neural Network-Genetic Algorithm Prediction of Heavy Metal Removal Using a Novel Plant-Based Biosorbent Banana Floret: Kinetic, Equilibrium, Thermodynamics and Desorption Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74398",slug:"artificial-neural-network-genetic-algorithm-prediction-of-heavy-metal-removal-using-a-novel-plant-ba",totalDownloads:1263,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, the biosorption performance of banana floret was assessed as a new biosorbent for the removal of Cu(II) ions (a model heavy metal) from aqueous solutions. Batch experiments were conducted to assess the effects of agitation, particle size, pH, temperature and initial concentration. Kinetic and equilibrium data were modeled, and mass transfer studies were conducted to elucidate the mechanisms of biosorption. Kinetic data were best simulated using the diffusion-chemisorption model while equilibrium data were best represented by the Sips isotherm. The dominant transport mechanism was attributed to intraparticle diffusion while the dominant attachment mechanism was chemical sorption. A predictive model was successfully developed using an artificial neural network (ANN) and optimized using a genetic algorithm (GA). The accuracy of the ANN-GA prediction was validated by laboratory experiments, which revealed a residual error of 1.3% and thus underscores the applicability of the model. This new biosorbent exhibited a remarkable affinity for the heavy metal ion and compared well to other reported biosorbents in the literature.",signatures:"Clint Sutherland, Abeni Marcano and Beverly Chittoo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59707",authors:[{id:"239042",title:"Dr.",name:"Clint",surname:"Sutherland",slug:"clint-sutherland",fullName:"Clint Sutherland"},{id:"240164",title:"Ms.",name:"Abeni",surname:"Macarno",slug:"abeni-macarno",fullName:"Abeni Macarno"},{id:"240165",title:"Ms.",name:"Beverly",surname:"Chittoo",slug:"beverly-chittoo",fullName:"Beverly Chittoo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8804",title:"Water and Wastewater Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb46d6518786712b3184b2498fb0cab",slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8804.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6665",title:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99ccb9f2118953ff45f33ec391868157",slug:"advances-in-hydrogen-generation-technologies",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6665.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8178",title:"Water Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18595695f271583e06b7c2d33b670e56",slug:"water-chemistry",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8178.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7693",title:"Green Chemistry Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9db61c9d52045d034f1ee6b769acccd5",slug:"green-chemistry-applications",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7693.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7237",title:"Energy-Efficient Approaches in Industrial Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7b403a3af7828987f078b91334839bb",slug:"energy-efficient-approaches-in-industrial-applications",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz, Abdülkerim Gok and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7237.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"911",title:"Water Stress",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"639300ffd325d217a7b6ec2261ff26e0",slug:"water-stress",bookSignature:"Ismail Md. 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Alexandris",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3082.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150921",title:"Dr.",name:"Stavros",surname:"Alexandris",slug:"stavros-alexandris",fullName:"Stavros Alexandris"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"76873",slug:"corrigendum-satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",title:"Corrigendum: Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76873.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76873",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76873",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76873",chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11518",leadTitle:null,title:"The Acoustics of Materials - New Approaches",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThis book should describe in detail sound propagation, process, and characteristics, hearing, and process of speech communication, sound absorption, noise acceptance, the fundamental process of acoustic and how the workplace can be designed to control the surrounding sound and its effects on workers. Use theory and possible practical application to drive the knowledge from human involvement in workplace activities to any possible risk of health and safety hazards of the job.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-651-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-650-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-652-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"769f942393275479acca64e4f4fea958",bookSignature:"Dr. Bankole Kolawole Fasanya and Dr. Sridhar Krishnamurti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11518.jpg",keywords:"Frequency, Sound Power, Absorption, Noise, Soundproof, Reflection, Inverse Square, Perception, Signal, Background Noise, Building, Noise Barrier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fasanya is an Assistant Professor at Purdue University, USA. Prior to his current position, he has worked in different capacities with different institutions: Senior research associate (Auditory Protection and Prevention - US Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory, Adjunct Assistant Professor-NCAT, Facilities Engineer MVA, etc). Dr. Fasanya holds a Ph.D. in Industrial and systems engineering with a specialization in ergonomics and human factors.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Sridhar Krishnamurti is a Professor and Program Director of Audiology at Auburn University. Sridhar has\r\nauthored a book, journal articles, and book chapters in Audiology and Hearing Conservation. He\r\nis a recipient of several Research grant awards, including the 1999 New Investigator Research\r\nAward from the American Academy of Audiology and the 2011 Auburn University Alumni\r\nUndergraduate Teaching Excellence and 2012 Auburn University Faculty Research Awards.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214494",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankole",middleName:"Kolawole",surname:"Fasanya",slug:"bankole-fasanya",fullName:"Bankole Fasanya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214494/images/system/214494.jpg",biography:"Bankole K. Fasanya received a BSc in Mechanical Engineering in 1999 from The Polytechnic Ibadan, Nigeria, his Master’s degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering from Morgan State University, Maryland, USA and his doctorate degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering specialized in ergonomics and human factors from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, USA. His research focuses on human and environmental safety, ergonomics and human factors, auditory prevention and protection and noise assessment and control at workplaces. Dr. Fasanya is currently an assistant professor at Purdue University Northwest in Indiana, USA. He currently serves as one of the executive members of the American Hearing Conservative Association (NHCA). He is an OSHA-Authorized general industry safety train the trainer and a certified occupational hearing conservationist (COHC).",institutionString:"Purdue University Northwest",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Purdue University Northwest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"466252",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnamurti",slug:"sridhar-krishnamurti",fullName:"Sridhar Krishnamurti",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RKaOOQA1/Profile_Picture_2022-04-08T11:15:28.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sridhar Krishnamurti is a Professor and Program Director of Audiology at Auburn University.\r\nHe has served on the research grants review panel for several agencies and journals including\r\nAlzheimer’s Association, DOD Hearing Restoration Research, Ear and Hearing, American\r\nJournal of Public Health, and Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. Sridhar\r\nKrishnamurti has served as the past-continuing education administrator for Audiology Special\r\nInterest Divisions 6-9 and a Fellow of the American Academy of Audiology. Sridhar has\r\nauthored a book, journal articles, and book chapters in Audiology and Hearing Conservation. He\r\nis a recipient of several Research grant awards, including the 1999 New Investigator Research\r\nAward from the American Academy of Audiology and the 2011 Auburn University Alumni\r\nUndergraduate Teaching Excellence and 2012 Auburn University Faculty Research Awards.\r\nSridhar is currently President of the Council of Au.D Programs and an Executive Council member\r\nfor the National Hearing Conservation Association. His research has been funded by Oak Ridge\r\nAssociated Universities (ORISE) program and CDC-NIOSH.",institutionString:"Auburn University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Auburn University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429342",firstName:"Zrinka",lastName:"Tomicic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429342/images/20008_n.jpg",email:"zrinka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7620",title:"Safety and Health for Workers",subtitle:"Research and Practical Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1233909d682e2cced428e1042fd40ad4",slug:"safety-and-health-for-workers-research-and-practical-perspective",bookSignature:"Bankole Fasanya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7620.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214494",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankole",surname:"Fasanya",slug:"bankole-fasanya",fullName:"Bankole Fasanya"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64155",title:"Remodeling of Phenotype CD16 + CD11b + Neutrophilic Granulocytes in Acute Viral and Acute Bacterial Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81631",slug:"remodeling-of-phenotype-cd16-cd11b-neutrophilic-granulocytes-in-acute-viral-and-acute-bacterial-infe",body:'\nNeutrophil granulocytes (NGs) are the most mobile and numerous populations of innate immunity cell, which reacts lightly to any aggression, which also carries out powerful anti-infectious protection.
\nThe surprising universality and multifunctionality of this cell, once again, underline the existence of heterogeneity within the NG population, that is, the presence of subpopulations with different immunological roles. The use of monoclonal antibodies made it possible to confirm the existence of NG subpopulations using phenotypic characteristics. In 1998, the first nomenclature of human neutrophils antigens (HNAs) was created on the basis of membrane-expressed glycoprotein groups: HNA-1 (FcγRIIIb, CD16), HNA-2 (CD177), HNA-3 (CTL2), HNA-4 (CD11b/CD18, Mac-1, CR3), and HNA-5 (CD11a/CD18) [1]. The concept of heterogeneity of NG was discussed by scientists for more than 20 years and was confirmed with the accumulation of evidence on the presence of subsets of NG with various functions both in healthy subjects and in various diseases. Various methods have been used to detect the subpopulations of NG, such as cell maturity, functional activity, and localization, including receptors or markers of the cell surface.
\nCell populations and subpopulations of NG show a high degree of plasticity and functional heterogeneity depending on the characteristics of the course of physiological or pathological scenarios of the immune response, which, first of all, is due to potent receptor equipment. The membrane complex of NG expresses adhesion molecules, receptors for different ligands: cytokines, immunoglobulins, other cell membrane molecules, etc. NGs are capable to express MHC-1, selectins (CD62L), selectin receptors (CD162 (PSGL-1)), integrins (CD18 (β2-integrin), CD11a (LFA-1), CD11b (CR3), CD11c (CR4), CD11d), integrin receptors (ICAM receptors for β2-integrins - ICAM-1 (CD50), ICAM-3 (CD54). NG expresses receptors for chemoattractants (PFPR and FPLR for fMLP), receptors for chemokines (CXCR1, CXC2, CCR1), FcR receptors (CD16 (FcγRIII), CD32 (FcγRII), CD64 (FcγRI), CD89 (FcαRI), FcεR), receptors for complement components (CR1 (CD35), CR3 (CD11b), CR4 (CD11c), C5aR, C3aR, C5L2), receptor for LPS and endotoxins (CD14), cell adhesion receptor (CD15). NG receptors are involved in binding bacteria, in angiogenesis and apoptosis (CD17), in cell proliferation and differentiation (CD24), in PAMP recognition (TLR 1, 2, 4-10; NOD - receptors). In addition, on NG membrane there is a costimulatory receptor for B- lymphocytes (CD28), apoptosis activation/induction receptor (CD95), IL-2 receptor (CD25), which is NG activation marker; there are also molecules that determine the ability of NG to be APC (CD40, CD80, CD86, MHC II). NGs have multiple receptors for cytokines (IL-8, TNFα, IL-1, IL-2, IL-15, IL-17, IFNα, IFNγ, G-CSF, GM-CSF, etc.), hormones, neuropeptides, histamine, and kinases. The recently revealed expression of TCR-like (TCRL, TCRαβ) receptors on NG membrane, present throughout the life of a person and decreasing in old age, opens up new, previously unknown immune mechanisms for the functioning of NG [2] (Figure 1).
\nSurface membrane receptors of neutrophilic granulocytes.
NGs are equipped with receptors that recognize endogenous molecules of “danger” alarms or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)—extracellular ATP, fragments of the extracellular matrix, heat shock proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA fragments of its own cells), nuclear protein HMGB-1, and others—through which activation of the cell takes place and its inclusion in the inflammation reaction [3]. It has been established that the initiation of apoptosis of NG in clinically healthy individuals is under the influence of TNFα, sTRAIL, and IL-4 ligand [4]. Recently, new ways of activating the NG signal via ITAM/Syk-CARD9 have been described in the interaction of β-glycans with dectin-1, which triggers the synthesis of the cytokine IL-23 inducing the formation of Th17 cells [5]. NG receptor pool is located on intracellular membrane of secretory vesicles, gelatinase and specific granules, these receptors are translocated to surface membrane of NG only under the action of inducing stimuli [6]. Thus, the membrane expression of NG not only reflects the processes occurring during the life cycle of the cell but also allows us to evaluate the functional priming by reorganizing the surface cytoplasmic membrane of NG.
\nThe study of the subpopulations of NG presents a new approach to the determination of functional activity of NG, allowing to assess the adequacy of the inclusion of NG in the implementation of the immune response, as well as to diagnose and predict the outcome of the disease. It is known that various phenotypic profiles and the level of equipment with surface receptors are associated with morphological features and determine the functional potential of NG-cytokine production, transendothelial migration, intracellular and extracellular killing, and formation of NET [7, 8, 9]. The existence of a sufficiently large number of NG subpopulations with different possibilities is demonstrated. NGs that receive complex cytokine influences not only acquire new features but also undergo different stages of activation and differentiation while expressing MHCII antigens, CD80, CD86, ICAM-1, and LFA-1 [7, 10, 11]. It has been shown that inducing cytokine stimuli differentiates NG in a unique hybrid subpopulation with dual phenotypic and functional properties characteristic of both NG and dendritic cells (DC) involved in innate and adaptive immune responses [12]. We have identified in our earlier works the following subpopulations of NG: regulatory; suppressor; pro-inflammatory, initiating inflammatory reaction; inflammatory with a positive microbicidal potential (antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal); inflammatory with negative cytotoxic potential, “aggressive”; anti-inflammatory, regulating inflammation regression; antineoplastic, TAN1; and pro-tumor, TAN2 and hybrid [13]. Phagocytic and microbicidal function and virucidal activity of NG are directly dependent on phenotypic features: the number and density of such expressed receptors as CD11b/CD18, CD10, CD15, CD16, CD32, CD64, CD35, etc. [6]. Expression on NG membrane of CD32 and CD16 is important in the realization of phagocytic function and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), which is associated with CD11b-/CD18-dependent enhancement of adhesion, degranulation, and killing [14]. CD64, CD32, and CD16 are triggering molecules that induce immune phagocytosis and killing processes [15].
\nThe variants of remodeling of NG phenotype simultaneously expressing functionally significant receptors CD64, CD32, CD11b, and CD16 in patients with infectious and inflammatory diseases, including newborns of different gestational ages [15], patients with neoplastic processes [10, 16], women of reproductive age with genital and extragenital infectious-inflammatory diseases [17] have great diagnostic and prognostic significance. When we study the variability of the simultaneous presentation of NG receptors CD64, CD32, CD16, and CD11b on the membrane, it was established that in healthy adults and children of different ages in the peripheral blood, there is one major subpopulation of CD64−CD32+CD16+CD11b+ and five minor subpopulations of NG, CD64−CD32+CD16+CD11b−, CD64−CD32−CD16+CD11b+, CD64+CD32+CD16+CD11b+, CD64+CD32+CD16+CD11b−, and CD64+CD32−CD16+CD11b+, with different equipment and density of studied receptors. We detected a significant increase in NG subpopulation with CD64+CD32+CD16+CD11b+ phenotype with a high expression density of CD11b and CD16 in newborns with infectious and inflammatory diseases of bacterial etiology (congenital pneumonia, neonatal sepsis) (Figure 2).
\nPhenotypic profiles of CD64+CD32+CD16+CD11b+ NG in children with congenital pneumonia and neonatal sepsis.
The observed increase in this subpopulation of NG in the peripheral blood is directly related to the severity of the infectious-inflammatory process: the more clinically severe the disease, the greater the number of NG with this phenotype CD64+CD32+CD16+CD11b+ is in circulation [18]. In fertile age women with genital and extragenital infectious and inflammatory diseases planning pregnancy, the phenotypic variability of NG—the appearance of a subpopulation of CD16+CD32+CD11b—was also revealed, which indicates a persistent violation of their receptor function and the need for its adequate correction consisting in restoring the phenotypic composition of NG. Thus, the provision of pre-gravity training with the inclusion of immunotherapy has a positive clinical and immunological effect, which consists in normalizing the receptor function of NG, which correlates with an increase in the percentage of women who become pregnant [17]. The obtained data allow us to develop criteria for monitoring the course of associated viral infections and bacterial pro-inflammatory diseases, to diagnose and/or predict the aggravation of their severity, and to optimize immunotherapy methods aimed at correcting NG dysfunction. Multiple increases in the subpopulation of CD64−CD32−CD16+CD11b+ NG have been shown in children with repeated acute respiratory viral infections associated with herpesviral mono- or mixed infection. There was a significant replicative activity of herpesviruses such as HSV I/HSV II, CMV, EBV, and HHV VI [18, 19]. In addition, authors of this article put together all information into the table for the period from 2010 to 2016, about NG subpopulation phenotype according to their studies (Table 1).
\nGroup | \nSubpopulation | \nFunctions/diagnostic significance | \n
---|---|---|
Healthy adults and children | \nCD64−CD32+CD16+CD11b+ CD16brightCD11bdim CD62LbrightCD63dim CD62LdimCD63dim (1:1) | \n-Anti-inflammatory and antitumor effect | \n
-Major subpopulations in healthy individuals -Full implementation of ADCC, microbicidal activity | \n||
Purulent-septic diseases in children and adults | \nCD64+CD32+CD16+CD11b+ CD62LdimCD63mid CD62LdimCD63dim | \n-Marker of severity of bacterial infection process | \n
- Minor subpopulation in healthy individuals - Activated NG in vivo by bacterial antigens (significant increase in circulation) | \n||
Acute bacterial infection in adults | \nCD16dimCD11bbright | \n-Marker of acute process of the bacterial infection | \n
- Major subpopulation (significant increase in circulation) | \n||
Respiratory and herpes infections in children | \nCD64−CD16+CD32−CD11b+ | \n-Prognostic sign of adverse course of viral infection | \n
- Minor subpopulation in healthy individuals -Significant increase at viral respiratory and herpetic infection - Depression of NG phagocytic and microbicidal activity | \n||
Acute EBV infection in adults | \nCD16brightCD11bbright | \n- Marker of severity of viral infection process - Prognostic sign of concomitant bacterial infection | \n
- Major subpopulation (significant increase in circulation) - High level of ADCC reaction and ROS-dependent inhibition of T-cell proliferation | \n
Neutrophilic granulocyte subpopulation phenotypes and their function and diagnostic significance (Nesterova I.V. et al., 2010–2016).
Specific NG subpopulation composition and also adequate level of corresponding surface membrane marker expression density is important for the proper NG function. Thus, Pillay et al. found several subpopulations of NG with different phenotypes, which differed in the number and density of equipment with receptors: mature NG with the phenotype CD16highCD62Lhigh, immature NG with the phenotype CD16lowCD62Lhigh, suppressive NG with the phenotype CD16highCD62Llow, and NG precursors with the phenotype CD16lowCD62Llow [11]. Circulating NG subpopulation with the phenotype CD16lowCD62Lhigh was observed in children with respiratory syncytial viral infection, as well as in viral and bacterial coinfection [20, 21]. It is shown that the subpopulation of immature NG did not possess the ability to protect against microorganisms. Activated mature NG with immunosuppressive properties was found in patients with HIV infection [22]. Suppressive NG can cause paralysis of the immune system, as a result of which anti-infective protection is disrupted, which facilitates the occurrence of bacterial complications and the emergence of viral and bacterial coinfection [20, 23]. The appearance of CD16highCD62Llow NG significantly increases with bacterial infection or viral and bacterial coinfection, and at the same time, in the lower respiratory tract, in lungs this subpopulation is practically not detected in patients with viral infection [11, 20]. Neutrophilic subpopulation characterized by the phenotype CD16lowCD62Llow was observed in children with severe viral respiratory infection without bacterial coinfection and in patients with bacterial sepsis [20, 21]. Using flow cytometry in combination with a visual evaluation of cells, it was shown that a large number of myelocytes and metamyelocytes are included in this subpopulation, so NG with the phenotype CD16lowCD62Llow was called a subpopulation of NG precursors. A sequential increase in the number of NG precursors was statistically significant (p < 0.001) and did not depend on the presence of bacterial coinfection [20]. It was suggested that the NG precursors originate from a heterogeneous family of granulocyte myeloid-derived suppressor cells (G-MDSCs), which include granulocyte cells with the property of immune inhibition [20, 24]. Significant differences in the number of markers of activation and degranulation of CD11b, CD54, CD63, and CD66b in the above four subpopulations (mature NG, immature NG, suppressor NG, and NG “precursors”) in viral infections and in bacterial coinfections in newborns with severe viral infection, practically, are not revealed. It was noted that the activation and degranulation of suppressor NG revealed a high level of expression of CD11b and CD63, whereas in NG “precursors,” the highest level of expression of CD63 and CD66b and a low level of expression of CD11b and CD54 were observed [20]. Interestingly that NG number in the bloodstream equipped with CD62L on the surface membrane is larger than CD62L NG obtained from bronchoalveolar lavage, which is presumably associated with the loss of this receptor during migration. Pillay et al. [11, 24] discovered the existence of a new subpopulation CD11cbrightCD62LdimCD16brightCD11bbright NG—mature hypersegmented human NG with immunosuppressive activity. This subpopulation was able to suppress the proliferation of T cells through the release of active forms of the oxygenate and showed high expression of CD11b. Earlier studies by Woodfin A. and co-authors demonstrated that suppressive NGs—mature cells with hypersegmented nucleus, expressing high levels of ICAM-1—have the ability to reverse transendothelial migration (TEM) [25]. Later, Cortjens and his colleagues in 2017 [20] showed that in severe respiratory viral infection in infants, the expression of the activation marker CD11b was significantly increased in the suppressor subpopulation of NG. These suppressor subpopulations of NG, which appeared in viral and bacterial coinfections in newborns, also had the highest expression of CD63 molecules on surface membranes, which indicated active degranulation of NG.
\nDefective functioning NGs (deficiency of NG amount; violation of phagocytic function; deficiency of myeloperoxidase, defensins, lactoferrin, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, NADPH oxidase, etc.; defects in the formation of NET) do not provide adequate antimicrobial protection, which leads to the development of atypically occurring infectious and inflammatory diseases, sepsis, acute hematogenous osteomyelitis, recurrent purulent infections, chronic bacterial infections, etc. Adequate response of NG in contact with various aggressive pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi) can develop in different ways. At the same time, the lack of functional activity of NG is a risk factor for the development of many pathological conditions. Changes in both quantitative and functional characteristics of different subsets of NG are recorded in pathological conditions, that is, NG phenotype is transformed due to a multivariate change in the expression of various receptors. In this case, the defectiveness of microbicidal and regulatory functions of NG leads to a violation of antigen elimination and, as a result, to the aggravation of the course of acute or chronic bacterial, viral, and fungal infections [13]. At present, various dysfunctions of NG are described, which can proceed according to different scenarios in patients with infectious diseases with atypical current: (1) hypofunction and NG deficiency in recurrent and persistent-relapsing purulent processes and chronic infectious diseases, viral and bacterial etiology, not amenable to standard treatment; (2) blockade of functional activity of NG, manifested by the development of an inadequate response up to the state of non-response in chronic sluggish infectious and inflammatory processes with a protracted course of exacerbations in socially significant infections and sepsis; and (3) hyperfunctioning of NG (e.g., extracellular production of oxygen radicals in a high concentration), which can lead to suppression of the T cells and other members of the immune system and damage different organs and tissues in chronic immune-dependent diseases or septic shock [26, 27, 28]. Atypically occurring infectious and inflammatory diseases against the background of immune system disorders, and, in particular, against the background of NG dysfunction, lead to increased morbidity, partial and sometimes complete loss of ability to work, and high lethality in sepsis, both in adult subjects and in children especially in the neonatal period [29, 30].
\nNeonatal NG characterized qualitative and quantitative deficit compared to adult NG. Neonatal sepsis is a global problem because it has the most severe consequences and is characterized by high mortality. This occurs against the background of impairments in the functioning of the immune system and defective NG, which contributes to the rapid dissimilation of the infection and, as a result, to the death of the newborn [31]. Thus, three important violations of NG that contribute to the emergence of severe neonatal sepsis and septic shock are described: neutropenia, decreased plasticity, and delayed apoptosis [32]. In the case of sepsis or the syndrome of a systemic inflammatory reaction, a large number of immature forms of NG appear in circulation. NGs are characterized by a decrease in phagocytic functional activity, a decreased production of ROS, a defective expression level of CD14 receptors, and a violation of the migratory ability. Immature NGs are characterized by a high basal level of intracellular TNF-α/IL-10 ratio, which confirms their pro-inflammatory phenotype. They have a longer life cycle, are resistant to spontaneous apoptosis, and can mature ex vivo [33]. Patients with sepsis (a more severe inflammatory reaction) have a more pronounced decrease in some receptors, in particular TREM-1, which has a key role in amplifying the production of inflammatory cytokines than patients suffering from a noninfectious systemic inflammatory reaction syndrome [34].
\nNGs affect the adaptive immune response in viral infection [13, 22] through antigen presentation, translocation of pathogenic viruses to the lymph nodes, suppressor modulation of the T-cell response, and expression of Toll-like receptors recognizing the herpesvirus DNA (TLR-9) [35, 36, 37]. NGs are important elements of antiviral immunity, realizing their capabilities through the process of phagocytosis, the formation of active forms of oxygen (ROS), the formation of NET, and the ability to synthesize and secrete cytokines, defensins, and interferons [18, 38, 39, 40]. Recent studies have shown that on the one hand, NG can perform antiviral protection and on the other hand, many viruses, in particular herpesviruses, can negatively affect the function of the NG, transform their phenotype, and influence the formation of populations/subpopulations with different functional properties [22]. Herpes viruses block NG antiviral activity, increase NG apoptosis, which leads to neutropenia. Damage to the NG by herpesviruses disrupts their functioning and leads in combination with other factors to disruption of adaptation reactions [13, 22, 36, 41, 42]. In recent years, it has been shown that in chronic herpesviral infection, there are numerous subpopulations of the NG, characterized by different phenotypes with different receptor equipment, possessing different functional properties: the ability to restructure chromatin, express cytokine genes and secrete cytokines, realize the activity of the granular apparatus, produce active oxygen species, and form NET and cytotoxicity.
\nThe first reports of the heterogeneity of CD16 expression (FcγIII) on NG membrane (induces oxidative burst and phagocytosis) appeared more than 25 years ago [25, 43, 44], but only recently the mechanisms and functional consequences of this heterogeneity have been studied. In particular we have identified different CD16+CD11b+ NG phenotypes with individual characteristics in patients with acute viral (acute viral Epstein-Barr (EBV) infection) and acute bacterial infectious-inflammatory diseases (acute bacterial tonsillitis) [45]. Summarizing the obtained data, it should be noted that in healthy subjects, CD16brightCD11bdimNG subpopulation was major. The NG of this subpopulation in trace amounts was detected with acute viral infection and was completely absent in acute bacterial infection. In acute viral infection, the number of NGs of a highly equipped subpopulation—CD16brightCD11bbrightNG—significantly increased, whereas in acute bacterial infection, there was a significantly lower increase in the number of NGs of this subpopulation. At the same time, in healthy individuals the subpopulation of CD16brightCD11bbrightNG was minor. In the case of acute bacterial infection, the CD16dimCD11bbright NG subpopulation, which was absent in conditionally healthy individuals, became dominant, and in the case of acute viral infection, it appeared in an insignificant amount. Subpopulation CD16dimCD11bdim was detected only in healthy individuals (Figure 3).
\nPhenotypic profiles of CD16+CD11b+NG in acute viral (AEBVI) and acute bacterial (ABT) infections.
Apparently, this is a reserve nonactivated pool of circulating NG, since it is known that in the resting state, the NG is insignificantly equipped with membranes CD16 and CD11b. It should be noted that there are certain difficulties and differences in interpreting the data concerning the reasons for the low equipment of the NG CD16 receptor. Thus, early works of Elghetany M. T. (2002) [6] states that, in inflammation, the expression level of CD16 decreases and explain this phenomenon by shading this receptor; then Elghetany and Lacombe note that surface antigen expression of granulocytes depends on age, sex, race, and the presence of stress [46]. Pillay et al. [24] noted the appearance of a “paradoxical” NG population of low-membrane CD16-CD16dim NG in the experiment with the introduction of LPS in vivo. The authors linked this phenomenon to the release of immature forms of granulocytes in the blood, reinforcing this conclusion with morphological studies: CD16dimNG demonstrates the morphology of “young” band nuclear NG [47]. Thus, it is possible that the appearance of the prevalent major population of CD16dimCD11bbright in the acute bacterial infection of the pharyngeal lymphoid ring in patients in a state of moderate severity or with a severe condition is associated with the release of immature forms of the NG into circulation, which is a stereotype response of the NG in severe bacterial infection. The predominant subpopulation of CD16brightCD11bbrightNG in patients with acute viral infection has a high cytotoxic antiviral potential due to the high level of CD16 and CD11b expression. According to Kushner and Cheung [48], the detectable enhanced expression of CD16 on NG in a viral infection may be due to the greater functional significance of cytotoxic NGs expressing FcγRIII (CD16) for the implementation of ADCC associated with CD11b-dependent increase in adhesion and degranulation [14].
\nThe clinical picture of many infectious diseases of viral or bacterial etiology in the early stages of the disease can proceed according to a similar scenario. In this case, when verifying the diagnosis of an acute infectious process of viral or bacterial etiology, there are often certain difficulties that prevent timely proper selection of etiotropic therapy. Conducting an express analysis that allows us to specify dominant NG subpopulation—CD16brightCD11bbright or CD16dimCD11bbright can contribute to the differential diagnosis of acute viral and acute bacterial processes of the lymphogenous ring, which will allow timely optimization of etiotropic therapy. On the other hand, it is possible that the evaluation of these subpopulations of NG can be used for early differential diagnosis of various acute viral and acute bacterial processes of other localizations; however, this requires further study.
\nThus, CD16brightCD11bdim NG subpopulations prevail in healthy subjects from 80 and up to 99.9%. In acute viral infection of the lymphogenous ring—infectious mononucleosis associated with EBV—the predominance of the subpopulation CD16brightCD11bbrightNG is detected in an amount of 40% or more. In acute bacterial infection of the lymphatic pharynx, a subpopulation CD16dimCD11bbright NG predominates—from 40% and higher. The observed phenomenon of different dynamics of presentation of CD16 and CD11b membrane receptors in the CD16+CD11b+ NG population in healthy individuals and acute inflammation in the region of the lymphopharynx ring reflects the differentiated response of NG to acute viral and acute bacterial infections.
\nThe use of drugs to improve the accuracy of exposure to target cells and selectively trigger the type of effector reaction is currently considered topical; in particular, the use of exogenous oligomers of RNA and DNA, in the process of metabolism of which nucleotides and deoxynucleotides are formed, is promising [49]. Nucleic acid preparations of immunomodulating action of various natures are widely used in practical medicine. Pharmacopoeial preparations are known: sodium nucleate (RNA derived from yeast) [50], sodium deoxyribonucleate (sodium salt of native DNA isolated from sturgeon fish milt) [51], and placentex-integro (DNA from trout milt) [52]. Now, the team of authors [49] showed that the substance of sodium deoxyribonucleate mainly contains short and medium DNA chains ending in the CpG motif. Recognition of CpG motifs by the immune system occurs through their interaction with the Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), which acts on the cells as “alarm,” activating innate and acquired immunity and many times enhancing the body’s response even to low-immunogenic antigens [53] with effects of increased proliferation, maturation, and secretion of a number of biologically active molecules—cytokines, costimulatory molecules, molecules of the main histocompatibility complex, etc. [51, 54]. Inflammation is directly related to neutrophilic granulocytes (NGs), which express almost all known TLRs [55], which explains their crucial role in the regulation of phagocytic cells. It should be noted that activation of TLR-4 induces e production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (IL1β, IL8, TNFα), TLR-2 activation induces production of chemokine MCP-1, and synchronous activation of TLR-4 and TLR-9 is accompanied by a pronounced respiratory burst a change in the expression of NG adhesion molecules [56, 57]. In the current literature, there are data on the cooperation of TLR9 with the functionally significant receptor of phagocytes—CD11b in the process of recognition of pathogens, even at a low level of exposure to such pathogens [58]. CD11b is also known to both positively and negatively regulate TLR9-mediated mechanisms: control TLR9-triggered NK cell cytotoxicity and macrophage inflammatory responses [59, 60]. On the other hand, it was found that bacterial DNA enhances expression of CD11b genes, while TLR9 expression in NG does not change under the influence of bacterial DNA [61].
\nComparative evaluation of the effect of in vitro sodium deoxyribonucleate and the TLR9 agonist (ODN2395) on CD16+CD11b+subpopulation composition of NG in both healthy individuals and infectious diseases was of interest [62].
\nIn particular, it was shown that when the peripheral blood of conventionally healthy volunteers with sodium deoxyribonucleate is incubated in vitro, the density of surface-localized CD11b and CD16 receptors is increased, which is expressed by a significant increase in the content of CD16brCD11bbrNG. The effect of the TLR9 agonist (ODN2395) on this subpopulation in patients with AEBVI allowed us to identify a tendency to decrease its relative content, the effects of the TLR9 agonist and sodium deoxyribonucleate did not affect the relative content of CD16brCD11bbrNH in patients with ABT (Figures 4, 5, 6).
\nComparative analysis of the effect of the TLR9 agonist and sodium deoxyribonucleate in vitro on the subpopulation of CD16+CD11b+NG of healthy volunteers.
Comparative analysis of the effect of the TLR9 agonist and sodium deoxyribonucleate in vitro on the subpopulation composition of CD16+CD11b+NG in patients with ABT.
Comparative analysis of the effect of the TLR9 agonist and sodium deoxyribonucleate in vitro on the subpopulation of CD16+CD11b+NG in patients with acute EBV infection.
The assessment of the content of the CD16brCD11bbrNG subpopulation in the incubation of the peripheral blood of patients with acute viral and acute bacterial processes made it possible to reveal a significant immunomodulating effect only in the experiment with sodium deoxyribonucleate. When the blood of patients with AEBVI was incubated, a significant decrease in the initially high relative content of CD16brCD11bbrNG was found.
\nIn acute bacterial infection (ABT), there was an increase in the percentage of CD16brCD11bdimNG and a decrease in the initially predominant subpopulation of CD16dimCD11bdimNG (as in incubation with sodium deoxyribonucleate and with the TLR9 agonist), whereas in acute EBV infection, an increase in CD16brCD11bdimNG was observed under the influence of sodium deoxyribonucleate in vitro (Figure 4).
\nIt is important to note that the redistribution of NG subpopulation composition occurring under the action of both agonist and, especially, sodium deoxyribonucleate has a modulating nature, which suggests the involvement of Toll-like type 9 receptors in the regulation of functional NG activity in infectious processes.
\nThe classical view of the NG, as short-lived finally differentiated cells, which carry out only phagocytosis, killing, and elimination of extracellular pathogens, is convincingly refuted by numerous recent studies. New scientific facts obtained during the last 10–15 years have demonstrated that NGs possess certain regulatory influences of activating, modulating, and suppressive nature, practically on all cells, both innate and adaptive immunity. The development of new diagnostic technologies allowed us to expand and deepen our understanding of the role of the NG in immune homeostasis and to evaluate the dynamic interrelation of the functional potential of the cell with gene expression and phenotypic polarization of the NG in response to inducing signals of intra- and extracellular environment. It is important to note that, to date, not all NG subpopulations have been identified.
\nToday it is well known that the population of CD16+CD11b+NG plays an important role in the reactions of phagocytosis and ADCC in infectious processes of various natures. It is also known that CD11b and CD16 NG are the most important triggers inducing the cascade of activation and regulatory processes of the NG. The resting unactivated NGs express the low levels of CD11b and CD16 membrane molecules. After activation additional translocation of intracellular CD16 and CD11b molecules to the NG membrane takes place [6, 36, 63]. Our studies showed that the subpopulation CD16brightCD11bdimNG prevailed in healthy people, and the NG with the phenotype CD16brightCD11bbright was absent in healthy volunteers but appeared and dominated in patients with acute EBV infection. It has been established that CD16brightCD11bdimNG subpopulation predominates in healthy individuals, subpopulation CD16brightCD11bbrightNG prevails in patients with acute viral infection, and CD16dimCD11bbrightNG subpopulation dominates in patients with acute bacterial infection. Identified by us in acute bacterial infection (acute bacterial tonsillitis), emergence of the prevalent population of CD16dimCD11bbright NG indicated, in our opinion, the release into circulation of immature forms of NG in a bacterial attack. At the same time, CD16brightCD11bbright NG subpopulation predominated in patients with acute viral infection (acute EBV infection). We hypothesized that on the one hand, the appearance of CD16brightCD11bbright NG with high cytotoxicity (high levels of CD16 expression) and with a suppressive effect on T-cell proliferation (high levels of CD11b molecules) is necessary for the implementation of antiviral activity of the NG in their fight against EBV infection. CD16brightCD11bbrightNG should have high antiviral activity. On the other hand, their suppressor properties (high levels of CD11b expression) may lead to various complications in the form of secondary bacterial infections. Thus, in severe acute EBV infection, we revealed the transformation of the NG phenotype and the appearance of a new subpopulation of CD16brightCD11bbrightNG with high cytotoxicity and suppressive effects. Further studies are needed to determine the functional significance of the CD16brightCD11bbright NG subpopulation for both EBV infection and other herpesvirus infections. In addition, early diagnosis of the etiological factors that cause an acute infectious process of a viral or bacterial nature is extremely important for the appointment of early etiopathogenetic therapy. The results of the present study demonstrate that the determination of various subpopulations of the NG in the early stages of an acute infectious process can contribute to the early differentiation of an acute viral process in which the CD16brightCD11bbright NG subpopulation dominates and the acute bacterial process dominated by the CD16dimCD11bbright NG subpopulation. On the other hand, it is extremely important to search for new substances that have immunomodulatory effects on the “negatively transformed” phenotype of the NG with the possibility of positive remodeling, which can prevent the attachment of serious complications, both in viral and bacterial infections [63]. Our studies of the eukaryotic DNA sodium salt effect on the expression of functionally significant CD16 and CD11b NG receptors in healthy individuals and in infectious diseases of viral and bacterial etiology have demonstrated the potential for transformation of the negatively altered phenotype of the NG, in particular, by remodeling the expression of CD11b on the NG membrane [64]. The obtained data open certain prospects for the development of new therapeutic strategies that allow correcting the negatively transformed phenotype of various subpopulations of defective functioning NG in severe infectious and inflammatory processes, both viral and bacterial etiologies.
\nAuthors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
The outbreak of the coronavirus that resulted into the Covid-19 pandemic is a socio-economic crisis that has taken the world by surprise. With too much uncertainty even after over a year in existence, world powers are still betting on a reliable and valid solution but in vain. The virus continues to reign on crippling economic and health systems all over the world. The indiscriminate ravage of the disease has not spared even the developed regions of the world where the health impact seems worse than the underdeveloped and developing world. According to ILO, WB [1] the lockdowns and social distancing measures accruing from the pandemic have disrupted provision of education and all related academic training although creating opportunities for innovation in distance learning. Among the most affected sectors is education since there was closure of schools and other institutions of learning. These institution of learning tried to adopt to alternative teaching approaches that concur with the World Health Organisation (WHO) Structural Operating Procedures (SOPs) and this seems to have been the most difficult times not only in the underdeveloped but also developed world. The closure of schools and adoption of alternative learning approaches during the Covid-19 was the decision by many governments around the world. For instance the European Union adopted fulltime remote schooling after closure of schools in order to reduce on the spread of the disease [1, 2]. There were of course some schools that could have been prepared for such an abrupt change in operation just as [2] notes that some were prepared according to their study done in Europe. This may not be the case especially in the underdeveloped regions of the world where internet related technology is under developed [3]. Imagining the experience of education in the most remote regions of the world during the Covid-19 pandemic is scary. Since even before the pandemic these regions still experience numerous obstacles to access quality education. Stephanie et al. [2] in their study carried out in selected European countries conclude that schools and teachers were not well prepared to teach using the new approaches of teaching especially using digital approaches. Teachers were found struggling to prepare content using digital methods and appliance, in fact some were found lacking in digital competence. The same challenges were faced by students who were not prepared to learn from home especially that they were isolated from peers. These factors contributed heavily to the success and efficiency of the digital learning approaches adopted during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown.
Stephanie et al. [2] on lessons learnt from school practices during Covid-19 in Europe concludes that digital competence was crucial for all stakeholder from teachers, students, parents and everyone involved in the education sector. Hence the following policy implications were found to be important if the education sector in Europe was to adopt online and distance learning approaches. Quality digital infrastructure and equipment, exploiting the blended learning approaches, collaboration and exchange, equipping students with digital, social and emotional competences, investment in teachers’ competences, guidance of parents and promoting students’ and teachers’ wellbeing during blended learning should be prioritised.
The Covid19 pandemic has ranged on now for more than a year and there is still too much uncertainty on its prognosis. This especially given the contemporary underlying factors around the world like globalisation that eased its spread from one border to another through air, land and sea hence escalating the health, social and economic situation with immeasurable damages on the human cost and the economies of the world [3, 4]. Andreas [3] in a worrying conclusion states that spending on education may be compromised in the near future especially when governments have to divert fund to health and social welfare. There has been short term stimulus packages in some countries but nonetheless there is already a risk on long-term public spending on education because of the damages causes by the pandemic on the health and socio-economic sector. The world has witnessed a checkpoint of the health system to the extreme and up to now there is no possible valid solution. According to Andreas [3], Geof [5] and Pokhrel and Chhetri [6] Covid19 has severely impacted on higher education where by universities had to close due to lockdowns instituted around the world. Many sectors including education have had to swiftly modify their ways of operation given the projected long period of return to normal and recovery. With prediction of economic recession in Africa by Aby Toure [7] as early as four months into the pandemic, it was prudent to conclude that organisations had to devise cost effective modes of operation to curb on the cost of production. There has been limited trade of both imports and exports obviously because of the lockdown and this has affected several sectors including education.
Many education institutions have discontinued physical classes as a precaution to prevent spread of the disease and the 2020 academic year has already been lost with 2021 still unpredictable, Pokhrel and Chhetri [6]. Alternative education systems with more convenient and reliable assessment strategies need to be created and innovated. Digital learning has been introduced wit online learning platforms trending all over the world. This was however as a matter of crisis management. There is need for more empirical research on these platforms if they are going to be full incorporated into the education system all over the world and should be contextualised to fit into geographical, social and economic dynamics and disparities. The pandemic has altered university systems and has affected not only students’ enrolment but also higher education investment at all levels all over [8, 9]. There has been numerous challenges in adopting online learning around the world and this has exposed the unfairness and injustice in the education sector. From limited access to broadband and computers to limited supportive environments needed to focus on online leaning, the poor allocation of resources, all are signs of wanting education sectors around the world [3]. Drayton and Waltman [9] reports that higher education institutions are encountering losses in a range of investments and sources of income. This has culminated into fatal financial problems and in fact some have been left with reduced net assets and this has increased financing costs hence finding it hard to cope with adverse shocks. Therefore adopting online learning platforms was the most easily affordable approach to allow continuity of learning even during the lockdown. However this was a crisis management approach and hypothetically, it was most likely adopted and adapted under very challenging conditions given the required facilities and equipment.
Distance learning the father of online learning or education is traced to have evolved in the United States and England over the last three centuries. It is reported by Palvia et al. [10] and Kentnor, [11] that as early as 1728 Caleb Phillipps proposed to teach shorthand via exchanging letters with students throughout the US. After sometime, radio and television course delivery systems followed the parcel post approach and this was consolidated the launch of a federally licenced radio station in 1919 by the University of Wisconsin. The evolution and progression of distance education can be traced over the last 300 years and it has been running parallel with innovations in communications technology. This approach of teaching and learning continues to grow in popularity with great introductions like e-learning that have taken centre stage recently especially during the covid19 pandemic. In the 1990s distance education grew rapidly because of the advance of the online technical revolution. Although it did not gain popularity since very many educationist preferred the physical learning environment.
Kentnor [11] notes that Isaac Pitman is recognised for being the pioneer of distance education when in 1840 he began teaching shorthand by correspondence in Bath, England. He mailed postcards to students and would instruct them to transcribe shorthand passages from the Bible and they would return them to him through for him to correct. Three years later Pitman’s work is said to have influenced the founding of the Phonographic Correspondence Society in 1843. Later in 1873 Anna Elliot Tichnor founded the Society which Encouraged Studies at Home in Boston, Massachusetts and this was entirely based on the correspondence school model. The Illinois Wesleyan College started offering degree programmes in absentia and it was the first academic institution of this kind. The invention of a spark transmitter in 1894 by Gugliemo Marconi was also a milestone towards strengthening the field of distance education. More establishments followed like in 1906 the university of Wisconsin-Extension was founded and turned into a distance learning unit and these launched an amateur wireless station that was purely dedicated to education broadcasting.
The Community of Inquiry is one model or theory that has tried to elaborate processes and approaches of online learning. Proposed by Garrison and Shale [12], it comprehensive conceptual framework is well designed to capture the dynamics of education in order to guide effectively the study of online learning at especially higher learning institutions. For instance the community of inquiry that comprises the students and teachers is the route to better experience in education if higher order learning outcomes are to be achieved. Conceptually basing on the presence of three components of cognitive, social and teaching, the Community of Inquiry acknowledges that though there is an overlap and relationship among the three – there is need for further independent research of each. Garrison and Shale [12] argue in this model that it is prudent to design online and blended courses for active learning communities or environments. Today an online or blended course is hardly designed without the applying the community of inquiry as a model because it creates a highly interactive engagement among students and instructors since it encourages use of various learning aids and materials like interactive boards, blogs, videoconferencing and other audio visual facilities [13].
The theory according to Harasim [14] is centred on collaborative learning, knowledge building and the use of Internet as a means to reshape informal education, formal, and non-formal for the Knowledge era. The theory’s emphasis is on the role of peer discourse as a key to learning and therefore defines learning as an intellectual convergence that can be achieved through three progressive stages of group discourse –idea generation the brainstorming phase which involves gathering divergent thoughts, idea organisation which involves comparing, analysing and categorising ideas through the process of discussion and argument and then the intellectual convergence where synthesis and consensus occurs of intellectual ideas is done. This can be through tasks like essays, assignment or any other intellectual tasks [13].
According Picciano [13] connectivism as a learning model acknowledges a major shift in the way knowledge and information flows, grows, and changes and this is attributed to the vast data communications networks. The theory acknowledges that Internet technology has moved learning from internal, individualistic activities to group or even larger crowds.
Online learning has inevitably become a trend world over with most information technology companies developing user friendly platforms for this pedagogy given the physical closure of education institutions due to the outbreak of the coronavirus. With the world still experiencing intermittent lockdowns, more advancement are needed to improve on the e-learning platforms and some researchers have recommended a combination of this type of learning with traditional teaching methodologies, [15, 16]. With adoption e-learning mechanisms, there emerged the need for more active stakeholders in the education sector at all stages of the teaching-learning process. For instance, the fact that students and teaching were basing at home to play their role, the parents had to fully take part in the process since the teachers’ role of classroom management was now tampered with. Parental involvement played a very significant role for online learning to successfully take place [17].
Online learning has been adopted as a crisis management mode of pedagogy across all levels of learning. It is however coming to the notice and realisation of many scholars that there should be suitable pedagogy and platform for different class levels of education, Pokhrel and Chhetri [6]. However it is surrounded by many challenges which seem universal although studies indicate that some challenges are pervading. Some studies have reported issues like cost and accessibility especially in developing countries. For instance Pokhrel and Chhetri [6] concludes that Internet bandwidth is generally low and there are very few access points which is coupled by relatively costly data packages. Therefore in comparison with low income among populations in developing countries, there has been limited accessibility and affordability. This calls for policy level intervention which has not been possible for many of these countries since governments a concentrating on curbing the health impact of the disease. Therefore [6, 18] recommend that developing affordable and accessible tools of online learning should be the key focus of educational tools developers with emphasis on customisation. This should be capitalised by governments investing in professional developing of teachers and this time emphasising a specialised training of blending online and traditional pedagogies. Shibly et al. [18] further concludes that conduct online training programs can be conducted by universities about online teaching and learning tools. In some cases government can provide free or subsidised internet to students. Online learning still faces critical scrutiny by various education stakeholders from students to parents with studies showing that there is still a lot of technical, academic, communication and satisfactory challenges. Learners are not satisfied with continuing with online learning and this is affecting their performance [19]. Much as there is not much trouble of e-learning among students according to evaluations of their experiences, challenges related to technical issues have been reported and this is on addition to poor internet services, cost of data, unreliable power supply, limited access to online library services [20, 21].
The outbreak of the coronavirus has affected systems all over the world and this is worse in developing and underdeveloped countries. After health, education has been the other most affected sector with all education institutions closing. Similarly in Somalia schools were closed in order to prevent the spread of the virus as requirement by the world health organisation. Just like any other African country, Somalia faces other pre-existing challenges in its education sector even before the coronavirus pandemic. According to Jamillah [22], Sub-Saharan with more than one fifth of children aged 6–11 years out of school, has the highest rates of education exclusion. In Somalia before the pandemic only 1.5 million children of the 4.5 school going age were in school.
With a history of civil wars since 1991, the outbreak of the coronavirus has escalated the Somalia education situation. The availability and quality of education has been harmed severely by control measures. With previous educational inequalities that negatively affected girls, the rural and poor population have been escalated by the control measures. There is therefore need for more inclusive approach in response to the Covid-19 lockdown impact in the education sector [23].
In a study by Hassan and Abdullahi [24] they found that instructors because having low degree of content, their delivery online with flexibility applications weakened the process of teaching and learning. Therefore they conclude that instructors lacked adequate knowledge on basic ICT knowledge and skills with a very high level of barrier of adaptation on online learning and teaching tools. Therefore the higher education institutions need to build capacity of their staff especially in the academic section to improve on their ICT literacy and provide a scholarly communication platform to enhance their technology awareness, knowledge and exposure.
In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world has closed business and countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning Hassan and Abdullahi [24]. Universities in Somalia encountered significant challenges and were therefore forced to adopt online learning as a measure of crisis management in response to closure of education institutions [23]. The adoption of online learning during the pandemic among universities in Garowe being a problem is premised on all challenges faced by institutions of education all over the world. In a survey research in Garowe with a main objective of exploring the process and challenges of implementing online learning during the Covid19 pandemic in higher education institutions of Garowe, findings indicate that it was not an easy process.
This book chapter therefore intended to document the key findings of this study having reviewed findings from other regions of the world. Implementing online learning during the covid19 pandemic lockdown among Universities in Garowe accruing from a mini survey carried out in May 2021 in comparison to previous studies and possible existing model or theories. The survey employed a qualitative design to analyse the data which was collected from students and lecturers. Interviews were conducted to a total of 12 subjects comprising of 8 students and 4 lecturers from two universities of University of East Africa and Puntland State University in Garowe Puntland state of Somalia.
With regard to prior knowledge on online learning, majority of the students knew about the existence of online learning but were not conversant with particulars of its application and the various platforms. However still the students also emphasised that they preferred physical classrooms. Al-Shalabi [20] and Shibly et al. [18] recommend virtual reality application whereby practical sessions are conducted to provide online learning training programmes for both lecturers and students. Given that Covid19 is here to stay, this is sustainability recommendation for educational institutions. Just like Hassan and Abdullahi [24] found that some instructors in Somalia institutions because of having low degree of content, failed to deliver online with the flexibility applications which weakened the process of teaching and learning.
Revelations also indicate that majority of the students would prefer physical classroom learning to online learning. The preference of classroom learning approach is mainly according the students responses due to the continuous interaction between students and lecturers during the lecture. Of course a few students preferred online learning arguing that there is limited disruptions during the lecture on addition to the fact that the spread of covid19 is controlled and that the approach is more flexible. Muhammad [19] concludes in his study that English as a Foreign Language learners in Taibah University Saudi Arabia are not satisfied with experience of online learning. This validates the findings above from the Somali study and therefore justifies the need for more future comprehensive studies on online learning with emphasis on the pedagogy and motivation.
Some subjects also revealed that there were several limitations to online learning and these included accessing resources, hard to adopt and adapt. Other subjects revealed that they found it interesting with numerous materials to refer to for purposes of self-study. Exams were conducted online but according to interview responses, student subjects revealed that exams were difficult because of the nature of online lectures which were not elaborate with limited question and answer sessions. These challenges were supplemented by the high cost of online learning, intermittent internet connection, limited skills of using online learning gadgets and equipment, limited focus and attention hence poor internalisation of content, limited student teacher interaction and sometimes problem of electricity. Jena [15] and Shibly et al. [18] in their studies have recommended that institutions should provide students with free internet connection and maybe gadgets like computers or tablets where possible. Lecturers also revealed that the adoption and adaptation of online learning was so abrupt since it was immediately after the lockdown. Universities according to the lecturers were caught unaware and it was a very difficult situation according to them. This is because most lecturers and students lacked prior skills and knowledge of the various online learning platforms.
Assessment and evaluation during online learning remains a key challenge. If learning outcomes shall be achieved to witness their intended goals especially if competencies and skills are part, then more research on assessment and evaluation processes of online learning is needed yesterday. Lecturers revealed that one of the challenges was assessment and evaluation. The teaching and learning process went on very well save for the examination process. The lecturers from the universities revealed that they resorted to case studies which were administered to students and they submitted after three days. Lecturer also revealed that student-lecturer interaction is limited during online learning, they missed the engagements in discussions, the question and answer which are all not easily realised during online learning.
Additionally the lecturers noted with concern that students were not conversant with the online learning platforms, gadgets since some of them even lacked the basic smart phones. This was further complicated with intermittent internet and sometimes electricity. It was compounded by the difficulty in adopting and adapting to the change and frequent student absenteeism. Lawrence and Fakuade [17] suggests that if students are to be committed when learning from home, parents should synergise with the online learning trend.
Among the solutions Proposed by the lecturers include procurement of online learning equipment, tools and soft wares if it is to be efficient and reliable. They emphasised that lecturers and students should be adequately trained and equipped with skills of online learning plus educating and sensitising all concerned stakeholders like parents. One lecturer proposed that IT skills should be introduced at primary and secondary school level in Puntland and Somalia at large. Then it is also important that students are encouraged to practice use of online learning platforms like zoom, google meet, webex etc. to increase their acquaintance with the platforms [25, 26].
If online education should be globalised, then technology platforms like internet, language and culture diversity, curriculum and processes of evaluation should be standardised. For countries to step up their online education, economy, institutional and student level factors should be given priority. At the country level, the industry and government should ensure that employment of online education graduates is guaranteed. This is in addition to ensuring the enhance capacity of online education through upgrading facilicities plus providing and installing equipment. Institutions should provide support through administration, marketing, technology and also top management. Students should also be motivated, the online learning culture should be well streamlined, the learning style, their IT skills enhriched through training and also enhance their awareness of online education.
It is evident that adoption of online learning among universities in Puntland was a matter of crisis management. Implying that the administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in all dimensions surrounding this pedagogical learning platform. Additionally they also lacked the resources to adequately adjust, prepare, plan and implement this type of learning. The outbreak of the coronavirus which culminated into the Covid19 pandemic and lockdown is a learning process for the education sector to modify and adjust accordingly by installing required equipment and facilities plus training staff. This is in addition to reviewing curriculum and pedagogical approaches and techniques since Covid19 is here to stay. It is also prudent to conclude that there is challenge of strategic management in these institution. Otherwise with strategic management an organisation can always have resources that are invested to avert or abate the consequences of such a crisis.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
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\\n\\nTERMINATION
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\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
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\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
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\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
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\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
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\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. 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The natural resources are limited, and due to the natural disasters like sudden and severe abiotic stress factors, excessive floods, etc., the production capacities are changed per year. In contrast, the yield potential should be significantly increased to cope with this problem. Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. 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In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. 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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2501,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. 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Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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