Existing installed generation capacity in Pakistan [1]
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1428",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cytokeratins - Tools in Oncology",title:"Cytokeratins",subtitle:"Tools in Oncology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The first chapters of the volume "Cytokeratins - Tools in Oncology" discuss multiple functions of cytokeratins in organization of the intermediary filaments in normal intestine and liver as well as microfold L cells and the usability of cytokeratins 7, 8 and 20 in tumor diagnosis in detail. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition as a mechanism important in pathogenesis is touched in another chapter, followed by several articles dealing with the role of cytokeratins for detection of disseminated tumor cells and as response markers during chemotherapy. This book is therefore destined to all cancer researchers and therapists who want to understand the diagnostic application of cytokeratins in histology and, especially, the use of anti-cytokeratin antibodies to identify viable residual tumor cells accounting for a higher risk of tumor recurrence or cancer cells responding to chemotherapy, respectively.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0047-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6818-8",doi:"10.5772/1888",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cytokeratins-tools-in-oncology",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"43eb05ae5238aaf095c1344bce3b7ae1",bookSignature:"Gerhard Hamilton",publishedDate:"February 29th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1428.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19700,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:41,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 13th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"96149",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerhard",middleName:null,surname:"Hamilton",slug:"gerhard-hamilton",fullName:"Gerhard Hamilton",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/96149/images/system/96149.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gerhard Hamilton studied biochemistry at the University of Vienna, Austria. After finishing his doctoral thesis on Natural Killer cells he got a position in the research laboratories of the Department of Surgery at the University Medical School of Vienna and obtained the degree of associate professor in 1996. His scientific publications comprise the fields of organ transplantation, burn care, sepsis and oncology. Later on his research projects have focused on in vitro characterization of anticancer compounds such as novel platinum-based agents and titanocenes and respective mechanisms of drug resistance associated with cellular expression of relevant transporter proteins as well as changes in global gene expression. One special topic has been the investigation of diagnostic tests based on cytokeratin fragments in prostate and colorectal cancer patients revealing the applicability of the assays to prove residual tumor load. 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\r\n\tThe book Dairy Industry will attempt to provide an overview of various aspects of the milk value chain with meat as a byproduct. The book covers historical developments in organizing the local dairy farms into formal business models through selective breeding and farmer to farmer cooperation during the sixteenth century in Europe. Various dairy cattle breeds were developed in Europe. Holstein cows, for example, originated approximately 2000 years ago in the Netherlands and the Holstein Friesian Association was established in the USA in 1885. The establishment of dairy farmer cooperatives boosted commercialization of the dairy sector by utilizing genetics and new reproductive techniques in semen collection, evaluation of artificial insemination, and field trials collaborated by Cornell University during the 1930s. Wide-scale use of frozen semen facilitated the transportation of semen to remote destinations and genetic improvement of local non-descript cows through crossbreeding. Improved genetics led to the development of good practices and protocols in dairy farming, reproductive management, genetics, and dairy health management. Farming was initially an inherited activity for generating family income. However, later on, it grew and developed utilizing entrepreneurship models and integrating recordkeeping, economic traits of dairy animals, milk production, growth rates, meat production, cost-effective feeding, herd replacement, and dairy products processing into the milk value chain. Marketing strategies accommodated farming innovations, cost per unit productivity, quality control practices, and grading dairy products.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book is a comprehensive review of the developments made so far and may be helpful for animal scientists, students, progressive farmers, and emerging entrepreneurs across the milk value chain.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-747-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-746-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-750-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"039315e262fede18d1e7a5a777a1d8ae",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Subhan Qureshi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10887.jpg",keywords:"Regional Dairy Breeds, Breeding Strategies, Farmers Cooperatives, Dairy Farming, Principals of Dairy Farming, Dairy Nutrition, Dairy Reproduction, Reproductive Management and Genetics, Farming Innovations, Cost per Unit Productivity, Quality Control Practice, Entrepreneurship Development",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A reproductive physiologist with 36 years experience in livestock extension, research, academia; founding member of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Livestock Farmers Welfare Association, Member Chamber of Commerce and Industries, Dean Vet Science UAP, and National Consultant FAO Pakistan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"321396",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",middleName:null,surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/321396/images/system/321396.jpg",biography:"National Consultant FAO (Livestock), Peshawar: June 20 to August 31. Worked with Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations at Islamabad, Pakistan as National Consultant Livestock and Dairy Development. The mutually agreed TORs required development of an Action Plan with estimated budget for Livestock Sector Development and Transformation, based on KP Livestock Policy; covering regulatory issues, value chain development, private sector engagement and overall required capacity at provincial and district levels. The livestock and poultry farmers are facing unbearable financial burden and most of these valuable assets are on way to total collapse. Ten public and private sector organizations are mandated for serving the Livestock Sector covering extension, research, fisheries, education, livestock markets, slaughter houses price regulation, food safety, trade and farmers welfare. However, lack of coordination and their apathy towards the farmers and processors, has left the burning issues unattended. \n\nThis Mission has tried his best to prepare KP Livestock Action Plan 2019 as a relief for the weaker stakeholders across the livestock value chain, in the public and private sectors, within a governance framework of Academia-Industry-Government-Society Nexus. An autonomous Livestock Technopark Peshawar (LTP) has been suggested to be established, initially as a Task Force through an executive order and later on through an Act of the Legislative Assembly/Ordinance of Governor; with full regulatory, administrative, financial and legislative powers to protect all the stakeholders of the livestock industry, and engage all relevant private and public sector organizations with shared authority and responsibility. At the end of the year 2021 LTP would be able to generate direct decent employment models to the tune of 18,000, each one earning about Rs. 50,000 per month and employing five more persons each. Hygienic, Halal and Organic food would be produced per annum valuing Rs. 5,098 billion. A fraction of 10% may be injected into Halal Meat Export Market Motivated young graduates in veterinary, engineering, medical, business and social sciences would be joining LTP for their career development and transformation of ideas into actions to serve the society. Quality conscious consumers would be having access to traceable food products in the towns. Public and private sector organizations would have access to sufficient operational funds for motivating their staff and serving people. \n\nResearch and Development: After getting DVM degree from UVAS Lahore, joined Livestock Department, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan during 1983 as Veterinary Officer (Health) and worked on semen processing, farm management, feeding and health coverage. Worked at Civil Veterinary Hospital and provided therapeutic and immunization services to the incoming animals. Worked as Senior Research Officer on Herd Health Program and registered buffalo farms for applied research and extension services; analyzed the prevailing practices of feeding, health and reproductive management, introduced good practices and organized the farmers into Sarhad Dairy Farmers Association, facilitating them for availing services of various research, development, marketing and financial institutions. Completed master and doctoral degrees and published a report on mismanaged livestock sector, loosing an export potential of US$ 20 billion at national level. The two successive Chief Ministers endorsed the Chief Minister Development Plan prepared by the author.\n\nAcademic excellence: Joined the University of Agriculture, Peshawar as full professor and served as Dean for two tenures. I have been working as HEC representative at PVMC and member of several professional bodies. Engaged in Teaching, Research and Industrial Linkage in animal health, reproduction, entrepreneurship and biorisk management; supervised PhD students 19, MPhil 84; subjects taught Reproductive Physiology; Livestock Industry; Stress Physiology; research projects completed 6; research publications in impact factor journals 53; books/chapters published 15, including a book on Reproductive Physiology published by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan.\n\nFunctionalized the UAP Univ Feed Mill under a lease arrangement through as private partner. Successfully introduced the feed at private dairy farmers in Peshawar and adjacent districts, competing with other feed manufacturers, based upon the best prices and quality. Initiated research on physiological base of animals’ productivity and stress physiology/animals welfare and tailored the postgraduate studies and research and development projects into these priorities. Motivated the faculty members and students for winning research grants to respond to the local problems and explore business and industrial aspects of livestock and poultry production. \n\nAcademia-Government-Industry/International Linkages: Dairy Science Park (Park/DSP) has been introduced as a sacred mission for welfare of people of the Region through generation of self employment and hygienic/Halal food production. The Park has been registered as a Society with the Government of KP, Pakistan and accepted by the United Nations as #UNSDGAction9671. In line with the vision of the Higher Education Commission, the business incubation concepts were integrated into postgraduate research ongoing at the Faculty, shaping up the University – Industry linkages. A biennial series of international workshops was initiated and it continued during November, 2011, 2013 and 2015, each by 450+ delegates, with 100+ technical papers and industrial exhibition. The proceedings were published online/printed and in impact factor journals. The 1st workshop focused on post-flood revival of dairy industry, the 2nd on meat potential of the region and the 3rd on entrepreneurship development for the outgoing graduates. The fourth conference was held at Selcuk University Konya, Turkey during on Nov 1-5, 2017.\n\nEmerging industries in milk and meat processing and marketing have been provided technical and Quality Control certification support to relieve legal threats from the District Administration, who focus on price capping of milk and meat rather than quality. Meat shops established on modern lines of hygiene produce quality beef; however such facilities are raided by the government agencies on the basis of higher prices. DSP facilitates inspection of such facilities provide SOPs for quality standards and issue a certificate. Similar services are being extended to private slaughter houses and meat/milk processing centers and other emerging entrepreneurs. A road map has been prepared for developing a Hygienic/Halal meat export base. The plan is aimed at introducing good practices into livestock SMEs. The plan has been supported by the provincial Agriculture Minister, Special Assistants to Chief Minister KP on Law and Livestock. Sandia National Lab USA has been supporting DSP under a Biorisk Management Collaboration. Four consultative workshops have been held in Amsterdam, Dubai, Bangkok and Puket, participated by 43 members of DSP for curriculum development and integration of biorisk management concept into the food value chain. \n\nCharles Sturt University (CSU) Australia: CSU was joined as Adjunct Professor during 2010 which will continue up to 2022. I outlined some of the key factors that impact on the reproductive efficiency of the Pakistani dairy buffaloes herd. It was found that under-nutrition and nutritional imbalance through feeding high protein-low energy diets suppress ovarian cyclicity. Interestingly ovarian activity is often negatively associated with insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1) levels since this is associated with higher milk yields. Clearly nutrient partitioning is playing a role here particularly when cows and buffalo are underfed. Interestingly, mid-chain length fatty acids (C12-C14) are more prevalent in milk from crossbred (Sahiwal-Friesian crosses) than in purebred Sahiwal milk in which shorter chain saturated fatty acids prevail. I attended joint ISNH / ISRP International Conference-2014 at Canberra and present paper on productivity and fertility of crossbred cattle in the subtropical environment of Peshawar Pakistan. Pak-Australia Dairy Project was assisted and supervised students research at Peshawar, regarding reproductive biotechnology and women in development. Australian Farming System was studied; visits were made to the farms and clinics and farmers meetings were attended at Charles Sturt University, WaggaWagga, in collaboration with Prof Peter Wynn. The main problem identified was the difficulty of farmers in getting technical and marketing services; summer stress faced by the animals; and scarcity of labours due to migration of the younger generations from rural to urban areas.\n\nPolicy development/reforms plan: The Ex-Chief Minister KP, Mr Akram Khan Durrani approved the concept of the DSP as a development plan and recommended establishment of the University of Veterinary Innovations and Commercialization with up-gradation of the existing Faculty of AHVS, UAP establishment of additional facilities like slaughter houses, livestock markets and entrepreneurship models. The Higher Education Commission accepted the Park as a Center of Excellence. Senior Minister KP, Mr Inayatullah Khan has agreed on establishment of DSP Board, under an Act of the Provincial Assembly, comprising Quality Control Laboratory Complex, Business Incubation Center, Halal Research Center and an Endowment Fund. His proposal for establishment of Task Force for DSP was approved by the Chief Minister. The Chief Secretary KP has declared DSP as an innovative idea. The idea of Mardan TechnoPark and Quetta TechnoPark was accepted in a meeting of relevant authorities under chairmanship of Mr Arif Yousaf, Special Assistant to Chief Minister KP and Governor Balochistan. DSP IV – 2017 Konya endorsed the concept and Konya Teknokent offered cooperation through an MoU. KP Chamber of Commerse and Industries Peshawar was assisted in academia industry linkages and USAID was assisted as Member Focal Group RTAC in the project evaluation process.",institutionString:"Dairy Science Park",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"346794",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Miskulin",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346794/images/15795_n.png",email:"mia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44236",title:"Feasibility of a Solar Thermal Power Plant in Pakistan",doi:"10.5772/55488",slug:"feasibility-of-a-solar-thermal-power-plant-in-pakistan",body:'Pakistan has been facing an unprecedented energy crisis since the last few years. The problem becomes more severe throughout the year. The current energy shortage crisis has badly hit Pakistan’s economy where hundreds of industries have closed due to lack of electricity to fulfil their requirements. The energy supply and demand gap has risen to 5000 MW [1] and is expected to rise considerably in the coming years as shown in Figure 1. Table 1 shows the existing installed power generation in Pakistan.
Pakistan has a huge potential in renewable energy especially solar energy to fill this gap if utilized properly. Pakistan, being in the Sun Belt, is ideally located to take advantage of solar energy technologies. This energy source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the country. Pakistan receives 4.45- 5.83 kWh/m2/day of global horizontal insolation as an annual mean value, with 5.30 kWh/m2/day over most areas of the country [2, 3]. This minimum level of solar radiation (4.45 kWh/m2/day) is higher than the world average of 3.61 kWh/m2/day [4] which shows that Pakistan lies in an excellent solar belt range. Pakistan has six main insolation measuring stations, namely Karachi, Islamabad, Lahore, Quetta, Peshawar and Multan and 37 observatories distributed fairly well over the entire country, recording sunshine hours as shown in Table A in Appendix. From the sunshine hours data it can be seen that most of the cities mentioned receive more than 250 sunshine hours a month.
2006 energy policy has resulted in few practical steps taken for utilizing the abundantly available solar resource in Pakistan. A Solar Water Heating System has been installed in a Leather Industry for first time in Pakistan. The system, using 400 m2 Evacuated Collector tubes, provides heated water at 70 to 80 oC (at least 10 degree rise to the incoming water) to the already used boiler system, thus saving 33% of the cost. The Project was funded by Higher Education Commission (HEC) under University-Industry Technological Support Program (UITSP).
Solar water heating technology is relatively mature technology in Pakistan but its higher capital cost compared to conventional gas heaters has limited its use so far. This technology is widely recommended by a number of public sector organizations in northern mountains where natural gas is limited and difficult to supply. The solar water heaters are now being commercially produced in the private sector.
More than 2000 low cost solar cookers are used in Pakistan for cooking purposes. Similarly, solar dryers are used in Gilgit and Skardu (Northern part of Pakistan) to dry large quantities of fruits such as apricot and transport and sell them later in the urban areas, thus bringing economic prosperity to the area.
Fresh water unavailability in large parts of Baluchistan, Sind and southern Punjab is a critical issue. Two solar desalination plants consisting of 240 sills each with a capacity of 6000 gallons of seawater/day have been operational at Gawadar in Baluchistan province. A number of such schemes are under active consideration by local governments in Baluchistan and Thar [5].
The need for constructing solar power plants has been realized both at federal and provincial governments. The government of Sindh recently signed a Memorandum of Understanding with German company Azur Solar for building a 50 MW solar power plant at Dhabeji in District Thatta. The firm Azur Solar will initially set up a 60 kW solar power station to provide free electricity to backward \'goths\' (Villages), schools and basic health centres of Badin.
Both, technical and economical feasibility of a 50 MW solar thermal power plant using Stirling-Dish (SD) technology in Jacaobabad in Sindh Province of Pakistan is analysed in this chapter. The performance and environmental aspects of Stirling dish for power generation with and without solar energy is examined, discussed and compared. The solar data was collected from Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) of Pakistan and Life cycle cost analysis is performed to determine the economic feasibility of the solar thermal power plant. This study reveals that Jacobabad falls within the high solar energy belt and has minimum radiation energy of 4.45 kWh/m2/day (which is higher than the world average of 3.61 kWh/m2/day) to produce electricity, even during the low sunshine and cloudy days. The study concluded that solar thermal power plant in Pakistan is feasible using solar Stirling dish technology.
Generation capacity and demand forecast [
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
WAPDA Hydro | \n\t\t\t6444 | \n\t\t\t6444 | \n\t\t\t6250 | \n\t\t\t2300 | \n\t\t
GENCOs | \n\t\t\t4829 | \n\t\t\t3580 | \n\t\t\t2780 | \n\t\t\t3150 | \n\t\t
IPPs | \n\t\t\t6609 | \n\t\t\t6028 | \n\t\t\t5122 | \n\t\t\t5402 | \n\t\t
Rental | \n\t\t\t285 | \n\t\t\t264 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t
Total | \n\t\t\t18167 | \n\t\t\t16316 | \n\t\t\t14402 | \n\t\t\t11102 | \n\t\t
Existing installed generation capacity in Pakistan [1]
Solar thermal electric power generating systems have three different design alternatives, as follows;
Power tower: a solar furnace using a tower to receive the focused sunlight
Parabolic trough collector: focus systems that concentrate sun rays onto tubes located along the focal line of a parabolic shaped trough.
Parabolic dishes: focus systems where sun light is reflected into a receiver at the dish’s focus point [7, 8].
High optical efficiency and low start-up losses make dish/engine systems the most efficient (29.4% record solar to electricity conversion) of all solar technologies [9]. In addition, the modular design of dish/engine systems make them a good match for both remote power needs in the kilowatt range as well as hybrid end-of-the-line grid-connected utility applications in the megawatt range as shown in Figure 2 [9].
Solar Stirling engines can be classified into two categories;
Free Piston Stirling engines: are those which have only two moving parts i.e. the power piston and the piston, which moves back and forth between springs. A linear alternator extracts power from the engine through power piston. Electricity is produced internally and therefore, there is no need for sliding seal at the high pressure region of the engine and no lubrication is required too [10].
Kinematic Stirling engines: are those in which both the power piston and displacer (expansion and compression pistons) are kinematically (mechanically) connected to a rotating power output shaft.
Kinematic engines work with hydrogen as a working fluid and have higher efficiencies than free piston engines. Kinematic sterling engines have sealing problems and complicated power modulation. Sealing problems can be avoided by integrating a rotating alternator into the crankcase [10]. The power modulation can be sorted out by; (a) Varying the piston stroke (b) varying the pressure level of the working space [10].
Free piston engines have simple design as there is no connection between power piston and displacer. There is no need for working fluid make-up system being hermetically sealed as is required in the case of kinematic Stirling engines [11]. Free piston engines work with helium and do not produce friction during operation, which enables a reduction in required maintenance.
The solar Stirling engine is environment friendly as the heat energy comes from the sun and therefore almost zero emission. Similarly emissions from hydrocarbons combustion are very low as the fuel is burnt continuously at almost atmospheric pressure compared to the interrupted combustion in diesel and petrol engines. The quantities of CO produced and of unburnt hydrocarbons HCs are very low due to (i) the combustion of fuel in a Stirling engine occurs in a space surrounded by hot walls under adiabatic conditions and (ii) the latitude in the choice of air to fuel ratio. But unfortunately, the more efficient combustion of a Stirling engine results in relatively more CO2 produced compared to an equivalent internal engine. Similarly the formation of NOx are lower due to the short residence time of the gases at the high temperature, lower peak temperatures than in internal combustion engine and the continuous combustion. The emission of NOx can be further reduced: (a) by recirculation of part of the flue gases along with incoming combustion air and (b) lowering the flame temperature. Stirling engine is intrinsically cleaner than all current heat engines in terms of emission of toxic or other polluting substances [11].
General description of Stirling EuroDish system [
Stirling-Dish (SD) systems are small power generation sets which generate electricity by using direct solar radiation. The capacity of a single unit is typically between 5 and 25 (50) kWel. This size and the modularity of the single units qualify the Dish-Stirling system for very flexible applications. They are ideal for stand-alone or other decentralised applications [13]. The size of the solar collector for Stirling Dish is determined by the desired power output at maximum insolation levels (1 kW/m2) and the collector and power conversion efficiencies. A 5 kW Stirling Dish system requires a dish of ca 5.5 m, in diameter, and a 25 kW system requires a dish of ca 10 m in diameter [10]. The schematic diagram of solar Stirling dish system is shown in Figure 3. The parabolic concentrator reflects the solar radiation onto a cavity receiver which is located at the concentrator’s focal point. The heat exchanger (receiver) absorbs the solar radiation and thus heats the working gas (Helium or H2) of the Stirling engine to temperatures of about 650o C. This heat is converted into mechanical energy by the Stirling engine. An electrical generator, directly connected to the crankshaft of the engine, converts the mechanical energy into electricity (AC). A sun tracking system rotates the solar concentrator continuously about two axes to follow the daily path of the sun to constantly keep the reflected radiation at the focal point during the day [13].
Schematic diagram of solar Stirling dish system [
A SD solar electricity system of 25 kW with design characteristics shown in Table 2 was used for analysis in this study [10]. Stirling Dish has the ability to operate earlier and later every day and can also be functional in cloudy conditions when solar energy is < 2 kWh/m2. Another advantage of SD is it can generate power between passing clouds due its low thermal inertia. Jacobabad’s Latitude is 28o18/ N, Longitude is 68o18/ E and elevation is 55m. Jacobabad is among the hottest and the most arid areas of Pakistan, having weather conditions quite similar to those of a desert where direct normal insolation is high (1735 kWh/m2/year) [15] as shown in Table 5 coupled with low land cost, which is really cheap compared to international costs of land in Europe or USA.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Glass area | \n\t\t\t91.01 m2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Aperture area | \n\t\t\t87.67 | \n\t\t
Focal length | \n\t\t\t7.45 | \n\t\t
Glass type | \n\t\t\tNo. 82 commercial grade float. Thickness 0.7mm | \n\t\t
Radius of curvature | \n\t\t\t599. 616, 667, 698" | \n\t\t
Waviness | \n\t\t\t<0.6mr | \n\t\t
Reflectivity | \n\t\t\t>90% | \n
Module dimensions | \n\t11.89 mH, 11.28 W | \n
Module weight | \n\t6.934 kg | \n
Stirling engine (kinematic) | \n\t\n |
Engine dry weight | \n\t225 kg | \n
Displacement | \n\t380 cc | \n
Engine dimensions | \n\t66 cm W, 71 cm H, 58 cm L | \n
Number of pistons | \n\t4 double acting | \n
working fluid | \n\tH2 or He | \n
working fluid pressure | \n\t20 MPa | \n
Operating temperature | \n\t7200C | \n
Power control | \n\tFluid pressure | \n
Cooling | \n\tWater/forced air fan | \n
Output power | \n\t27 kW (max), 22 kW (rated) | \n
Rated power efficiency | \n\t38-40% | \n
Power conversion unit | \n\t\n |
Weight | \n\t>680 kg | \n
Alternator | \n\tInduction, 1800 rpm | \n
Alternator efficiency | \n\t92-94 % | \n
Electrical power | \n\t480 V, 60 Hz, three phase | \n
Gross power rating | \n\t25 kW at 1000 W/m2\n\t | \n
Peak net power efficiency | \n\t29-30% | \n
Minimum insolation | \n\t250-300 W/m2\n\t | \n
Dimensions | \n\tW=168 cm, H=122 cm, L=183 cm | \n
Design characteristics of 25 kW solar Stirling Dish [12]
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
0101 | \n\t\tTemperature Mean Value | \n\t\tF | \n\t\t59.2 | \n\t\t64.2 | \n\t\t74.8 | \n\t\t86.4 | \n\t\t94.8 | \n\t\t98.4 | \n\t\t94.8 | \n\t\t91.8 | \n\t\t88.5 | \n\t\t82 | \n\t\t71.8 | \n\t\t61.5 | \n\t\t80.7 | \n\t
0109 | \n\t\tHigh Temperature Mean Daily Value | \n\t\tF | \n\t\t72.7 | \n\t\t77.4 | \n\t\t88.3 | \n\t\t100 | \n\t\t110 | \n\t\t112 | \n\t\t105 | \n\t\t101 | \n\t\t98.6 | \n\t\t95.5 | \n\t\t86.2 | \n\t\t75.4 | \n\t\t93.5 | \n\t
0110 | \n\t\tLow Temperature Mean Daily Value | \n\t\tF | \n\t\t45.9 | \n\t\t50.9 | \n\t\t61.3 | \n\t\t72.1 | \n\t\t80.1 | \n\t\t84.9 | \n\t\t84.6 | \n\t\t82.9 | \n\t\t78.5 | \n\t\t68.5 | \n\t\t57.4 | \n\t\t47.7 | \n\t\t76.9 | \n\t
0615 | \n\t\tPrecipitation Mean Monthly Value | \n\t\tInches | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t0 | \n\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t0.4 | \n\t
0101 | \n\t\tTemperature Mean Value | \n\t\tC | \n\t\t15.1 | \n\t\t17.9 | \n\t\t23.8 | \n\t\t30.2 | \n\t\t34.9 | \n\t\t36.9 | \n\t\t34.9 | \n\t\t33.2 | \n\t\t31.4 | \n\t\t27.8 | \n\t\t22.1 | \n\t\t16.4 | \n\t\t27.05 | \n\t
0109 | \n\t\tHigh Temperature Mean Daily Value | \n\t\tC | \n\t\t22.6 | \n\t\t25.2 | \n\t\t31.3 | \n\t\t38 | \n\t\t43.1 | \n\t\t44.3 | \n\t\t40.6 | \n\t\t38.2 | \n\t\t37 | \n\t\t35.3 | \n\t\t30.1 | \n\t\t24.1 | \n\t\t34.15 | \n\t
0110 | \n\t\tLow Temperature Mean Daily Value | \n\t\tC | \n\t\t7.7 | \n\t\t7.7 | \n\t\t16.4 | \n\t\t22.3 | \n\t\t26.7 | \n\t\t29.4 | \n\t\t29.2 | \n\t\t28.3 | \n\t\t25.9 | \n\t\t20.3 | \n\t\t14.1 | \n\t\t8.7 | \n\t\t19.95 | \n\t
0615 | \n\t\tPrecipitation Mean Monthly Value | \n\t\tmm | \n\t\t3.1 | \n\t\t7.1 | \n\t\t10.3 | \n\t\t2 | \n\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t36.8 | \n\t\t26.3 | \n\t\t11.2 | \n\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t3.7 | \n\t\t9.2 | \n\t
Climate average weather data for Jacobabad [16]
The Jacobabad’s 10 years sunshine hours data was provided by Pakistan Meteorological Department as shown in Table 4. It can be seen from Table 4 that there are very good sunshine hours throughout the year and the average sunshine hours is 9 for a month. It is slightly less than that of National Renewable Energy Lab NREL total sunshine hours [17] but even then it is highly suitable for a solar power plant.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
2000 | \n\t\t213.3 | \n\t\t248.1 | \n\t\t240.8 | \n\t\t273.7 | \n\t\t364.1 | \n\t\t361.2 | \n\t\t330.0 | \n\t\t307.4 | \n\t\t297.8 | \n\t\t308.5 | \n\t\t241.6 | \n\t\t245.2 | \n\t
2001 | \n\t\t269.7 | \n\t\t207.8 | \n\t\t266.0 | \n\t\t261.6 | \n\t\t342.1 | \n\t\t303.1 | \n\t\t209.2 | \n\t\t315.4 | \n\t\t290.3 | \n\t\t287.2 | \n\t\t287.4 | \n\t\t249.6 | \n\t
2002 | \n\t\t238.5 | \n\t\t207.4 | \n\t\t242.0 | \n\t\t263.2 | \n\t\t330.7 | \n\t\t342.4 | \n\t\t300.6 | \n\t\t240.6 | \n\t\t281.7 | \n\t\t300.1 | \n\t\t243.3 | \n\t\t239.9 | \n\t
2003 | \n\t\t200.8 | \n\t\t194.0 | \n\t\t222.4 | \n\t\t128.3 | \n\t\t298.2 | \n\t\t320.0 | \n\t\t228.6 | \n\t\t270.1 | \n\t\t211.5 | \n\t\t294.7 | \n\t\t254.2 | \n\t\t233.5 | \n\t
2004 | \n\t\t200.8 | \n\t\t194.0 | \n\t\t255.0 | \n\t\t128.3 | \n\t\t262.2 | \n\t\t275.6 | \n\t\t270.3 | \n\t\t256.3 | \n\t\t237.5 | \n\t\t318.2 | \n\t\t294.5 | \n\t\t238.1 | \n\t
2005 | \n\t\t200.8 | \n\t\t194.0 | \n\t\t218.7 | \n\t\t128.3 | \n\t\t298.5 | \n\t\t328.6 | \n\t\t341.9 | \n\t\t333.4 | \n\t\t284.5 | \n\t\t313.3 | \n\t\t271.7 | \n\t\t264.4 | \n\t
2006 | \n\t\t216.0 | \n\t\t193.9 | \n\t\t251.8 | \n\t\t247.4 | \n\t\t341.9 | \n\t\t331.4 | \n\t\t312.7 | \n\t\t251.2 | \n\t\t307.7 | \n\t\t310.9 | \n\t\t221.4 | \n\t\t203.2 | \n\t
2007 | \n\t\t213.4 | \n\t\t200.0 | \n\t\t293.0 | \n\t\t319.0 | \n\t\t385.5 | \n\t\t331.5 | \n\t\t313.0 | \n\t\t341.5 | \n\t\t343.5 | \n\t\t335.0 | \n\t\t289.5 | \n\t\t270.5 | \n\t
2008 | \n\t\t171.0 | \n\t\t254.5 | \n\t\t279.0 | \n\t\t273.5 | \n\t\t359.0 | \n\t\t288.0 | \n\t\t323.0 | \n\t\t341.5 | \n\t\t328.0 | \n\t\t315.5 | \n\t\t289.0 | \n\t\t258.5 | \n\t
2009 | \n\t\t164.7 | \n\t\t255.9 | \n\t\t289.1 | \n\t\t320.6 | \n\t\t252.0 | \n\t\t252.0 | \n\t\t269.0. | \n\t\t372.0 | \n\t\t281.2 | \n\t\t309.5 | \n\t\t285.3 | \n\t\t247.4 | \n\t
Jacobabad sunshine hour’s data [3]
It is the hottest location in Pakistan as the temperature is around 45 to 50oC in summer and10 to 25oC in winter as shown in Figure 4. Temperature data given in Table 3 also shows a low temperature mean value of 19.950C, high temperature mean value of 34.15oC and Temperature mean value of 27.05oC very good hot conditions at Jacobabad [16], which are highly conducive for a solar thermal power plant.
Direct normal insolation data from National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) USA, shown in Figure 5 and Table 5, was compared with the data from BoM (Pakistan) for assessment of the Jacobabad site. It can be seen that there is not a huge difference between the NREL data and the data received from Pakistan Bureau of Meteorology.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
January | \n\t\t114.42 | \n\t\t10.4 | \n\t
February | \n\t\t127.37 | \n\t\t11 | \n\t
March | \n\t\t149.65 | \n\t\t11.8 | \n\t
April | \n\t\t165.61 | \n\t\t12.7 | \n\t
May | \n\t\t169.83 | \n\t\t13.4 | \n\t
June | \n\t\t177.66 | \n\t\t13.8 | \n\t
July | \n\t\t168.32 | \n\t\t13.6 | \n\t
August | \n\t\t131.59 | \n\t\t13 | \n\t
September | \n\t\t157.78 | \n\t\t12.2 | \n\t
October | \n\t\t154.77 | \n\t\t11.3 | \n\t
November | \n\t\t115.63 | \n\t\t10.6 | \n\t
December | \n\t\t102.98 | \n\t\t10.2 | \n\t
Monthly Average | \n\t\t144.63 | \n\t\t12 | \n\t
Annual Total | \n\t\t1735.56 | \n\t\t\n\t |
Average Direct Normal Insolation data for Jacobabad [15]
Jacobabad daily temperature – daylight chart [
Pakistan annual direct normal solar radiation [
By comparing the sun shine hours of these cities available data, it was seen that sun shine hours in Jacobabad are more than other cities as shown in Table A1 of Appendix.
The selected economic indicators for this analysis are: Levelized cost of electricity, net present value (NPV) and total payback period (Tpb) [14].
where I, O E1, k and n are values of investment, operations and maintenance, energy produced by the plant in the first year (taken as the average annual energy produced), discount rate and number of years envisaged as the plant life time. Therefore, levelized cost is the total cash flows of a plant divided by the energy produced over the lifetime of a plant. It has been assumed that land is provided by the government. The operation and maintenance costs (O&M) cost in Pakistan for a solar thermal power plant is $ 0.001/kWh [18]. The energy inflation is considered to be negligible. We assume 60% sunshine hours are available throughout the year for electricity production to account for cloudy conditions and other miscellaneous factors. We shall use a discount rate of 10% for this analysis. The assumption and data used for the analysis is shown in Table 6, a [19]
\n\t | |
\n\t | |
Total power (MW) | \n\t\t50 | \n\t
Annual solar radiation (kWh/m2) | \n\t\t1735 | \n\t
Annual generated electricity (MWh) | \n\t\t18970 | \n\t
Discount rate | \n\t\t10% | \n\t
Lifetime (years) | \n\t\t25 | \n\t
System purchase price (US$/kWh) | \n\t\t4540a\n\t\t | \n\t
Fixed cost | \n\t\t\n\t |
Procurement of equipment (M$) | \n\t\t227 | \n\t
Transport & Installation (M$) | \n\t\t3a\n\t\t | \n\t
Other costs (M$) | \n\t\t3 a\n\t\t | \n\t
Assumptions and data
Where T is marginal tax rate, E is income of the plant, O is O&M costs and I is initial investment.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Value of investment | \n\t\t233 million US $ | \n\t
O&M Costs | \n\t\t0.475 million US$ | \n\t
Levelized electricity cost | \n\t\t24.4 cents/kWh | \n\t
Sale price | \n\t\t60 cents/kWh | \n\t
Net present value | \n\t\t22 million US$ | \n\t
Payback Period | \n\t\t23 years | \n\t
Summary of calculated quantities for a 50 MW solar thermal power plant
Solar dish technology can be a promising technology which can be deployed in Pakistan in small scale projects producing 25 kW electricity for remote areas, especially, in Sindh and Baluchistan and Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), where there is enough solar potential for producing electricity through dish technology. Jacobabad has a great potential for a solar power plant based Stirling dish. The solar insolation is in the required limits which is more than 1700 kWh/m2/year coupled with prolonged sun shine hours in those areas make this technology a viable option for producing electricity. Cost analysis shows that this technology is viable although it is expensive at the moment compared to fossil fuels based electricity. The prices will become competitive if the government of Pakistan withdraws the subsidies on fossil fuels and allocate it to solar based electricity. The calculations show that cost of electricity generation is higher than the existing water, natural gas and fossil fuels based generation which is 3 to 12 USD cent/kW [20] and therefore, government subsidy is necessary to make it competitive in the market. If government can provide subsidy on renewable power then it will attract more investment both at local and international level.
Pakistan has a huge potential for solar energy potential especially very high in Quetta and Karachi where a solar thermal power plant is viable. Government of Pakistan has to take strong policy and marketability measures that will establish and strengthen this environment friendly technology in the country. Solar power has very little impact on environment. This makes it one of the cleanest sources of power generation available to mankind. An operating solar power plant produces no air and noise pollution. Furthermore there is no hazardous waste produced in the production of electricity and it also does not require and transportable fuel. The use of solar electric systems is also known to reduce local air pollution. This results in the reduction in the use of kerosene and other fuels for lighting purposes. Solar power systems also help in the abatement of CO2 gases.
Jacobabad is one the hottest place in the country and therefore, has the potential to have solar power plants installed there. Analysis for Stirling dish shows that it is feasible to install such systems there as the insolation is suitable for a solar power plant. The sunshine hours are also good coupled with good infrastructure i.e. transmission lines, natural gas and coal are in close proximity and easy access to national highway makes it an ideal place for a solar thermal power plant. Gawadar and Karachi ports are in the range of 500 to 700 km and also 132/220 kV transmission lines pass through the area for grid connectivity of the power produced by this plant. A positive net present value coupled with a reasonable payback period of 23 years indicates that this plant is a good option.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t170.9 | \n\t\t218.5 | \n\t\t258.3 | \n\t\t297.3 | \n\t\t250.9 | \n\t\t237.6 | \n\t\t223.2 | \n\t\t278.6 | \n\t\t256.6 | \n\t\t286.9 | \n\t\t209.2 | \n\t\t237.8 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t185.8 | \n\t\t234.1 | \n\t\t277.5 | \n\t\t247.4 | \n\t\t308.0 | \n\t\t244.9 | \n\t\t217.2 | \n\t\t284.4 | \n\t\t263.2 | \n\t\t253.3 | \n\t\t250.5 | \n\t\t198.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t197.8 | \n\t\t210.6 | \n\t\t258.9 | \n\t\t258.9 | \n\t\t321.5 | \n\t\t288.1 | \n\t\t252.0 | \n\t\t228.7 | \n\t\t241.1 | \n\t\t261.3 | \n\t\t235.7 | \n\t\t205.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t111.9 | \n\t\t204.8 | \n\t\t234.9 | \n\t\t279.7 | \n\t\t319.8 | \n\t\t245.4 | \n\t\t254.0 | \n\t\t230.5 | \n\t\t236.9 | \n\t\t277.0 | \n\t\t345.6 | \n\t\t225.0 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t164.2 | \n\t\t285.6 | \n\t\t285.4 | \n\t\t244.1 | \n\t\t321.2 | \n\t\t280.5 | \n\t\t259.3 | \n\t\t218.6 | \n\t\t251.0 | \n\t\t227.2 | \n\t\t206.7 | \n\t\t203.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t210.3 | \n\t\t150.7 | \n\t\t220.7 | \n\t\t271.9 | \n\t\t285.4 | \n\t\t292.1 | \n\t\t206.9 | \n\t\t258.5 | \n\t\t238.5 | \n\t\t285.6 | \n\t\t255.1 | \n\t\t227.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t199.8 | \n\t\t201.6 | \n\t\t237.5 | \n\t\t288.0 | \n\t\t304.1 | \n\t\t276.9 | \n\t\t209.5 | \n\t\t210.2 | \n\t\t248.1 | \n\t\t269.2 | \n\t\t203.5 | \n\t\t195.1 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t234.9 | \n\t\t138.1 | \n\t\t260.7 | \n\t\t308.5 | \n\t\t298.8 | \n\t\t250.2 | \n\t\t236.4 | \n\t\t226.2 | \n\t\t223.3 | \n\t\t284.7 | \n\t\t215.8 | \n\t\t217.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t199.9 | \n\t\t204.0 | \n\t\t264.2 | \n\t\t269.9 | \n\t\t192.7 | \n\t\t192.7 | \n\t\t202.5 | \n\t\t211.3 | \n\t\t255.6 | \n\t\t248.9 | \n\t\t221.4 | \n\t\t176.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t185.2 | \n\t\t220.3 | \n\t\t238.5 | \n\t\t276.2 | \n\t\t310.5 | \n\t\t308.7 | \n\t\t252.9 | \n\t\t228.0 | \n\t\t273.5 | \n\t\t217.5 | \n\t\t147.1 | \n\t\t189.1 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t | ||||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t141.1 | \n\t\t197.9 | \n\t\t255.9 | \n\t\t293.5 | \n\t\t316 | \n\t\t268 | \n\t\t235.6 | \n\t\t273.6 | \n\t\t259.5 | \n\t\t258.9 | \n\t\t185.7 | \n\t\t183.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t208.8 | \n\t\t201.1 | \n\t\t253.5 | \n\t\t246.9 | \n\t\t325.3 | \n\t\t249.5 | \n\t\t219.7 | \n\t\t263.3 | \n\t\t288.3 | \n\t\t242.6 | \n\t\t217.3 | \n\t\t181.7 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t202.2 | \n\t\t155.4 | \n\t\t252.1 | \n\t\t259.2 | \n\t\t323 | \n\t\t307 | \n\t\t317.7 | \n\t\t181.9 | \n\t\t267.1 | \n\t\t245.7 | \n\t\t201.7 | \n\t\t191 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t205.7 | \n\t\t155 | \n\t\t191 | \n\t\t246.3 | \n\t\t299.4 | \n\t\t281.7 | \n\t\t258.6 | \n\t\t251.2 | \n\t\t201.2 | \n\t\t285.5 | \n\t\t211.2 | \n\t\t155.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t115.3 | \n\t\t224.9 | \n\t\t252.6 | \n\t\t169.9 | \n\t\t313 | \n\t\t275 | \n\t\t270.5 | \n\t\t224.2 | \n\t\t248.6 | \n\t\t221.2 | \n\t\t202.5 | \n\t\t157 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t164.7 | \n\t\t100.5 | \n\t\t148.1 | \n\t\t186.5 | \n\t\t390.2 | \n\t\t273.5 | \n\t\t249.6 | \n\t\t265.2 | \n\t\t191.1 | \n\t\t256.9 | \n\t\t216.6 | \n\t\t182.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t142.7 | \n\t\t154.7 | \n\t\t209.7 | \n\t\t246.9 | \n\t\t315.1 | \n\t\t264.1 | \n\t\t192.5 | \n\t\t208.8 | \n\t\t242.8 | \n\t\t245.7 | \n\t\t163.9 | \n\t\t146.1 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t201.6 | \n\t\t116.6 | \n\t\t190.3 | \n\t\t299.6 | \n\t\t291.2 | \n\t\t---- | \n\t\t244.2 | \n\t\t240.4 | \n\t\t229.3 | \n\t\t278 | \n\t\t191.6 | \n\t\t165.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t175.5 | \n\t\t205.6 | \n\t\t245.6 | \n\t\t307.8 | \n\t\t224.1 | \n\t\t224.1 | \n\t\t228.7 | \n\t\t231.4 | \n\t\t244.3 | \n\t\t244.4 | \n\t\t255.9 | \n\t\t199.7 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t169 | \n\t\t170.9 | \n\t\t175.7 | \n\t\t246.1 | \n\t\t338.1 | \n\t\t281.1 | \n\t\t314.8 | \n\t\t273.1 | \n\t\t259.3 | \n\t\t265.3 | \n\t\t218.4 | \n\t\t196.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t | ||||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t148.3 | \n\t\t225.1 | \n\t\t204.0 | \n\t\t275.3 | \n\t\t277.2 | \n\t\t250.2 | \n\t\t253.2 | \n\t\t270.4 | \n\t\t253.3 | \n\t\t258.4 | \n\t\t194.5 | \n\t\t131.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t202.6 | \n\t\t230.9 | \n\t\t243.4 | \n\t\t242.2 | \n\t\t303.7 | \n\t\t288.4 | \n\t\t218.5 | \n\t\t277.5 | \n\t\t252.1 | \n\t\t247.3 | \n\t\t238.5 | \n\t\t157.1 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t204.1 | \n\t\t155.8 | \n\t\t222.7 | \n\t\t246.7 | \n\t\t305.0 | \n\t\t280.3 | \n\t\t285.8 | \n\t\t189.8 | \n\t\t243.4 | \n\t\t248.1 | \n\t\t203.3 | \n\t\t140.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t174.9 | \n\t\t157.7 | \n\t\t194.1 | \n\t\t246.5 | \n\t\t281.1 | \n\t\t297.0 | \n\t\t272.1 | \n\t\t244.1 | \n\t\t224.0 | \n\t\t291.4 | \n\t\t235.0 | \n\t\t173.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t135.6 | \n\t\t227.8 | \n\t\t259.1 | \n\t\t214.2 | \n\t\t314.5 | \n\t\t303.0 | \n\t\t249.3 | \n\t\t272.6 | \n\t\t249.4 | \n\t\t227.3 | \n\t\t213.3 | \n\t\t137.8 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t171.1 | \n\t\t115.6 | \n\t\t169.0 | \n\t\t233.4 | \n\t\t250.4 | \n\t\t252.3 | \n\t\t295.9 | \n\t\t269.6 | \n\t\t271.2 | \n\t\t264.1 | \n\t\t216.2 | \n\t\t172.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t148.6 | \n\t\t156.1 | \n\t\t172.2 | \n\t\t256.5 | \n\t\t289.5 | \n\t\t---- | \n\t\t124.7 | \n\t\t148.6 | \n\t\t254.2 | \n\t\t222.2 | \n\t\t163.8 | \n\t\t124.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t213.4 | \n\t\t116.8 | \n\t\t211.3 | \n\t\t277.1 | \n\t\t249.5 | \n\t\t253.3 | \n\t\t287.1 | \n\t\t219.8 | \n\t\t198.1 | \n\t\t188.7 | \n\t\t134.1 | \n\t\t172.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t150.2 | \n\t\t173.8 | \n\t\t197.6 | \n\t\t255.1 | \n\t\t248.6 | \n\t\t248.6 | \n\t\t226.2 | \n\t\t221.2 | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 221.6 | \n\t\t177.8 | \n\t\t176.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t152.6 | \n\t\t155.3 | \n\t\t165.5 | \n\t\t204.8 | \n\t\t270.0 | \n\t\t241.9 | \n\t\t266.5 | \n\t\t247.5 | \n\t\t237.9 | \n\t\t232.8 | \n\t\t181.3 | \n\t\t158.8 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t | ||||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t213.3 | \n\t\t248.1 | \n\t\t240.8 | \n\t\t273.7 | \n\t\t364.1 | \n\t\t361.2 | \n\t\t330.0 | \n\t\t307.4 | \n\t\t297.8 | \n\t\t308.5 | \n\t\t241.6 | \n\t\t245.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t269.7 | \n\t\t207.8 | \n\t\t266.0 | \n\t\t261.6 | \n\t\t342.1 | \n\t\t303.1 | \n\t\t209.2 | \n\t\t315.4 | \n\t\t290.3 | \n\t\t287.2 | \n\t\t287.4 | \n\t\t249.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t238.5 | \n\t\t207.4 | \n\t\t242.0 | \n\t\t263.2 | \n\t\t330.7 | \n\t\t342.4 | \n\t\t300.6 | \n\t\t240.6 | \n\t\t281.7 | \n\t\t300.1 | \n\t\t243.3 | \n\t\t239.9 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t200.8 | \n\t\t194.0 | \n\t\t222.4 | \n\t\t128.3 | \n\t\t298.2 | \n\t\t320.0 | \n\t\t228.6 | \n\t\t270.1 | \n\t\t211.5 | \n\t\t294.7 | \n\t\t254.2 | \n\t\t233.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t200.8 | \n\t\t194.0 | \n\t\t255.0 | \n\t\t128.3 | \n\t\t262.2 | \n\t\t275.6 | \n\t\t270.3 | \n\t\t256.3 | \n\t\t237.5 | \n\t\t318.2 | \n\t\t294.5 | \n\t\t238.1 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t200.8 | \n\t\t194.0 | \n\t\t218.7 | \n\t\t128.3 | \n\t\t298.5 | \n\t\t328.6 | \n\t\t341.9 | \n\t\t333.4 | \n\t\t284.5 | \n\t\t313.3 | \n\t\t271.7 | \n\t\t264.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t216.0 | \n\t\t193.9 | \n\t\t251.8 | \n\t\t247.4 | \n\t\t341.9 | \n\t\t331.4 | \n\t\t312.7 | \n\t\t251.2 | \n\t\t307.7 | \n\t\t310.9 | \n\t\t221.4 | \n\t\t203.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t---- | \n\t\t200.0 | \n\t\t293.0 | \n\t\t319.0 | \n\t\t385.5 | \n\t\t331.5 | \n\t\t313.0 | \n\t\t341.5 | \n\t\t343.5 | \n\t\t335.0 | \n\t\t289.5 | \n\t\t270.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t171.0 | \n\t\t254.5 | \n\t\t279.0 | \n\t\t273.5 | \n\t\t359.0 | \n\t\t288.0 | \n\t\t323.0 | \n\t\t341.5 | \n\t\t328.0 | \n\t\t315.5 | \n\t\t289.0 | \n\t\t258.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t164.7 | \n\t\t255.9 | \n\t\t289.1 | \n\t\t320.6 | \n\t\t252.0 | \n\t\t252.0 | \n\t\t269.0. | \n\t\t372.0 | \n\t\t281.2 | \n\t\t309.5 | \n\t\t285.3 | \n\t\t247.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t | 177.8 | \n\t\t102.2 | \n\t\t258.4 | \n\t\t283.6 | \n\t\t318.2 | \n\t\t315.0 | \n\t\t298.6 | \n\t\t331.7 | \n\t\t312.0 | \n\t\t310.8 | \n\t\t259.6 | \n\t\t223.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t | ||||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t197 | \n\t\t242.4 | \n\t\t270.2 | \n\t\t285.3 | \n\t\t263.1 | \n\t\t234.6 | \n\t\t237.9 | \n\t\t306.6 | \n\t\t275.3 | \n\t\t292.8 | \n\t\t229.5 | \n\t\t222.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t193.6 | \n\t\t220.3 | \n\t\t293.7 | \n\t\t256.9 | \n\t\t249.2 | \n\t\t213.3 | \n\t\t253.2 | \n\t\t291.7 | \n\t\t278.9 | \n\t\t278.1 | \n\t\t246.5 | \n\t\t233.7 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t221.7 | \n\t\t200 | \n\t\t270.1 | \n\t\t253.6 | \n\t\t280 | \n\t\t261 | \n\t\t239.2 | \n\t\t265.8 | \n\t\t255.8 | \n\t\t275.8 | \n\t\t206.1 | \n\t\t219.7 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t187.6 | \n\t\t207.5 | \n\t\t228.6 | \n\t\t292.1 | \n\t\t277.1 | \n\t\t269 | \n\t\t224 | \n\t\t249.3 | \n\t\t252 | \n\t\t290.8 | \n\t\t228.7 | \n\t\t180.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t143.1 | \n\t\t207.7 | \n\t\t287.4 | \n\t\t227 | \n\t\t252.3 | \n\t\t240 | \n\t\t234.1 | \n\t\t222.4 | \n\t\t263.3 | \n\t\t236 | \n\t\t228.5 | \n\t\t205.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t214 | \n\t\t127.1 | \n\t\t248.1 | \n\t\t295.1 | \n\t\t284.3 | \n\t\t268.8 | \n\t\t266.5 | \n\t\t279.2 | \n\t\t268.6 | \n\t\t300.9 | \n\t\t252.2 | \n\t\t293.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t190.9 | \n\t\t161.3 | \n\t\t259.6 | \n\t\t278.3 | \n\t\t249.4 | \n\t\t265.8 | \n\t\t234 | \n\t\t244.2 | \n\t\t270.9 | \n\t\t259.7 | \n\t\t198.6 | \n\t\t214.4 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t233.3 | \n\t\t145.4 | \n\t\t250.3 | \n\t\t295 | \n\t\t245.6 | \n\t\t---- | \n\t\t---- | \n\t\t280.7 | \n\t\t262.3 | \n\t\t293.4 | \n\t\t222.5 | \n\t\t215.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t190.6 | \n\t\t221.2 | \n\t\t282.2 | \n\t\t273.9 | \n\t\t246.9 | \n\t\t246.9 | \n\t\t289.4 | \n\t\t227 | \n\t\t268.7 | \n\t\t253.4 | \n\t\t251.7 | \n\t\t180.7 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t208.9 | \n\t\t201.3 | \n\t\t239.4 | \n\t\t278.3 | \n\t\t298.3 | \n\t\t263.4 | \n\t\t218.5 | \n\t\t274.5 | \n\t\t272.3 | \n\t\t273 | \n\t\t172.6 | \n\t\t209.1 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||||||||||
\n\t\t | ||||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t263.0 | \n\t\t274.9 | \n\t\t282.6 | \n\t\t219.6 | \n\t\t309.8 | \n\t\t179.7 | \n\t\t197.7 | \n\t\t233.6 | \n\t\t248.4 | \n\t\t298.7 | \n\t\t275.4 | \n\t\t278.8 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t284.2 | \n\t\t254.1 | \n\t\t276.8 | \n\t\t291.2 | \n\t\t285.0 | \n\t\t158.5 | \n\t\t100.4 | \n\t\t192.4 | \n\t\t275.7 | \n\t\t296.5 | \n\t\t276.1 | \n\t\t263.8 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t271.2 | \n\t\t259.5 | \n\t\t273.7 | \n\t\t288.1 | \n\t\t303.3 | \n\t\t250.3 | \n\t\t187.5 | \n\t\t191.3 | \n\t\t282.2 | \n\t\t276.0 | \n\t\t260.8 | \n\t\t254.8 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t252.6 | \n\t\t240.2 | \n\t\t259.7 | \n\t\t288.0 | \n\t\t286.1 | \n\t\t222.2 | \n\t\t122.4 | \n\t\t202.1 | \n\t\t255.8 | \n\t\t250.0 | \n\t\t262.9 | \n\t\t247.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t263.0 | \n\t\t275.1 | \n\t\t313.2 | \n\t\t265.9 | \n\t\t273.6 | \n\t\t216.4 | \n\t\t199.3 | \n\t\t189.1 | \n\t\t271.1 | \n\t\t250.4 | \n\t\t260.6 | \n\t\t244.9 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t264.9 | \n\t\t209.1 | \n\t\t291.1 | \n\t\t295.1 | \n\t\t316.7 | \n\t\t293.1 | \n\t\t247.1 | \n\t\t259.0 | \n\t\t245.7 | \n\t\t310.6 | \n\t\t272.4 | \n\t\t272.6 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t262.8 | \n\t\t251.8 | \n\t\t289.1 | \n\t\t291.2 | \n\t\t308.1 | \n\t\t258.3 | \n\t\t144.8 | \n\t\t180.3 | \n\t\t271.5 | \n\t\t292.5 | \n\t\t265.0 | \n\t\t242.3 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t267.9 | \n\t\t251.4 | \n\t\t280.0 | \n\t\t323.4 | \n\t\t320.7 | \n\t\t260.2 | \n\t\t198.9 | \n\t\t247.0 | \n\t\t280.3 | \n\t\t313.5 | \n\t\t281.0 | \n\t\t264.5 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t230.1 | \n\t\t265.5 | \n\t\t291.7 | \n\t\t286.9 | \n\t\t293.3 | \n\t\t184.1 | \n\t\t151.6 | \n\t\t242.8 | \n\t\t249.6 | \n\t\t293.5 | \n\t\t277.9 | \n\t\t212.2 | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t233.0 | \n\t\t253.9 | \n\t\t296.2 | \n\t\t303.2 | \n\t\t301.8 | \n\t\t275.0 | \n\t\t233.0 | \n\t\t274.0 | \n\t\t290.7 | \n\t\t297.3 | \n\t\t259.6 | \n\t\t227.8 | \n\t
Sun Shine Hours Data[3]
Stability constant of the formation of metal complexes is used to measure interaction strength of reagents. From this process, metal ion and ligand interaction formed the two types of metal complexes; one is supramolecular complexes known as host-guest complexes [1] and the other is anion-containing complexes. In the solution it provides and calculates the required information about the concentration of metal complexes.
Solubility, light, absorption conductance, partitioning behavior, conductance, and chemical reactivity are the complex characteristics which are different from their components. It is determined by various numerical and graphical methods which calculate the equilibrium constants. This is based on or related to a quantity, and this is called the complex formation function.
During the displacement process at the time of metal complex formation, some ions disappear and form a bonding between metal ions and ligands. It may be considered due to displacement of a proton from a ligand species or ions or molecules causing a drop in the pH values of the solution [2]. Irving and Rossotti developed a technique for the calculation of stability constant, and it is called potentiometric technique.
To determine the stability constant, Bjerrum has used a very simple method, and that is metal salt solubility method. For the studies of a larger different variety of polycarboxylic acid-, oxime-, phenol-containing metal complexes, Martel and Calvin used the potentiometric technique for calculating the stability constant. Those ligands [3, 4] which are uncharged are also examined, and their stability constant calculations are determined by the limitations inherent in the ligand solubility method. The limitations of the metal salt solubility method and the result of solubility methods are compared with this. M-L, MLM, and (M3) L are some types of examples of metal-ligand bonding. One thing is common, and that is these entire types metal complexes all have one ligand.
The solubility method can only usefully be applied to studies of such complexes, and it is best applied for ML; in such types of system, only ML is formed. Jacqueline Gonzalez and his co-worker propose to explore the coordination chemistry of calcium complexes. Jacqueline and et al. followed this technique for evaluate the as partial model of the manganese-calcium cluster and spectrophotometric studies of metal complexes, i.e., they were carried calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine in acetonitrile and calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine by them.
Spectrophotometric programming of HypSpec and received data allows the determination of the formation of solubility constants. The logarithmic values, log β110 = 5.25 for calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine, log β110 = 4.072 for calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine, and log β110 = 4.69 for calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, are obtained for the formation constants [5]. The structure of Cimetidine and histamine H2-receptor is a chelating agent. Syed Ahmad Tirmizi has examined Ni(II) cimetidine complex spectrophotometrically and found an absorption peak maximum of 622 nm with respect to different temperatures.
Syed Ahmad Tirmizi have been used to taken 1:2 ratio of metal and cimetidine compound for the formation of metal complex and this satisfied by molar ratio data. The data, 1.40–2.4 × 108, was calculated using the continuous variation method and stability constant at room temperature, and by using the mole ratio method, this value at 40°C was 1.24–2.4 × 108. In the formation of lead(II) metal complexes with 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexene, Thanavelan et al. found the formation of their binary and ternary complexes. Glycine, l-proline, l-alanine, l-isoleucine, l-valine, and l-leucine are α-amino acids, and these are important biologically [6]. These α-amino acids are also investigated by potentiometric technique at 32°C. The mixed ligands were also studied using these methods. 50% (v/v) DMSO-water medium used for the determination of acidity constants and their stability constants these type ligands. In a stepwise manner, the ternary complexes were synthesized.
Using the stability constant method, these ternary complexes were found out, and using the parameters such as Δ log
The above acids (gallic and aliphatic dicarboxylic acid) were taken to determine the acidity constants. For the purpose of determining the stability constant, binary and ternary complexes were carried in the aqueous medium using the experimental conditions as stated above. The potentiometric pH-metric titration curves are inferred for the binary complexes and ternary complexes at different ratios, and formation of ternary metal complex formation was in a stepwise manner that provided an easy way to calculate stability constants for the formation of metal complexes.
The values of Δ log
A study by Kathrina and Pekar suggests that pH plays an important role in the formation of metal complexes. When epigallocatechin gallate and gallic acid combine with copper(II) to form metal complexes, the pH changes its speculation. We have been able to determine its pH in frozen and fluid state with the help of multifrequency EPR spectroscopy [8]. With the help of this spectroscopy, it is able to detect that each polyphenol exhibits the formation of three different mononuclear species. If the pH ranges 4–8 for di- or polymeric complex of Cu(II), then it conjectures such metal complexes. It is only at alkaline pH values.
The line width in fluid solutions by molecular motion exhibits an incomplete average of the parameters of anisotropy spin Hamilton. If the complexes are different, then their rotational correlation times for this also vary. The analysis of the LyCEP anisotropy of the fluid solution spectra is performed using the parameters determined by the simulation of the rigid boundary spectra. Its result suggests that pH increases its value by affecting its molecular mass. It is a polyphenol ligand complex with copper, showing the coordination of an increasing number of its molecules or increasing participation of polyphenol dimers used as ligands in the copper coordination region.
The study by Vishenkova and his co-worker [8] provides the investigation of electrochemical properties of triphenylmethane dyes using a voltammetric method with constant-current potential sweep. Malachite green (MG) and basic fuchsin (BF) have been chosen as representatives of the triphenylmethane dyes [9]. The electrochemical behavior of MG and BF on the surface of a mercury film electrode depending on pH, the nature of background electrolyte, and scan rate of potential sweep has been investigated.
Using a voltammetric method with a constant-current potential sweep examines the electrical properties of triphenylmethane dye. In order to find out the solution of MG and BF, certain registration conditions have been prescribed for it, which have proved to be quite useful. The reduction peak for the currents of MG and BF has demonstrated that it increases linearly with respect to their concentration as 9.0 × 10−5–7.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for MG and 6.0 × 10−5–8.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for BF and correlation coefficients of these values are 0.9987 for MG and 0.9961 for BF [10].
5.0 × 10−5 and 2.0 × 10−5 mol/dm3 are the values used as the detection limit of MG and BF, respectively. Stability constants are a very useful technique whose size is huge. Due to its usefulness, it has acquired an umbrella right in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. No science subject is untouched by this. Stability constants of metal complexes are widely used in the various areas like pharmaceuticals as well as biological processes, separation techniques, analytical processes, etc. In the presented chapter, we have tried to explain this in detail by focusing our attention on the applications and solutions of stability of metal complexes in solution.
Stability or formation or binding constant is the type of equilibrium constant used for the formation of metal complexes in the solution. Acutely, stability constant is applicable to measure the strength of interactions between the ligands and metal ions that are involved in complex formation in the solution [11]. A generally these 1-4 equations are expressed as the following ways:
Thus
K1, K2, K3, … Kn are the equilibrium constants and these are also called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the metal-ligand-n complex may also be expressed as equilibrium constants by the following steps:
The parameters K and β are related together, and these are expressed in the following example:
Now the numerator and denominator are multiplied together with the use of [metal-ligand] [metal-ligand2], and after the rearranging we get the following equation:
Now we expressed it as the following:
From the above relation, it is clear that the overall stability constant βn is equal to the product of the successive (i.e., stepwise) stability constants, K1, K2, K3,…Kn. This in other words means that the value of stability constants for a given complex is actually made up of a number of stepwise stability constants. The term stability is used without qualification to mean that the complex exists under a suitable condition and that it is possible to store the complex for an appreciable amount of time. The term stability is commonly used because coordination compounds are stable in one reagent but dissociate or dissolve in the presence of another regent. It is also possible that the term stability can be referred as an action of heat or light or compound. The stability of complex [13] is expressed qualitatively in terms of thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability.
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is a state in which the concentration of reactants and products does not change over time. Often this condition occurs when the speed of forward reaction becomes the same as the speed of reverse reaction. It is worth noting that the velocities of the forward and backward reaction are not zero at this stage but are equal.
If hydrogen and iodine are kept together in molecular proportions in a closed process vessel at high temperature (500°C), the following action begins:
In this activity, hydrogen iodide is formed by combining hydrogen and iodine, and the amount of hydrogen iodide increases with time. In contrast to this action, if the pure hydrogen iodide gas is heated to 500°C in the reaction, the compound is dissolved by reverse action, which causes hydrogen iodide to dissolve into hydrogen and iodine, and the ratio of these products increases over time. This is expressed in the following reaction:
For the formation of metal chelates, the thermodynamic technique provides a very significant information. Thermodynamics is a very useful technique in distinguishing between enthalpic effects and entropic effects. The bond strengths are totally effected by enthalpic effect, and this does not make any difference in the whole solution in order/disorder. Based on thermodynamics the chelate effect below can be best explained. The change of standard Gibbs free energy for equilibrium constant is response:
Where:
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
At 25°C,
ΔG = (− 5.708 kJ mol−1) · log β.
The enthalpy term creates free energy, i.e.,
For metal complexes, thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability are two interpretations of the stability constant in the solution. If reaction moves from reactants to products, it refers to a change in its energy as shown in the above equation. But for the reactivity, kinetic stability is responsible for this system, and this refers to ligand species [14].
Stable and unstable are thermodynamic terms, while labile and inert are kinetic terms. As a rule of thumb, those complexes which react completely within about 1 minute at 25°C are considered labile, and those complexes which take longer time than this to react are considered inert. [Ni(CN)4]2− is thermodynamically stable but kinetically inert because it rapidly exchanges ligands.
The metal complexes [Co(NH3)6]3+ and such types of other complexes are kinetically inert, but these are thermodynamically unstable. We may expect the complex to decompose in the presence of acid immediately because the complex is thermodynamically unstable. The rate is of the order of 1025 for the decomposition in acidic solution. Hence, it is thermodynamically unstable. However, nothing happens to the complex when it is kept in acidic solution for several days. While considering the stability of a complex, always the condition must be specified. Under what condition, the complex which is stable or unstable must be specified such as acidic and also basic condition, temperature, reactant, etc.
A complex may be stable with respect to a particular condition but with respect to another. In brief, a stable complex need not be inert and similarly, and an unstable complex need not be labile. It is the measure of extent of formation or transformation of complex under a given set of conditions at equilibrium [15].
Thermodynamic stability has an important role in determining the bond strength between metal ligands. Some complexes are stable, but as soon as they are introduced into aqueous solution, it is seen that these complexes have an effect on stability and fall apart. For an example, we take the [Co (SCN)4]2+ complex. The ion bond of this complex is very weak and breaks down quickly to form other compounds. But when [Fe(CN)6]3− is dissolved in water, it does not test Fe3+ by any sensitive reagent, which shows that this complex is more stable in aqueous solution. So it is indicated that thermodynamic stability deals with metal-ligand bond energy, stability constant, and other thermodynamic parameters.
This example also suggests that thermodynamic stability refers to the stability and instability of complexes. The measurement of the extent to which one type of species is converted to another species can be determined by thermodynamic stability until equilibrium is achieved. For example, tetracyanonickelate is a thermodynamically stable and kinetic labile complex. But the example of hexa-amine cobalt(III) cation is just the opposite:
Thermodynamics is used to express the difference between stability and inertia. For the stable complex, large positive free energies have been obtained from ΔG0 reaction. The ΔH0, standard enthalpy change for this reaction, is related to the equilibrium constant, βn, by the well thermodynamic equation:
For similar complexes of various ions of the same charge of a particular transition series and particular ligand, ΔS0 values would not differ substantially, and hence a change in ΔH0 value would be related to change in βn values. So the order of values of ΔH0 is also the order of the βn value.
Kinetic stability is referred to the rate of reaction between the metal ions and ligand proceeds at equilibrium or used for the formation of metal complexes. To take a decision for kinetic stability of any complexes, time is a factor which plays an important role for this. It deals between the rate of reaction and what is the mechanism of this metal complex reaction.
As we discuss above in thermodynamic stability, kinetic stability is referred for the complexes at which complex is inert or labile. The term “inert” was used by Tube for the thermally stable complex and for reactive complexes the term ‘labile’ used [16]. The naturally occurring chlorophyll is the example of polydentate ligand. This complex is extremely inert due to exchange of Mg2+ ion in the aqueous media.
The nature of central atom of metal complexes, dimension, its degree of oxidation, electronic structure of these complexes, and so many other properties of complexes are affected by the stability constant. Some of the following factors described are as follows.
In the coordination chemistry, metal complexes are formed by the interaction between metal ions and ligands. For these type of compounds, metal ions are the coordination center, and the ligand or complexing agents are oriented surrounding it. These metal ions mostly are the transition elements. For the determination of stability constant, some important characteristics of these metal complexes may be as given below.
Ligands are oriented around the central metal ions in the metal complexes. The sizes of these metal ions determine the number of ligand species that will be attached or ordinated (dative covalent) in the bond formation. If the sizes of these metal ions are increased, the stability of coordination compound defiantly decreased. Zn(II) metal ions are the central atoms in their complexes, and due to their lower size (0.74A°) as compared to Cd(II) size (0.97A°), metal ions are formed more stable.
Hence, Al3+ ion has the greatest nuclear charge, but its size is the smallest, and the ion N3− has the smallest nuclear charge, and its size is the largest [17]. Inert atoms like neon do not participate in the formation of the covalent or ionic compound, and these atoms are not included in isoelectronic series; hence, it is not easy to measure the radius of this type of atoms.
The properties of stability depend on the size of the metal ion used in the complexes and the total charge thereon. If the size of these metal ions is small and the total charge is high, then their complexes will be more stable. That is, their ratio will depend on the charge/radius. This can be demonstrated through the following reaction:
An ionic charge is the electric charge of an ion which is formed by the gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons from an atom or group of atoms. If we talk about the stability of the coordination compounds, we find that the total charge of their central metal ions affects their stability, so when we change their charge, their stability in a range of constant can be determined by propagating of error [18]. If the charge of the central metal ion is high and the size is small, the stability of the compound is high:
In general, the most stable coordination bonds can cause smaller and highly charged rations to form more stable coordination compounds.
When an electron pair attracts a central ion toward itself, a strong stability complex is formed, and this is due to electron donation from ligand → metal ion. This donation process is increasing the bond stability of metal complexes exerted the polarizing effect on certain metal ions. Li+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, etc. are such type of metal cation which is not able to attract so strongly from a highly electronegative containing stable complexes, and these atoms are O, N, F, Au, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, and Pb. Such type of ligands that contains P, S, As, Br and I atom are formed stable complex because these accepts electron from M → π-bonding. Hg2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, and Bi3+ metal ions are also electronegative ions which form insoluble salts of metal sulfide which are insoluble in aqueous medium.
Volatile ligands may be lost at higher temperature. This is exemplified by the loss of water by hydrates and ammonia:
The transformation of certain coordination compounds from one to another is shown as follows:
A ligand is an ion or small molecule that binds to a metal atom (in chemistry) or to a biomolecule (in biochemistry) to form a complex, such as the iron-cyanide coordination complex Prussian blue or the iron-containing blood-protein hemoglobin. The ligands are arranged in spectrochemical series which are based on the order of their field strength. It is not possible to form the entire series by studying complexes with a single metal ion; the series has been developed by overlapping different sequences obtained from spectroscopic studies [19]. The order of common ligands according to their increasing ligand field strength is
The above spectrochemical series help us to for determination of strength of ligands. The left last ligand is as weaker ligand. These weaker ligand cannot forcible binding the 3d electron and resultant outer octahedral complexes formed. It is as-
Increasing the oxidation number the value of Δ increased.
Δ increases from top to bottom.
However, when we consider the metal ion, the following two useful trends are observed:
Δ increases with increasing oxidation number.
Δ increases down a group. For the determination of stability constant, the nature of the ligand plays an important role.
The following factors described the nature of ligands.
The size and charge are two factors that affect the production of metal complexes. The less charges and small sizes of ligands are more favorable for less stable bond formation with metal and ligand. But if this condition just opposite the product of metal and ligand will be a more stable compound. So, less nuclear charge and more size= less stable complex whereas if more nuclear charge and small in size= less stable complex. We take fluoride as an example because due to their smaller size than other halide and their highest electro negativity than the other halides formed more stable complexes. So, fluoride ion complexes are more stable than the other halides:
As compared to S2− ion, O22− ions formed more stable complexes.
It is suggested by Calvin and Wilson that the metal complexes will be more stable if the basic character or strength of ligands is higher. It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high [20].
It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high. In the case of complex formation of aliphatic diamines and aromatic diamines, the stable complex is formed by aliphatic diamines, while an unstable coordination complex is formed with aromatic diamines. So, from the above discussion, we find that the stability will be grater if the e-donation power is greater.
Thus it is clear that greater basic power of electron-donating species will form always a stable complex. NH3, CN−, and F− behaved as ligands and formed stable complexes; on the other hand, these are more basic in nature.
We know that if the concentration of coordination group is higher, these coordination compounds will exist in the water as solution. It is noted that greater coordinating tendency show the water molecules than the coordinating group which is originally present. SCN− (thiocynate) ions are present in higher concentration; with the Co2+ metal ion, it formed a blue-colored complex which is stable in state, but on dilution of water medium, a pink color is generated in place of blue, or blue color complex is destroyed by [Co(H2O)6]2+, and now if we added further SCN−, the pink color will not appear:
Now it is clear that H2O and SCN− are in competition for the formation of Co(II) metal-containing complex compound. In the case of tetra-amine cupric sulfate metal complex, ammonia acts as a donor atom or ligand. If the concentration of NH3 is lower in the reaction, copper hydroxide is formed but at higher concentration formed tetra-amine cupric sulfate as in the following reaction:
For a metal ion, chelating ligand is enhanced and affinity it and this is known as chelate effect and compared it with non-chelating and monodentate ligand or the multidentate ligand is acts as chelating agent. Ethylenediamine is a simple chelating agent (Figure 1).
Structure of ethylenediamine.
Due to the bidentate nature of ethylenediamine, it forms two bonds with metal ion or central atom. Water forms a complex with Ni(II) metal ion, but due to its monodentate nature, it is not a chelating ligand (Figures 2 and 3).
Structure of chelating configuration of ethylenediamine ligand.
Structure of chelate with three ethylenediamine ligands.
The dentate cheater of ligand provides bonding strength to the metal ion or central atom, and as the number of dentate increased, the tightness also increased. This phenomenon is known as chelating effect, whereas the formation of metal complexes with these chelating ligands is called chelation:
or
Some factors are of much importance for chelation as follows.
The sizes of the chelating ring are increased as well as the stability of metal complex decreased. According to Schwarzenbach, connecting bridges form the chelating rings. The elongated ring predominates when long bridges connect to the ligand to form a long ring. It is usually observed that an increased a chelate ring size leads to a decrease in complex stability.
He interpreted this statement. The entropy of complex will be change if the size of chelating ring is increased, i.e., second donor atom is allowed by the chelating ring. As the size of chelating ring increased, the stability should be increased with entropy effect. Four-membered ring compounds are unstable, whereas five-membered are more stable. So the chelating ring increased its size and the stability of the formed metal complexes.
The number of chelating rings also decides the stability of complexes. Non-chelating metal compounds are less stable than chelating compounds. These numbers increase the thermodynamic volume, and this is also known as an entropy term. In recent years ligands capable of occupying as many as six coordination positions on a single metal ion have been described. The studies on the formation constants of coordination compounds with these ligands have been reported. The numbers of ligand or chelating agents are affecting the stability of metal complexes so as these numbers go up and down, the stability will also vary with it.
For the Ni(II) complexes with ethylenediamine as chelating agent, its log K1 value is 7.9 and if chelating agents are trine and penten, then the log K1 values are 7.9 and 19.3, respectively. If the metal ion change Zn is used in place of Ni (II), then the values of log K1 for ethylenediamine, trine, and penten are 6.0, 12.1, and 16.2, respectively. The log βMY values of metal ions are given in Table 1.
Metal ion | log βMY (25°C, I = 0.1 M) |
---|---|
Ca2+ | 11.2 |
Cu2+ | 19.8 |
Fe3+ | 24.9 |
Metal ion vs. log βMY values.
Ni(NH3)62+ is an octahedral metal complex, and at 25 °C its log β6 value is 8.3, but Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ complex is also octahedral in geometry, with 18.4 as the value of log β6. The calculated stability value of Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ 1010 times is more stable because three rings are formed as chelating rings by ethylenediamine as compared to no such ring is formed. Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) is a hexadentate ligand that usually formed stable metal complexes due to its chelating power.
A special effect in molecules is when the atoms occupy space. This is called steric effect. Energy is needed to bring these atoms closer to each other. These electrons run away from near atoms. There can be many ways of generating it. We know the repulsion between valence electrons as the steric effect which increases the energy of the current system [21]. Favorable or unfavorable any response is created.
For example, if the static effect is greater than that of a product in a metal complex formation process, then the static increase would favor this reaction. But if the case is opposite, the skepticism will be toward retardation.
This effect will mainly depend on the conformational states, and the minimum steric interaction theory can also be considered. The effect of secondary steric is seen on receptor binding produced by an alternative such as:
Reduced access to a critical group.
Stick barrier.
Electronic resonance substitution bond by repulsion.
Population of a conformer changes due to active shielding effect.
The macrocyclic effect is exactly like the image of the chelate effect. It means the principle of both is the same. But the macrocyclic effect suggests cyclic deformation of the ligand. Macrocyclic ligands are more tainted than chelating agents. Rather, their compounds are more stable due to their cyclically constrained constriction. It requires some entropy in the body to react with the metal ion. For example, for a tetradentate cyclic ligand, we can use heme-B which forms a metal complex using Fe+2 ions in biological systems (Figure 4).
Structure of hemoglobin is the biological complex compound which contains Fe(II) metal ion.
The n-dentate chelating agents play an important role for the formation of more stable metal complexes as compared to n-unidentate ligands. But the n-dentate macrocyclic ligand gives more stable environment in the metal complexes as compared to open-chain ligands. This change is very favorable for entropy (ΔS) and enthalpy (ΔH) change.
There are so many parameters to determination of formation constants or stability constant in solution for all types of chelating agents. These numerous parameters or techniques are refractive index, conductance, temperature, distribution coefficients, refractive index, nuclear magnetic resonance volume changes, and optical activity.
Solubility products are helpful and used for the insoluble salt that metal ions formed and complexes which are also formed by metal ions and are more soluble. The formation constant is observed in presence of donor atoms by measuring increased solubility.
To determine the solubility constant, it involves the distribution of the ligands or any complex species; metal ions are present in two immiscible solvents like water and carbon tetrachloride, benzene, etc.
In this method metal ions or ligands are present in solution and on exchanger. A solid polymers containing with positive and negative ions are ion exchange resins. These are insoluble in nature. This technique is helpful to determine the metal ions in resin phase, liquid phase, or even in radioactive metal. This method is also helpful to determine the polarizing effect of metal ions on the stability of ligands like Cu(II) and Zn(II) with amino acid complex formation.
At the equilibrium free metal and ions are present in the solution, and using the different electrometric techniques as described determines its stability constant.
This method is based upon the titration method or follows its principle. A stranded acid-base solution used as titrate and which is titrated, it may be strong base or strong acid follows as potentiometrically. The concentration of solution using 103− M does not decomposed during the reaction process, and this method is useful for protonated and nonprotonated ligands.
This is the graphic method used to determine the stability constant in producing metal complex formation by plotting a polarograph between the absences of substances and the presence of substances. During the complex formation, the presence of metal ions produced a shift in the half-wave potential in the solution.
If a complex is relatively slow to form and also decomposes at measurable rate, it is possible, in favorable situations, to determine the equilibrium constant.
This involves the study of the equilibrium constant of slow complex formation reactions. The use of tracer technique is extremely useful for determining the concentrations of dissociation products of the coordination compound.
This method is based on the study of the effect of an equilibrium concentration of some ions on the function at a definite organ of a living organism. The equilibrium concentration of the ion studied may be determined by the action of this organ in systems with complex formation.
The solution of 25 ml is adopted by preparing at the 1.0 × 10−5 M ligand or 1.0 × 10−5 M concentration and 1.0 × 10−5 M for the metal ion:
The solutions containing the metal ions were considered both at a pH sufficiently high to give almost complete complexation and at a pH value selected in order to obtain an equilibrium system of ligand and complexes.
In order to avoid modification of the spectral behavior of the ligand due to pH variations, it has been verified that the range of pH considered in all cases does not affect absorbance values. Use the collected pH values adopted for the determinations as well as selected wavelengths. The ionic strengths calculated from the composition of solutions allowed activity coefficient corrections. Absorbance values were determined at wavelengths in the range 430–700 nm, every 2 nm.
For a successive metal complex formation, use this method. If ligand is protonate and the produced complex has maximum number of donate atoms of ligands, a selective light is absorbed by this complex, while for determination of stability constant, it is just known about the composition of formed species.
Bjerrum (1941) used the method stepwise addition of the ligands to coordination sphere for the formation of complex. So, complex metal–ligand-n forms as the following steps [22]. The equilibrium constants, K1, K2, K3, … Kn are called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the complex metal-ligandn may also be expressed by the following steps and equilibrium constants.
Where:
M = central metal cation
L = monodentate ligand
N = maximum coordination number for the metal ion M for the ligand
If a complex ion is slow to reach equilibrium, it is often possible to apply the method of isotopic dilution to determine the equilibrium concentration of one or more of the species. Most often radioactive isotopes are used.
This method was extensively used by Werner and others to study metal complexes. In the case of a series of complexes of Co(III) and Pt(IV), Werner assigned the correct formulae on the basis of their molar conductance values measured in freshly prepared dilute solutions. In some cases, the conductance of the solution increased with time due to a chemical change, e.g.,
It is concluded that the information presented is very important to determine the stability constant of the ligand metal complexes. Some methods like spectrophotometric method, Bjerrum’s method, distribution method, ion exchange method, electrometric techniques, and potentiometric method have a huge contribution in quantitative analysis by easily finding the stability constants of metal complexes in aqueous solutions.
All the authors thank the Library of University of Delhi for reference books, journals, etc. which helped us a lot in reviewing the chapter.
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