Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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1. Introduction
Brazil recorded 4691 flood events between 1991 and 2012, which represent 12% of all natural hazards in the country. In the Amazon, floods affected around 2379 people [1]. However, rivers are a fundamental component of Amazon life. Many highly populated cities are located along the major rivers and floodplains on the Amazon and Tocantins river basins, which together house over five billion inhabitants [2] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Study area showing the hydrographic networks and the pattern of the cities located nearby important rivers in the northern Amazon region.
Risk is a function of the probability that a particular hazard (such as flooding) might take place and the vulnerability of a particular location to being negatively affected by that hazard [3]. The likelihood of floods generating damage when river water overflows a river bank is a risk. Impacts are the generally negative effects of a hazard taking place in a given locale. Impacts vary from immaterial to material losses across cities such as individuals and families losing their homes and other dwellings, or losing access to such dwellings.
Included among material damages in urban areas are the destruction of public and private infrastructures, disruption of normal traffic flow, and reduction of accessibility to various locations and city spaces [4]. In rural areas, impacts include disruption of agricultural production, depopulation because of migration to the cities, and inflation of food prices at the local markets due to damage or destruction of crops near the floodplains. Small farming communities are particularly susceptible to extreme flood events because of the lack of adequate infrastructure for transporting people and their goods to industrial and commercial centers, the lack of information about extreme weather events at the community level, and the lack of sufficient economic resources to endure the effects of prolonged environmental catastrophes [5].
Since 2012, mapping flood risks has been one of the objectives of the National Program for Risk Management and Response to Disasters. Program priorities include investments in preventing, providing alerts for, monitoring, and responding to natural hazards. The program goal is to reduce the negative impacts of natural calamities on populations that live in risk-prone areas and guarantee the safety of communities from these calamities [6].
Therefore, response actions need precise physical aspects. Flood-hazard background information prioritizes the measures of frequency and magnitude of severe flooding, as well as the hydrodynamic and climatic scenarios [7, 8]. Response actions focus on the use of geoscience data and on structural engineering measures [9].
Another way to reduce risk is investments in prevention. Examples are the expansion of monitoring and warning systems, systematic mapping of high-risk areas [6], and preparation of vulnerability assessments. Vulnerability depends on the scale, time, and space units of analyses such as individuals, households, regional areas, and system-wide conditions [10]. Vulnerability definitions vary according to research approach and methodologies.
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR) defines vulnerability as the combination of physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes that increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards [11]. The use of indicators is a common approach for vulnerability measurement [12, 13]. At a national scale, the social aspect of vulnerability displays higher levels of negative indicators for the Amazon region when compared to cities in the south-western region of Brazil [14].
2. Flood hazards in the Amazon region
Floods occur in the Amazon and Tocantins river basins in the northern region of Brazil. The Amazon river basin has flood water levels variability between 2 and 18 m [15]. The Amazon river receives the discharge of other big rivers (e.g., Negro and Tapajós), and floods occur periodically depending on the seasonal rainfall for each river. Floods usually occur in June for the Amazonas, Branco, and Negro rivers. At the Macapá station, tidal influences mean that river seasonality is barely noticeable throughout the year (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Historical river-level fluctuations (in cm) for the Amazon, Negro, and Branco rivers and their northern tributaries.
The historical data series varies according to the station. The water-level data from stream gauging stations cover 112 years at Manaus (1902–2014); 48 years at Boa Vista (1967–2015), Barcelos (1967–2015), Rio Branco (1967–2015), and Madeira (1967–2015); 39 years at Macapá (1976–2015) and São Felix (1977–2016); and 20 years at Baião (1971–1991). Some of the stations have been deactivated [16].
On many southern rivers and tributaries, water levels remain high during the first semester. Highest river stages occur during February and March, and there are more incidences of floods during this period (Figure 3). Flooding in the Tocantins river basin is limited to its eastern area with the Tocantins river being the main tributary that reaches a 10-m water level.
Figure 3.
Historical river-level fluctuations (in cm) for the Acre, Madeira, Tocantins, and Xingu rivers.
In 2009, the Amazon river basin experienced extreme flooding. At the Manaus station of the Negro river, the water level reached 29.75 m, the highest mark in 107 years since stage data became available [8]. At the reference point of the Obidos gauge station, the river reached 8.42 m. For the Tapajós river (Santarém station), the highest water-level mark was 8.31 m [4].
A complex combination of factors contributed to these recent extreme-hazard events; namely, large- and regional-scale climatic events, unusual flood mechanisms that produced complex interactions in time and space between the main system and its tributaries [7, 8], and recent urban growth without adequate planning. Long-term climate models show extreme precipitation events over the Amazon region [17].
Landsat and shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) data were used to define aspects of the morphologies of the fluvial systems in the Amazon and to construct the corresponding hydrodynamic models for these systems [18, 19]. Nevertheless, detailed geomorphologic maps that are fundamental to refining the fluvial models were not available [20]. For downscaling analysis, susceptibility maps for floods at 1:50,000 scale became available for some municipalities since 2013 [21]. The analysis covers 23 urban municipalities covering respective areas that have high, moderate, and low susceptibility to flooding. The methodological approach includes hypsometric, declivity, geomorphological, and drainage analyses [22–24]. Currently available status-of-susceptibility flood maps include 18 municipalities from Pará, 2 from Amapá, and 1 each from Acre, Rondônia, and Roraima.
The National Water Agency produced a flood-hazard atlas considering the frequency of floods and the impacts probability associated with each part of the river. The flood frequency corresponds to 5, 10, or more years of recurrence intervals, and the impact was measured according to the damage extension. The results aggregate the flood severity assessment according to international terminologies [25].
In total, 68 different rivers were integrated in the analysis and 4756 km of river extension is considered with high impacts and frequencies to flooding (Table 1). The percentage for river high-hazard stretches are 27% for Acre, 30% for Amapá, 16% for Amazonas, 10% for Pará, 37% for Roraima, and 31% for Rondônia. The map is at national scale displaying areas with low, medium, and high impact frequencies [26] (Figure 4).
State/flood-hazard stretch (km)
Low
Medium
High
Acre
3014
1241
1599
Amapá
7
819
362
Amazonas
690
7037
1555
Pará
1034
6304
813
Roraima
38
120
96
Rondônia
98
625
331
Total
4881
16146
4756
Table 1.
Flood hazard stretches for rivers in the Amazon region grouped according to state.
Figure 4.
Flood map with parts of the river more susceptible to floods and impacts based on ANA data.
3. Vulnerability in the Amazon
Vulnerability is multidimensional and refers to social, economic, environmental, and physical categories [11]. Socio-economic vulnerability often describes the characteristics of people or groups of peoples [27]. Environmental vulnerability refers to natural-resources depletion and degradation [28]. Physical vulnerability refers to the susceptibility of particular locations to particular hazards and therefore represents the civilian infrastructure of a given place.
To deal with diverse research frameworks, the index of methodologies links natural-hazard risks and vulnerabilities. This means that when an extreme event leads to impacts, the latter is determined by the hazards aspect and by the respective vulnerabilities of communities, societal groups, or civilian infrastructures to such impacts [29].
Quantifying social vulnerability using various indicators can help identify which places are most vulnerable and which dimensions of social vulnerability are most relevant and therefore constitute the key drivers for change [30]. The Amazon region has 41% of its municipalities that are considered to have high social vulnerability. The analysis considered urban infrastructure, human capital, incomes, and work status as indicators [31]. This high percentage signifies a very low to medium-low Human Development Index (HDI) rating for rural and urban areas in the Amazon [32].
For a specific natural-hazard assessment, the Amazon region also has a very high social-vulnerability index. The indicators were (among others) gender, race and ethnicity, employment loss, social dependency, and migration rate [14]. Vulnerability to floods in rural communities is determined based on residency patterns, access to fishing and planting grounds, access to transportation and markets, water quantity and quality, and the prevalence of infectious diseases [33].
In large cities in the Amazon estuary, vulnerability was measured considering indicators of exposure (places and people located at hazardous areas), socio-economic situation, and condition of civilian infrastructure in terms of the availability and quality of sanitation services and housing structures (Figure 5). In these urban spaces, around 37,000 people live under very high-vulnerability conditions and 988,000 people live under high-vulnerability conditions [34].
Figure 5.
The first and second photos showing Manaus (Amazonas state) infrastructure livelihood patterns and structural measures for accessibility in the central areas during the 2012 flood (photos in clockwise direction: CPRM, 2012). Santarem city (Pará state) during the 2012 flood showing wooden bridges and a view taken from the dike in front of the city during the 2009 flood (photos in clockwise direction: Milena Andrade 2012, Santarém Civil Defense 2009).
Previous studies compiled for several locations along the Amazon coast in Pará state utilized vulnerability indices in addition to spatial information on floods and storm surges related to climate change and structural vulnerabilities [35]. Downscaling studies in vulnerability use methodological approaches based on the social-vulnerability index and an index on responses to hazards [36], on a methodological approach for community participation in flood mapping [4], and on a hazard-response identification scheme for urban planning for natural disasters issues [37].
An effective vulnerability reduction plan should include adaptive capacity assessments. The human capacity to prepare for, respond to, and recover from natural disasters highlights local characteristics and situations [12, 38]. The structural and nonstructural measures for coping with hazards result from adaptive capacity. Pilot local-scale studies in the Amazon take into account qualitative variables and the influence of community participation in vulnerability assessments. These studies identify local knowledge as fundamentally important in coping and adaptation strategies and vulnerability reduction [4, 39].
4. Sectors of risk in the Amazon
The Geological Service of Brazil (CPRM) is responsible for mapping flood hazard-risk areas following the prevention criteria in the National Plan for Management and Response for Natural Hazards. The selection criteria for mapping emergency areas included the numbers of fatal victims and affected people, decreed state or level of emergency and calamity, and the official assistance requests from municipalities [40]. Between 2012 and 2016, CPRM mapped 1206 municipalities all over Brazil, of which 140 are located in the Amazon region.
Considering Pará, Amazonas, Acre, Rondônia, and Roraima states, around 180,000 people live within 418 risk sectors inside 99 municipalities with either high or very high risk of flooding [6] (Figures 6 and 7).
Figure 6.
Graph of numbers of people in risk sectors of Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, Acre, and Roraima states.
Figure 7.
Sectors of risk in Epitaciolândia (Acre state) during the 2015 flood and Marabá City (Pará state) during the 2011 flood (photos in clockwise direction: Epitaciolândia and Marabá Civil Defense, respectively).
To delineate the risk sectors, the methodology included previous classifications was proposed in Refs. [41–43]. Some adaptations were necessary for the risk sectors in the Amazon region that considered the following situations: a riverine community’s location within a large floodplain, local water-level historical observations in existing infrastructures, lack of drainage and sanitation systems, household infrastructure fragility to flood effects (for wooden or brick houses), and measures of material and immaterial losses [6]. Very high-risk and high-risk areas were prioritized in the sector-mapping program because of the immediate need to prevent fatalities in these areas during hazard emergencies (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Map of municipalities in very high-risk and high-risk areas that are prone to flooding, according to CPRM data.
A very high-risk designation corresponds to a drainage with a high frequency (at least three events in the last 5 years) of flooding and a very high-damage probability because of the presence of vulnerable structures. High risk corresponds to a drainage with a moderate frequency (at least one event in the last 5 years) of flooding and a high-damage probability because of the presence of vulnerable household structures. Moderate risk corresponds to a moderate frequency (at least one event in the last 5 years) and low susceptibilities of structures to flood damage. Low risk corresponds to the absence of flood events in the last 5 years and the absence or presence of structures with low susceptibility to flood damage [43].
5. Conclusions
This study presented the developments in flood-risk mapping in the Amazon region. Flood-risk mapping projects are mostly by the national program for disaster reduction and counts on the support of national institutions. The effort to reach a nationwide methodology is a challenge due to the regional differences in Brazil.
Background information on flood hazards rely on fluvial water-level data taken along the river basins, on delineation of flood hazard-prone areas presented on 1:1,000,000-scale maps, and on semi-detail (1:50,000 scale) flood susceptibility maps for specific locations. These maps are the starting point for identifying critical areas for detailed hydrologic modeling. Extreme weather events have the potential to cause worse impacts on these high flood-risk areas.
The vulnerability studies in the Amazon region show some initial advances in understanding the effects of the various types of vulnerabilities on the impact of flood hazards. National hazard-risk studies provide the bases for national indicators. Therefore, some adaptations would be valuable for understanding the complex effects of vulnerabilities in the country. Some specific conditions in the Amazon should be taken into account. Infrastructure vulnerability is the main type of vulnerability that is most relevant in mapping flood-hazard risks.
Flood-risk mapping is a fundamental part of disaster-risk management. It is crucial in information-based decision-making and in providing guidance for defining priorities for risk reduction. In urban areas, the anthropogenic factors that influence or intensify flooding are considered for the minimization or elimination of risk sectors. Demographic and land-use changes have a direct impact on the intensity of floods. All sector risk maps generated by the CPRM have been made available for the civil defense activities of the municipalities, alert centers, ministers, and institutions associated with the National Program for Risk Management and Response to Disasters. This policy is a driver for transformative change that should continue over time.
\n',keywords:"Amazon region, disaster risk, flood hazard, vulnerability, risk mapping, risk management, urban planning",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/55628.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/55628.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55628",totalDownloads:1097,totalViews:444,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 5th 2016",dateReviewed:"March 31st 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 30th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Floods are part of the natural and cultural life in the Amazon. However, the issues and management of fluvial-disaster risks are poorly studied. Among the reasons for the lack of studies, the Amazon region has several gaps in information ranging from inadequate regional maps to spatially unsystematic local data. Flood patterns differ in urban and rural areas. Severe large-scale flooding took place during the previous and the current decades, such as those that occurred in 2009 and 2012. Between 1991 and 2010, official recorded data indicate about 3,292,888 people were affected in 6 regional states of the Amazon (Acre, Amapá, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, and Roraima) considering 7 different hazards. Because of the extensive damages, the national government started a mapping program for cities in Brazil that have a history of facing significant flood risks. The aim of this chapter is to analyse the flood-risk mapping conditions in the Amazon.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/55628",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/55628",book:{slug:"flood-risk-management"},signatures:"Milena Marília Nogueira de Andrade, Iris Celeste Nascimento\nBandeira, Dianne Danielle Farias Fonseca, Paulo Eduardo Silva\nBezerra, Ádanna de Souza Andrade and Rodrigo Silva de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"203296",title:"Dr.",name:"Milena",middleName:"Marília Nogueira De",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Milena Andrade",slug:"milena-andrade",email:"milenamarilia.andrade@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"203302",title:"MSc.",name:"Iris Celeste Nascimento",middleName:null,surname:"Bandeira",fullName:"Iris Celeste Nascimento Bandeira",slug:"iris-celeste-nascimento-bandeira",email:"iris.bandeira@cprm.gov.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203352",title:"Mr.",name:"Paulo Eduardo Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Bezerra",fullName:"Paulo Eduardo Silva Bezerra",slug:"paulo-eduardo-silva-bezerra",email:"pauloeduardoea@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203353",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ádanna",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Ádanna Andrade",slug:"adanna-andrade",email:"adanna.eng.ambiental@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203354",title:"Mr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Rodrigo Oliveira",slug:"rodrigo-oliveira",email:"rodrigo.so77@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203421",title:"Mrs.",name:"Dianne",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",fullName:"Dianne Fonseca",slug:"dianne-fonseca",email:"dianne.fonseca@cprm.gov.br",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Flood hazards in the Amazon region",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Vulnerability in the Amazon",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Sectors of risk in the Amazon",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'CEPED. Atlas Brasileiro de Desastres Naturais 1991-2012. Florianópolis: UFSC; 2013'},{id:"B2",body:'IBGE. Dados censitários das cidades [Internet]. 2016. http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1 [Accessed: February 15, 2016]'},{id:"B3",body:'Wisner B, Blaikie P, Cannon T, Davis I. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. 2nd ed. London: Routledge; 2004'},{id:"B4",body:'Andrade MMN de, Szlafsztein CF. Community participation in flood mapping in the Amazon through interdisciplinary methods. Natural Hazards. 2015;78(3):1491-1500'},{id:"B5",body:'Szlafsztein CF. Development projects for small rural communities in the Brazilian Amazon region as potential strategies and practices of climate change adaptation. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 2012;19:143-160. DOI 10.1007/s11027-012-9431-1'},{id:"B6",body:'CPRM Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais. Setorização de Riscos Geológicos [Internet]. 2017. Available from: http://www.cprm.gov.br/publique/Gestao-Territorial/Geologia-de-Engenharia-e-Riscos-Geologicos/Setorizacao-de-Riscos-Geologicos-4138.html [Accessed: 10 February, 2017]'},{id:"B7",body:'Espinoza JC, Marengo JA, Ronchail J, Carpio JM, Flores LN, Guyot JL. The extreme 2014 flood in south-western Amazon basin: the role of tropicalsubtropical South Atlantic SST gradient. Environmental Research Letters. 2014;9:1-9'},{id:"B8",body:'Marengo JA, Tomasella J, Soares WR, Alves LM, Nobre CA. Extreme climatic events in the Amazon basin. 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The need for rethinking the concepts of vulnerability and risk from a holistic perspective: A necessary review and criticism for effective risk management. In: Bankoff G, Frerks G, Hilhorst D, editors. Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. London: Earthscan; 2004. pp. 37-51'},{id:"B29",body:'Birkmann J, Welle T. The WorldRiskIndex 2016: Reveals the necessity for regional cooperation in vulnerability reduction. Journal of Extreme Events. 2005;3:1650005-01-1650005-21. DOI: 10.1142/S2345737616500056'},{id:"B30",body:'Rufat S, Tate E, Burton CG, Marrof AS. Social vulnerability to floods: Review of case studies and implications for measurement. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. 2015;14:470-486'},{id:"B31",body:'IPEA Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada. Atlas da Vulnerabilidade Social nos municípios Brasileiros [Internet]. 2015. 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Journal of Coastal Conservation. 2007;11:53-66'},{id:"B36",body:'Szlafsztein C, Marques O, Maia H, Prette M, Fischenich P, Altieri F. Referências Metodológicas para mapeamento de Riscos Naturais na Amazônia: Mapeando as vulnerabilidades. Brasília: MMA/GTZ; 2010. p. 59'},{id:"B37",body:'Silva Junior MO, Szlafsztein C. Análise de risco como critério a gestão do território: um estudo do plano diretor do município de Alenquer (PA). Olam: Ciência & Tecnologia. 2010;10:1-29'},{id:"B38",body:'Wiréhn L, Danielsson A, Neset T-S. Assessment of composite index methods for agricultural vulnerability to climate change. Journal of Environmental Management. 2015;156:70-80'},{id:"B39",body:'Vogt N, Pinedo-Vasquez M, Brondízio ES, Rabelo FG, Fernandes K, Almeida O, Riveiro S, Deadman PJ, Dou Y. Local ecological knowledge and incremental adaptation to changing flood patterns in the Amazon delta. Sustainability Science. 2016;11:611-623'},{id:"B40",body:'Fonseca D, Szlafsztein C. Riscos geológicos. In: João XS, Teixeira SG, Fonseca DDF, editors. Geodiversidade do Estado do Pará. Belém: CPRM; 2013. pp. 119-130'},{id:"B41",body:'PimenteL J, Ferreira CEO, Shinzato E, Maia MAM, Silva SF, Hoelzel M, Pfaltzgraff PA, Morais JM. de, Parisi GN, Silva CN, Filho IB. de O, Fregolentte A. Atuação do Serviço Geológico do Brasil no mapeamento de risco geológicos para a redução de impactos decorrentes de eventos extremos. In: Proceedings of Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia CD-Rom; 30 September–05 October 2012; Santos, São Paulo; 2012'},{id:"B42",body:'Bandeira ICN, Di Salvio LPP. Resultado da setorização das áreas de alto risco a inundações na zona urbana de Altamira no estado do Pará. In: Anais do 14° Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia de Engenharia e Ambiental; 1-6 December 2013; Rio de Janeiro. 2013. ISBN: 978-8572700696'},{id:"B43",body:'Ministério das Cidades. Capacitação em Mapeamento e Gerenciamento de Risco [Internet]. 2007. Available from: http://www.defesacivil.mg.gov.br/images/documentos/Defesa%20Civil/manuais/mapeamento/mapeamento-grafica.pdf [Accessed: December 12, 2016]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Milena Marília Nogueira de Andrade",address:"milenamarilia.andrade@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Belém, Pará, Brazil
Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Belém, Pará, Brazil
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Modeling",slug:"analysis-of-storm-rainfall-in-peninsular-malaysia-using-neyman-scott-rectangular-pulse-modeling",signatures:"Rado Yendra, Abdul Aziz Jemain and Ibrahim Sulaiman Hanaish",authors:[{id:"206010",title:"Dr.",name:"Rado",middleName:null,surname:"Yendra",fullName:"Rado Yendra",slug:"rado-yendra"},{id:"211184",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Aziz",middleName:null,surname:"Jemain",fullName:"Abdul Aziz Jemain",slug:"abdul-aziz-jemain"},{id:"211187",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim Sulaiman",middleName:null,surname:"Henaish",fullName:"Ibrahim Sulaiman Henaish",slug:"ibrahim-sulaiman-henaish"}]},{id:"59261",title:"Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Vertical Profile of Precipitation over Indonesian Maritime Continent",slug:"seasonal-and-diurnal-variations-of-vertical-profile-of-precipitation-over-indonesian-maritime-contin",signatures:"Marzuki, Hiroyuki Hashiguchi, Mutya Vonnisa and Harmadi",authors:[{id:"223615",title:"Dr.",name:"Marzuki",middleName:null,surname:"Marzuki",fullName:"Marzuki Marzuki",slug:"marzuki-marzuki"},{id:"241075",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Hashiguchi",fullName:"Hiroyuki Hashiguchi",slug:"hiroyuki-hashiguchi"},{id:"241076",title:"MSc.",name:"Mutya",middleName:null,surname:"Vonnisa",fullName:"Mutya Vonnisa",slug:"mutya-vonnisa"},{id:"241077",title:"Dr.",name:"Harmadi",middleName:null,surname:"Harmadi",fullName:"Harmadi Harmadi",slug:"harmadi-harmadi"}]},{id:"58799",title:"Geography of Udi Cuesta Contribution to Hydro- Meteorological Pattern of the South Eastern Nigeria",slug:"geography-of-udi-cuesta-contribution-to-hydro-meteorological-pattern-of-the-south-eastern-nigeria",signatures:"Ngene Ben Uchechukwu, Jonah C. Agunwamba, Imokhai T. Tenebe\nand Gideon O. Bamigboye",authors:[{id:"228542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben",middleName:"Uchechukwu",surname:"Ngene",fullName:"Ben Ngene",slug:"ben-ngene"},{id:"228546",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonah",middleName:null,surname:"Agunwamba",fullName:"Jonah Agunwamba",slug:"jonah-agunwamba"},{id:"228548",title:"Mr.",name:"Imokhai",middleName:null,surname:"Tenebe",fullName:"Imokhai Tenebe",slug:"imokhai-tenebe"},{id:"228549",title:"Mr.",name:"Gideon",middleName:null,surname:"Bamigboye",fullName:"Gideon Bamigboye",slug:"gideon-bamigboye"}]},{id:"59527",title:"Variability and Change in Water Cycle at the Catchment Level",slug:"variability-and-change-in-water-cycle-at-the-catchment-level",signatures:"Roxana Bojariu, Sorin Ionuţ Dascălu, Mădălina Gothard, Alexandru\nDumitrescu, Roxana Cică, Sorin Burcea, Liliana Velea, Marius-Victor\nBîrsan, Vasile Craciunescu, Anisoara Irimescu, Marius Matreata,\nViorel Chendeș, Boris Boincean, Valeriu Cazac, Vera Potopová and\nAndrei Nita",authors:[{id:"226168",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Bojariu",fullName:"Roxana Bojariu",slug:"roxana-bojariu"},{id:"239496",title:"Mr.",name:"Sorin Ionuț",middleName:null,surname:"Dascălu",fullName:"Sorin Ionuț Dascălu",slug:"sorin-ionut-dascalu"},{id:"239497",title:"Ms.",name:"Mădălina",middleName:null,surname:"Gothard",fullName:"Mădălina Gothard",slug:"madalina-gothard"},{id:"239498",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandru",middleName:null,surname:"Dumitrescu",fullName:"Alexandru Dumitrescu",slug:"alexandru-dumitrescu"},{id:"239515",title:"MSc.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Cică",fullName:"Roxana Cică",slug:"roxana-cica"},{id:"239516",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorin",middleName:null,surname:"Burcea",fullName:"Sorin Burcea",slug:"sorin-burcea"},{id:"239517",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Velea",fullName:"Liliana Velea",slug:"liliana-velea"},{id:"239519",title:"Dr.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Birsan",fullName:"Marius Birsan",slug:"marius-birsan"},{id:"239521",title:"BSc.",name:"Vasile",middleName:null,surname:"Crăciunescu",fullName:"Vasile Crăciunescu",slug:"vasile-craciunescu"},{id:"239523",title:"Dr.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Mătreață",fullName:"Marius Mătreață",slug:"marius-matreata"},{id:"239525",title:"Dr.",name:"Viorel",middleName:null,surname:"Chendeș",fullName:"Viorel Chendeș",slug:"viorel-chendes"},{id:"239528",title:"Dr.",name:"Anișoara",middleName:null,surname:"Irimescu",fullName:"Anișoara Irimescu",slug:"anisoara-irimescu"},{id:"239540",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Boincean",fullName:"Boris Boincean",slug:"boris-boincean"},{id:"239541",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeriu",middleName:null,surname:"Cazac",fullName:"Valeriu Cazac",slug:"valeriu-cazac"},{id:"239542",title:"Dr.",name:"Vera",middleName:null,surname:"Potopová",fullName:"Vera Potopová",slug:"vera-potopova"},{id:"239546",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Niță",fullName:"Andrei Niță",slug:"andrei-nita"}]},{id:"59723",title:"Landslide Susceptibility of Chittagong City, Bangladesh, and Development of Landslides Early Warning System",slug:"landslide-susceptibility-of-chittagong-city-bangladesh-and-development-of-landslides-early-warning-s",signatures:"Reshad Md. Ekram Ali, Lloyd Warren Tunbridge, Rajinder Kumar\nBhasin, Salma Akter, Mohammad Zohir Uddin and Md. Mahmood\nHossain Khan",authors:[{id:"234699",title:"Mr.",name:"Md Mahmood Hossain",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Md Mahmood Hossain Khan",slug:"md-mahmood-hossain-khan"},{id:"236005",title:"Dr.",name:"Reshad Md Ekram",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Reshad Md Ekram Ali",slug:"reshad-md-ekram-ali"},{id:"236006",title:"Ms.",name:"Salma",middleName:null,surname:"Akter",fullName:"Salma Akter",slug:"salma-akter"},{id:"236007",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Zohir",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",fullName:"Mohammad Zohir Uddin",slug:"mohammad-zohir-uddin"},{id:"241774",title:"Dr.",name:"Lloyd Warren",middleName:null,surname:"Tunbridge",fullName:"Lloyd Warren Tunbridge",slug:"lloyd-warren-tunbridge"},{id:"241775",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajinder Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Bhasin",fullName:"Rajinder Kumar Bhasin",slug:"rajinder-kumar-bhasin"}]},{id:"56108",title:"Flash Flood Early Warning Research in China",slug:"flash-flood-early-warning-research-in-china",signatures:"Haichen Li, Tao Qin and Xiaohui Lei",authors:[{id:"206189",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Haichen",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Haichen Li",slug:"haichen-li"},{id:"206192",title:"Mr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Qin",fullName:"Tao Qin",slug:"tao-qin"},{id:"206193",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei"}]},{id:"57077",title:"Effect of the Rainfall Infiltration Processes on the Landslide Hazard Assessment of Unsaturated Soils in Tropical Mountainous Regions",slug:"effect-of-the-rainfall-infiltration-processes-on-the-landslide-hazard-assessment-of-unsaturated-soil",signatures:"Cesar Augusto Hidalgo, Johnny Alexander Vega and Melissa Parra\nObando",authors:[{id:"205748",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Johnny",middleName:"Alexander",surname:"Vega",fullName:"Johnny Vega",slug:"johnny-vega"},{id:"206624",title:"Dr.",name:"César Augusto",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",fullName:"César Augusto Hidalgo",slug:"cesar-augusto-hidalgo"},{id:"206625",title:"MSc.",name:"Melissa",middleName:null,surname:"Parra Obando",fullName:"Melissa Parra Obando",slug:"melissa-parra-obando"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"69809",title:"Use of Waste Foundry Sand (WFS) as Filler in Hot-Mixed Asphalt Concrete",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89715",slug:"use-of-waste-foundry-sand-wfs-as-filler-in-hot-mixed-asphalt-concrete",body:'
1. Introduction
Industries annually generate millions of metric tons of solid by-products, and most of these materials have been landfilled at considerable cost since. Modern society has been developing beneficial reuse of industrial by-products in a variety of applications [1, 2, 3]. Recycling of waste construction materials saves natural resources, saves energy, reduces solid waste, reduces air and water pollutants and reduces greenhouse gases [4, 5]. The transportation, construction and environmental industries have the greatest potential for reuse because they use vast quantities of earthen materials annually. Replacement of natural soils, aggregates and cements with solid industrial by-products is highly desirable [1, 2].
The steel industry produces a myriad of metal components for industrial chains such as the automobile industry, which in turn generates mineral discarded sand moulds (waste foundry sand/WFS) that end up occupying large volumes in landfills [6]. The major portion of the WFS is considered as non-hazardous waste and is currently deposited in a special WFS landfill that is remote from areas of settlement [7, 8, 9, 10].
The metal casting industry annually discards about 10% of foundry sand for production, i.e. approximately an estimated 9–10 million tons of WFS each year, in the USA [5, 10, 11]. Generally speaking, approximately 1 ton of foundry sand is needed to produce 1 ton of metal casting [8, 12]. WFS can be used as an alternative material (fine aggregate in asphalt mixtures) in highway constructions allowing the increasing of the lifespan of landfills [13].
This work analyses the physical and mechanical behaviour of asphalt mixtures, using the WFS as a mineral filler in asphalt concrete, in 5% (in mass) of maximum replacement to conventional Portland cement (CP). The waste was obtained from an industry located in the free-trade zone of Manaus city, Amazon State, Brazil. The results showed that the addition of industrial WFS in asphalt mixture resulted in adequate performance of the mixtures.
2. Literature review
Waste foundry sand is generated by industries that use sands, binders and additives to form moulds and cores for castings. Sands are chosen for several reasons; they are readily available everywhere, inexpensive, highly refractory and readily bonded by clays or other inorganic and organic materials [8, 9, 14]. The mould forms the outside of the castings; the core forms the internal shape. When the part to be made has deep recesses or hollow portions, sand cores must be provided in the mould [3]. The material to be used to form moulds and cores in a foundry should have cohesiveness and porosity properties at the same time. Adding binder (bentonite, resins, cement, sodium silicate and oils) will improve the cohesiveness of the sand grains but will tend to reduce porosity. Additives are those materials which are added to the bonded sands to improve properties, either during the moulding process or during the casting process or both [8]. The moulding processes which involve sand are (1) green sand moulding (or clay-bonded sand, [12]), (2) chemically bonded process and (3) shell moulding process [3, 5, 8, 9]. The most commonly used process is green sand moulding [15]. Green sand is composed of four major materials. Sand comprises 85–95% of the green sand mixture. Most often the sand is inert silica, but olivine and zircon sand are also used [8, 15, 16, 17]. Approximately, 4–10% of the mixture is made of some form of clay, e.g. bentonite. The clay acts as a binder for the green sand and provides strength and plasticity. Combustible additives like sea coal, cereal, fuel oil and wood flour typically make up from 2 to 10% of the green sand mixture. The final additive of green sand is water which is usually added in small percentages (2–5% by weight) [5, 8]. Chemically bonded sands are those that use furan, phenolic urethane and acid cured no-bake systems, as well as alkyd and phenolic urethane cold box processes. Shell moulding uses a mixture of sand and thermosetting resin (usually phenol formaldehyde) to form the mould [8, 17].
The physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of virgin sand make it a popular material for construction engineering, but after several reuses in moulds and cores, it becomes WFS [7]. The grain size distribution of WFS is quite uniform, with a majority of the sizes (85–95%) falling within a narrow range between 0.6 and 0.15 mm, and 5–12% is smaller than 0.075 mm [5, 8, 10] or between 1 and 16.5% [14]. According to Tikalsky et al. [17], more than 80% of the particles by mass are concentrated by size between 0.15 and 0.70 mm, compared to 0.30–4.75 mm for conventional fine aggregate. Most of the WFS materials reported are found to be medium to fine sand. WFS have been found to be too fine to satisfy the specifications for general fine aggregate [8, 10, 12]. WFS has uniform equidimensional subangular to rounded grains, and a few has rounded grains [8, 10, 17, 18].
For density and unit weight, the values found for the WFS were very close to conventional aggregate [13]. The bulk specific gravities reported in the literature on WFS ranged from 1.985 to 2.722 [8, 17]. In most of the cases WFS have been reported to be almost dry. The moisture content as received for WFS were reported to be in the range of 0.0–4.85% [8, 17, 18]. Concerning absorption, the values are relatively higher than those obtained for the natural aggregate, due to the presence of organic matter [6, 8]. The percentage absorption values on WFS samples have been reported to vary between 0.3 and 6.2% [3, 8, 17].
Over the past three decades, there have been several studies around the world on the use of WFS in engineering works, in different areas: base and subbase layers of highway construction [19, 20, 21], embankments [22, 23], hydraulic barriers [24], asphalt mixtures [3, 7, 16, 25, 26], etc.
Highway subbase layers using WFS have been shown to resist winter conditions (freeze–thaw cycles) better than specimens of reference materials [5, 17, 19]. If a subbase layer stabilised with WFS is compacted in field at dry of optimum content then it will have an increase in its strength [19, 20, 27].
It has been mentioned in the literature that the fines of WFS affect the properties of asphalt concrete negatively [7, 28]. The amount of WFS used in an asphalt mixture depends largely on the amount of fines in the WFS [5, 12, 14, 29]. Studies have recommended that WFS should replace successfully as much as 15% (in mass) of the conventional sand (fine) content in asphalt concrete [3, 9]; 8–10, 10–20 and 10%, respectively, in engineering practice in Pennsylvania, Michigan and Tennessee States [5]; 35% [30]; 15% [26]; 10% [7, 13]; 15% [10, 31]; 35% [27, 32]; and 15–30% [14].
Concerning physical characteristics, the densities of the mixtures decreased as the percentage of WFS in the asphalt concrete increased [7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17, 32]. Percentage of air voids and voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) were found to increase with blending of increased quantities of WFS [8, 9]. The optimum asphalt content (4.9–6.8%) for HMA mixtures containing various amounts of foundry sand is comparable to the content of mixes not containing foundry sand [14, 17]. The OAC increases with increase in the WFS percentage [13], although Miller et al. [14] found lower values for mixtures containing WFS, in relation to control ones. According to this author, the mixtures obtain the higher percentage of OAC with the WFS with the higher amount of particles passing the #200 sieve. This happens due to the fineness properties of material and increase of surface area [10, 32].
Regarding the mechanical characteristics, the Marshall stability of the asphalt concrete samples containing WFS decreases as the quantity of WFS is increased [3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 29, 32]. The flow values of mixtures decreased with increasing percentage of WFS in the asphalt concrete mixtures [7, 8, 9, 10, 13]. The indirect tensile strengths of the asphalt cement mixtures decreased as the percentage of WFS material was increased [7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 32]. However, Abdulsattar and Mohammed [25] found that all the WFS mixtures that they analysed showed higher tensile strength than the control mixture. According to Tikalsky et al. [17], the level of air voids and saturation greatly influenced the indirect tension values.
In relation to moisture susceptibility, WFS has little effect on top-down fatigue cracking resistance and moisture susceptibility of the mixtures [32]. When WFS replacement is higher than 15%, asphalt mix may become more sensitive to moisture damage (i.e. stripping) due to the presence of silica [10, 27]. WFS, on average, decreases the unconditioned tensile strength and thus the durability of asphalt mixtures; on the other hand, WFS do not necessarily increase or decrease a mixture’s rutting potential but do improve fatigue performance [17].
3. Materials and methods
3.1 Origin of materials
The experimental procedure of this research contemplates the dosage and physical and mechanical tests on five hot-mixed asphalt concrete (HMAC) mixtures using the conventional Portland cement filler (as reference) and four other mixtures using WFS, replacing the cement gradually in proportions of 25%. This residue was produced by the foundry industrial process of a company located in free-trade zone of Manaus city, Amazon State, Brazil, which produces clutch assembly lines (pressure and friction plates, discs, outer housing, etc.) for the motorcycle industry. Figure 1a shows one of the several kinds of pieces that are produced in that industry, while Figure 1b presents the WFS studied. The annual production of WFS in that industry was about 1500 tons in 2014 (SUFRAMA, 2016). The coarse aggregate (natural pebble) came from the “Japurá” River (an Amazon River affluent) riverbeds and was extracted by dredging, but it was acquired in the local market. The fine aggregate (clean sand) came from mining extraction in the vicinity of the city (about 30–50 km), but it was acquired in the local market as well. The mineral filler used was Portland cement II-Z-32 type. Finally, asphalt cement (AC) 50/70 grading was used, produced by the oil refinery of Manaus (REMAN). The materials used in this research and their respective origins are listed in Table 1.
Figure 1.
(a) A piece (to be deburred) produced at the trade zone of Manaus city industry. (b) WFS to be tested.
Material
Origin
Sand
Market of Manaus
Pebble
Market of Manaus
Portland cement (PC) II-Z-32 (mineral filler)
Market of Manaus
Asphalt cement (AC) (50/70 grading)
Oil refinery of Manaus (REMAN)
Waste foundry sand (WFS)
Industry of free-trade zone of Manaus
Table 1.
Provenance of HMAC component materials.
3.2 Characterisation of materials
All mineral aggregates used in the asphalt mixtures were tested according to the standards described in Table 2, mainly by the Brazilian highway standards, which are most similar to known international standards. In relation to the asphalt cement (AC—50/70 penetrating grading), it was submitted to complete characterisation according to standards shown in Table 3.
Material
Brazilian standard
Title
Acceptance parameters (Brazilian standard)
Similar international standard
Pebble
NBR NM 53/2009
Coarse aggregate—determination of the bulk specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and water absorption
Greater than 0.88 and 2.00 g/cm3; less than 18%, respectively
ASTM-T-85
Pebble
NBR NM 51/2001
Coarse aggregate—test method for resistance to degradation by Los Angeles machine
Less than 50%
AASHTO-T-96
Pebble, Sand, Fillers
NBR NM 248/2003
Aggregates—sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates
Within granulometric range
ASTM-C136/C136M-14
Pebble
NBR 12583/1992
Coarse aggregate—coating to bituminous binder
Qualitative test (visual analysis)
—
Sand
NBR NM 52/2009
Fine aggregate—determination of the bulk specific gravity and apparent specific gravity
Greater than 1.60 and 2.60 g/cm3, respectively
ASTM-C128–01
Fillers
NBR NM 23/2001
Portland cement and other powdered materials—determination of density
Greater than 3.00 g/cm3
ASTM-C188–09
WFS
NBR 16137/2010
Non-destructive testing—material identification by spot test, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and optical emission spectrometry
Properties of asphalt cement (AC—50/70 penetrating grading) used in the mixtures.
In order to avoid the presence of impurities, the residue was washed in sieves Nos. 200, 300 and 400, before subjected to characterisation tests and used in asphalt mixtures. The WFS filler was subjected to chemical analysis (XRF) made by an X-Ray spectrometer equipment (720 energy dispersive, Shimadzu), through drying and subsequently pressing the sample in a disc form. The equipment can perform analyses from sodium to uranium, has a rhodium tube and is cooling by liquid nitrogen. Besides that, the WFS filler was also submitted to the X-Ray diffraction (XRD) in order to be characterised its crystalline phases. The equipment used in the analysis was the D8 Focus-Bruker diffractometer, with monochromatic cuprum radiation (CuKα, λ = 1.5418 Å), operating at 35 kV and 40 mA. A laser particle size analyser was used to determine with precision the particle size of both mineral fillers (PC and WFS).
3.3 Dosage method of the SMA mixtures
Since the tests were performed 10 years ago, asphalt concrete studies were developed through the traditional Marshall method and not by current Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements (Superpave) methodology. After the characterisation of all components of asphalt concrete, the materials were classified in the “C” granulometric range limits of Brazilian highway specifications following the Marshall dosage method, as shown in Figure 2. The curves obtained fitted in the area defined by the two curve limits of the “C” range, minimum and maximum. After fixing the particle size distribution of aggregates of the mixture, the probable optimum asphalt content (OAC) was estimated by the expression derived from the work of Duriez (1950) based on the specific surface of the aggregates:
Figure 2.
XRD analysis for WFS filler.
S=0.17G+0.33g+2.30A+12a+135f100E1
where S is the specific surface area of aggregate (m2/kg), G is the percentage retained on sieve 9.5 mm, g is the percentage passing on sieve #9.5 mm e retained on sieve 4.8 mm, A is the percentage passing on sieve #4.8 mm e retained on sieve 0.3 mm, a is the percentage passing on sieve #0.3 mm e retained on sieve 0.074 mm and f is the percentage passing on sieve 0.074 mm.
Then, the probable OAC was calculated, using the following expression:
Tca=mS5E2
where Tca is the OAC in relation to the mass of the aggregates (%) and m is the richness modulus of AC, varying from 3.75 (wearing course with high stiffness) to 4.00 (wearing course with low stiffness).
If the mean bulk specific gravity of the total aggregate is less than 2.60 or greater than 2.70, then the content obtained in the previous item should be corrected by the following expression:
Tca′=2,65TcaδamE3
where T′ca is the corrected OAC in relation to the mass of the aggregates (%) and δam is the mean bulk specific gravity of the total aggregate.
Finally, the OAC is calculated in relation to the entire mixture:
Pca=100Tca100+TcaorPca=100Tca′100+Tca′E4
where Pca is the final value of OAC in relation to the total mixture (%).
From that OAC value were adopted two points below it (each 0.5%) and two points above it (each 0.5%).
3.4 Production of SMA samples in the laboratory
Five HMAC mixtures were analysed whose grain size proportions are shown inTable 4. The mixture 1 was used as reference, for 100% of Portland cement as mineral filler. The other mixtures used WFS as mineral filler, replacing Portland cement in gradual proportions each 25%. At the end, the results were compared between the mixtures with and without WFS according to the physical and mechanical tests performed.
Oxide
SiO2
Al2O3
SO3
Fe2O3
Content (%)
93.68
3.97
1.66
0.41
Table 4.
Composition of oxides present in WFS filler.
The experimental procedures were defined as follows, for each mixture [33]: (i) determination of the AC working temperatures from Saybolt-Furol viscosity test in the range of 85 ± 10 and 140 ± 15 SSF for mixing and compaction, respectively; (ii) the components (aggregates + AC) were mixed at a temperature of 146°C for approximately 2 min; (iii) the mix was placed in the Marshall mould and compacted mechanically with 75 blows on each side of the specimen; (iv) the specimen were left at rest for 24 h at room temperature; (v) after that, the specimens were left in a water bath at 60°C for 2 h; (vi) finally, they were placed in the compression mould and submitted to compression in order to determine the rupture load and flow value. Thus, all physical and mechanical parameters of HMAC mixtures were determined by the Marshall method.
From Eq. 4, an initial OAC value of 6.15% for mixture 1 was adopted, with m = 3.75. Nevertheless, the mixture showed excessive fluid, with AC in excess. Hence, OAC = 4.5% was considered. It is noteworthy that three specimens were cast for each AC content to find the final OAC of each the mixture (mixtures 1–5), whose range varied from 3.5 to 5.5%, at each interval of 0.5%. Figure 3a presents the results of OAC for each mixture.
Figure 3.
Marshall physical and mechanical characteristics of studied mixtures: (a) optimum asphalt content, (b) bulk specific gravity, (c) air void volume, (d) asphalt-void ratio, (e) Marshall stability and (f) flow value.
3.5 Physical and mechanical properties of SMA mixtures
After the tests, the Marshall parameters of the mixtures were determined: bulk specific gravity (BSG), theoretical maximum specific gravity (TMG), air void volume (AVV), voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA), voids filled with asphalt (VFA), asphalt-void ratio (AVR), Marshall stability (STA) and flow value (FLV). The optimum contents of AC adopted were those with an AVV value of 4%.
Three samples with cylindrical forms were moulded for the determination of the static indirect tensile strength (ITS) by diametrical compression for each type of mixture, at each OAC. The ITS individual value was obtained through the expression
σt=TπrhE5
where σt is the individual static ITS (kPa), T is the static rupture load (kN), r is the sample radius (m) and h is the sample height (m).
Three samples were moulded for determining the resilient modulus (RM) of each mixture. This mixture was then placed in the mould and compacted mechanically with 75 blows on each side of the sample. Then, the specimen were submitted to a repeatedly vertical compression load F at a maximum stress level less than or equal to 20% of the ITS. The RM adopted was the arithmetical mean value determined at 300, 400 and 500 load application F.
Hence, the value of the RM was determined by the expression [33]
RM=Fδh×09976μ+02692E6
where RM is the individual resilient modulus (MPa), F is the cyclic vertical load diametrically applied on specimen (N), δ is the elastic strain recorded for 200, 400 and 500 load applications (mm), h is the sample height (mm) and μ is Poisson’s ratio.
The fatigue test was performed to define the number of loading repetitions as a function of controlled stresses in diametrical compression samples with the load applied at a frequency of 1 Hz, with 0.10 s of repeated loading duration through the same resilient modulus equipment, increasing in tensile strain until the specimen is completely disrupted at a constant temperature of 25°C. The fatigue curve was determined in seven stress levels (7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 40% of the static ITS) with two specimens per level. The fatigue resistance was evaluated according to the fatigue curves generated by testing, which introduces the relationship between fatigue strength and fatigue life. The fatigue equation in this study was calculated using the formula given in the following equation [34]:
logNf=n×logσf+kE7
where Nf is the fatigue life (in cycles) and σf is the fatigue stress (MPa), i.e. the tension stress applied during the test. The equation provides a linear relationship between them using a bilogarithmic scale, in which “n” is the gradient and “k” is the intercept.
The study of permanent deformation was made using the static creep test applying a static and continuous compression load on a specimen moulded according to the Marshall methodology. The specimen was placed in the axial position and then was subjected to an applied tension of 0.1 MPa, distributed over the entire contact surface of the specimen for a period of 60 min at a temperature of 40°C. The permanent deformations were measured continuously along that time, and then the specimen was discharged, waiting for 15 min for the stabilisation of the viscous deformations, which were measured continuously too. The total strain (Dt) after the recovery period can be obtained as:
Dt=∆h75hoE8
where Δh75 is the specimen height change after the final recovery period, i.e. 75 min after the start of the test load (mm), and ho is the specimen initial height taken in the axial direction of loading (mm). Table 5 shows the mechanical tests performed on HMAC mixtures, while Figure 4 presents all tests carried out on components and mixtures.
Brazilian standard
Title
Acceptance parameter (Brazilian standard)
Similar international standard
DNER-ME 043/1995
Asphalt mixtures—Marshall test
OAC ≥ 6% STA ≥ 5 kN 3% < AVV < 5%
ASTM D5581-07a
NBR 16018/2011
Asphalt mixture—stiffness determination by repeated load indirect tension test
—
ASTM D4123–82
NBR 15087/2012
Asphalt mixtures—determination of tensile strength by diametrical compression
≥0.65 MPa
ASTM D 6931–17
DNER-ME (provisional standard)/2017
Hot-mixed asphalt concrete—fatigue under repeated loading, constant tension, using the indirect tension test
—
FHWA-Protocol P07/2001
—
Standard test methods for tensile, compressive and flexural creep and creep rupture of plastics
Dt ≤ 0.02 mm/mm in 75 min
ASTM D 2990–09
Table 5.
Mechanical characterisation tests carried out on HMAC mixtures.
Figure 4.
Flowchart of the laboratory tests.
4. Results and discussion
4.1 Characterisation of materials
Figure 2 indicates the result of XRD analysis for WFS filler. As shown in the figure, WFS is essentially formed by quartz mineral, as expected. Table 4 shows the composition of the main oxides present in the WFS filler obtained by XRF analysis. The high percentage of silica confirms the XRD analysis of the material [8, 16, 17].Table 6 indicates the physical characteristics of the aggregates. WFS aggregate apparent specific gravity of WFS is very close to conventional aggregates (pebble and sand) [7, 9, 10, 13] each other except for PC. Pebble had a Los Angeles abrasion loss below the maximum allowed by the Brazilian standard, which is 50%. The WFS had 76.25% of its particle sizes passing at #200 sieve and are slightly larger than that of Portland cement, i.e. it is too fine to replace part of the fine aggregate of the asphalt mixes [8, 10, 12], thus demonstrating that the residue could only replace part or total filler fraction.
Aggregate
Apparent specific gravity (g/cm3)
Absorption (%)
Los Angeles abrasion loss (%)
d90 (mm)
d50 (mm)
d10 (mm)
Pebble
2.66
1.92
40.0
12.0
7.0
2.5
Sand
2.63
—
—
1.5
0.35
0.12
Filler (PC)
3.03
—
—
0.063
0.020
0.004
Filler (WFS)
2.65
—
—
0.133
0.040
0.004
Table 6.
Physical characteristics of aggregates.
Notes: d90, d50 and d10 are the particle size for which 90, 50 and 10% of the all particles, in mass, are finer than it.
Table 7 shows the resulting granulometric composition of the mineral aggregates with and without the addition of WFS. It is observed that all the mixtures were composed with the same amount of aggregates, varying only the proportion between the two types of the filler fraction. Conventional mixture 1 used PC exclusively, while mixture 2 used WFS as filler exclusively. The other mixtures had variations between permutations of PC and WFS proportions. The grain size distribution of the mineral aggregates, the “C” range maximum and minimum limits of the Brazilian highway specification and the resulting aggregates of mixtures 1 and 2 are shown in Figure 5.
Aggregate
Mixture designation
1 (%)
2 (%)
3 (%)
4 (%)
5 (%)
Pebble
62.0
62.0
62.0
62.0
62.0
Sand
33.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
Filler (cement)
5.0
0.0
3.75
2.5
1.25
Filler (WFS)
0.0
5.0
1.250
2.5
3.75
% Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Table 7.
Granulometric composition of mineral aggregate mixtures with and without WFS addition.
Figure 5.
Grain size distribution and limit curves of mineral aggregates.
4.2 Physical characteristics of mixtures
Figure 3 shows the main physical parameters of the mixtures, obtained through the Marshall methodology. OAC values of the mixtures containing WFS are comparable to the control in mixture 1 [14, 17]. Mixture 1 obtained the lowest OAC (4.5%), whereas mixtures with WFS had little bit higher OAC values, whose contents increased as WFS proportions were increased too [13]. This reason probably is due to the absorption characteristics of this residue, and not due to the grain size [10, 32], since CP has larger particle size and therefore smaller surface area and thus should consume less AC, at the same proportion of WFS.
It was observed that all five mixtures met the Brazilian standards regarding the physical Marshall parameters (OAC, AVV, VMA and AVR). Mixture 1 had a higher GMB values than all other mixtures with WFS and was therefore the densest. The other mixtures maintained a slight decrease of this parameter, when the proportion of WFS in the mixture was increased [7, 9, 13]. Mixture 2 (100% WFS filler) had the highest amount of AVV and the second largest AVR among all mixtures. AVV values increased when WFS content were increased in the mixtures [8, 9, 10, 32].
4.3 Mechanical characteristics of mixtures
High amounts of AVV and AVR tend to negatively influence STA and FLV values, given the viscous characteristic of AC. Thus, mixture 1 showed the best performance, with the highest STA and lowest FLV values. Among the mixtures using WFS, mixture 5 (one fourth WFS + three fourths PC) was the one that presented the highest value of GMB, thus being the densest, and also presented the highest value of STA; however, it had the highest FLV value too. The FLV values of the WFS blends were higher than the PC blends, which characterises a higher AC consumption of these blends. In summary, the use of WFS decreased the stability of blends [6, 8, 10, 12, 32] while increasing their fluency. This latter is in disagreement with that observed by the author cited previously. Even so, all mixtures showed STA values higher than the minimum required (>5 kN).
There was a certain tendency that static ITS values will decrease as WFS content increased [7, 9, 10, 13, 32]. Mixtures 3 and 5 presented higher values of this parameter than control mixture 1 [25]. All asphalt mixtures presented values above the minimum value of the Brazilian standard (>0.65 MPa). This is a good indication for durability of the mixtures since fatigue life is a function of ITS. There was not an apparent correlation between AVV and static ITS values (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Mechanical characteristics of studied mixtures: (a) static indirect tensile strength, (b) resilient modulus, (c) RM/ITS ratio and (d) total strain (static creep).
The use of WFS decreased the RM values. Mixture 1 presented the highest value, followed by mixture 2. In Brazil, the relationship between RM and static ITS (RM/ITS) has been used as an analysis parameter to evaluate the behaviour of asphalt mixtures related to fatigue life. As a rule, mixtures with RM/ITS ratio around 3000 exhibit good structural behaviour because they allow the use of thinner asphalt wearing layers for the same fatigue life; that is, they characterise mixtures that are not susceptible to early development of permanent deformations because they are not rigid enough. In this sense, mixture 3 was the only one that met this criterion. On the other hand, the conventional mixture 1 presented the highest value of this ratio, thus indicating a more rigid behaviour.
Figure 7 shows the comparison between asphalt mixtures in relation to the stress-controlled fatigue test. For the acquisition of fatigue curves, the average value of the RM and the static ITS of each mixture were used. Between Mixtures 1 and 4, the best-fitting straight lines were very close to each other, with a parallelism between the line slopes, and both mixtures can be considered to have practically the same fatigue life. Mixture 2 presented the shortest fatigue life, while mixture 5 presented the longest fatigue life, standing out among the others. For applied stress differences up to 0.4 MPa, Mixtures 1, 2 and 4 behave similarly.
Figure 7.
Fatigue life for the mixtures with and without WFS content.
It should be noted that mixture 5 presented the second best ITS result and the second closest value of the RM/ITS ratio around 3000, thus justifying the use of this parameter as a quantitative indicator of fatigue life of asphalt mixtures. The fatigue life test on mixture 3 was not performed.
Regarding the permanent deformation, Mixtures 2 and 3 presented lower values than mixture 1, while mixture 5 presented the highest value among the others. There was no direct relationship with AVV, since, of all of them, mixture 5 presented the lowest value of voids. Mixture 3 presented the lowest value of permanent deformation, confirming again the good indicative of the RM/ITS ratio around 3000 in predicting the behaviour of asphalt mixtures for fatigue and permanent deformations. All mixtures presented permanent deformation values below the conventional criterion of 0.020 mm/mm and do not have the tendency to be susceptible to premature permanent deformations.
5. Conclusions
This work analysed five asphalt mixtures, one using 100% CP as a filler and the other four using WFS, with a maximum proportion of 5% (by weight) of the total aggregate. The WFS residue used consisted of almost 94% silica, without organic compounds, with apparent specific gravity similar to clean sand and slightly coarser than CP.
All mixtures with WFS residue presented physical and mechanical parameters within the Brazilian standards, following the Marshall methodology, although with lower STA and higher FLV values. The use of WFS increased static ITS values, while decreased MR values. The mixtures with WFS showed total permanent deformation values less than 2% after 75 min of the test. The RM/ITS ratio around 3000 proved to be a good indication of mixtures with better performance against fatigue life and permanent deformation.
Finally, the use of WFS as a mineral filer in asphalt mixtures proved to be adequate, meeting the criteria of Brazilian standards in physical and mechanical tests.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. Laura Maria Goretti da Mota, from Pavement Laboratory of COPPE/Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), for some laboratorial tests carried out in that place. This work was supported by the CNPq [grant number 620244/2008-9]; FAPEAM [scholarship].
\n',keywords:"waste foundry sand (WFS), mineral filler, asphalt mixture, fatigue life, static creep, resilient modulus, static indirect tensile strength, Marshall stability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69809.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69809.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69809",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69809",totalDownloads:319,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2019",dateReviewed:"September 13th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 29th 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The environmental issue has become a topic of relevant discussion in modern society, given the current awareness that construction inputs are finite, and a large amount of waste can be reused as a building material in engineering works. The products used in foundry industry can be non ferrous and ferrous and the residue produced by this last one is not potentially hazardous to human health. The waste foundry sand (WFS) fits this reuse and can be employed in asphalt mixtures, in partial or complete replacement of the conventional filler, i.e. Portland cement (PC). In this sense, this work analyses five asphalt mixtures, one using 100% CP (reference mixture) as filler, and the other four using WFS in proportions of 25-100%, every 25% of the total amount, in 5% (in mass) of the maximum replacement. The mixtures were physically and mechanically characterised according to the Marshall methodology and subsequently submitted to the tests of static indirect tensile strength (static ITS), resilient modulus (RM), repeated-load indirect fatigue (fatigue life) and unconfined static creep. The results of the tests showed that all mixtures with WFS residue presented physical and mechanical parameters within Brazilian standards following the Marshall methodology.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69809",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69809",signatures:"Nilton de Souza Campelo, Karine Jussara Sá da Costa, Raimundo Kennedy Vieira and Adalena Kennedy Vieira",book:{id:"8436",title:"Sandy Materials in Civil Engineering",subtitle:"Usage and Management",fullTitle:"Sandy Materials in Civil Engineering - Usage and Management",slug:"sandy-materials-in-civil-engineering-usage-and-management",publishedDate:"July 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Saeed Nemati and Farzaneh Tahmoorian",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8436.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"296316",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Nemati",slug:"saeed-nemati",fullName:"Saeed Nemati"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Origin of materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Characterisation of materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Dosage method of the SMA mixtures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Production of SMA samples in the laboratory",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Physical and mechanical properties of SMA mixtures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Characterisation of materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Physical characteristics of mixtures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Mechanical characteristics of mixtures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abichou T, Edil TB, Benson CH, Bahia H. Beneficial use of foundry by-products in highway construction. In: Proceedings of Geotechnical Engineering for Transportation Projects (GeoTrans2004); 27-31 July 2004; Los Angeles, California, USA; 2004. pp. 715-722'},{id:"B2",body:'Abichou TH, Edil T, Benson CH, Tawfiq K. Hydraulic conductivity of foundry sands and their use as hydraulic barriers. In: Recycled Materials in Geotechnics Sessions at ASCE Civil Engineering Conference and Exposition 2004. Vol. 1. Baltimore, Maryland, United States; 19-21 October 2004. pp. 186-200. DOI: 10.1061/40756(149)13'},{id:"B3",body:'Javed S, Lovell CW. Use of foundry sand in highway construction. In: Proceeding of the 44th Highway Geology Symposium. Tampa, Florida, The Mayan; 1993. pp. 19-21, 19-34'},{id:"B4",body:'Bolden J, Abu-Lebdeh T, Fini E. Utilization of recycled and waste materials in various construction applications. American Journal of Environmental Science. 2013;9(1):14-24. DOI: 10.3844/ajessp.2013.14.24'},{id:"B5",body:'Bradshaw SL, Benson CH, Olenbush EH, Melton JS. In: Proceedings of the Green Streets and Highways Conference 2010. Vol. 1. Denver, Colorado, USA: ASCE; 14-17 November 2010. pp. 280-298'},{id:"B6",body:'Dyer PPOL, Lima MG, Klinsky LMG, Silva SA, Coppio GJL. Environmental characterization of foundry waste sand (WFS) in hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures. Construction and Building Materials. 2018;171:474-484. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.151'},{id:"B7",body:'Bakis R, Koyuncu H, Demirbas A. An investigation of waste foundry sand in asphalt concrete mixtures. Waste Management and Research. 2006;24:269-274. DOI: 10.1177/0734242X06064822'},{id:"B8",body:'Javed S. Use of Waste Foundry Sand in Highway Construction (Final Report). School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., Project No. C-36-50N, Report JHRP-94/2; May 1994'},{id:"B9",body:'Javed S, Lovell CW, Wood LE. Waste foundry sand in asphalt concrete. Transportation research record 1437. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC; 1994:27-34'},{id:"B10",body:'Pittenger DM. State-of-the-practice literature scan for foundry sand. Gallogly College of Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Department of Transportation; 2017'},{id:"B11",body:'EPA. Beneficial Reuse of Foundry Sand: A Review of State Practices and Regulations. Washington, D.C: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 2002'},{id:"B12",body:'Gedik A, Lav AH, Lav MA. Investigation of alternative ways for recycling waste foundry sand: An extensive review to present benefits. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering; 2017:1-36'},{id:"B13",body:'Dyer PPOL, Lima MG, Klinsky LMG, Silva SA, Coppio GJL. Macro and microstructural characterisation of waste foundry sand reused as aggregate. Road Materials and Pavement Design. 2019:1-14 (published online). DOI: 10.1080/14680629.2019.1625807'},{id:"B14",body:'Miller E, Bahia HU, Benson C, Khatri A, Braham A. Utilization of Waste Foundry Sand in Hot Mix Asphalt Mixtures. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin: American Foundry Society; 2001. pp. 01-103'},{id:"B15",body:'CWC. Beneficial reuse of spent foundry sand. In: Clean Washington Center, IBP-95-1. Seattle, Washington; 1996. Available from: www.cwc.org.br'},{id:"B16",body:'Pasetto M, Baldo N. Laboratory investigation on foamed bitumen bound mixtures made with steel slag, foundry sand, bottom ash and reclaimed asphalt pavement: Cold recycling and bitumen stabilization technology. Road Materials and Pavement Design. 2012;13(4):691-712. DOI: 10.1080/14680629.2012.742629'},{id:"B17",body:'Tikalsky PJ, Bahia HU, Deng A, Snyder T. Excess foundry sand characterization and experimental investigation in controlled low-strength material and hot-mixing asphalt (Final Report). The Pennsylvania State University, Transportation Research Building, University Park, PA, U.S.A., U.S. Department of Energy, Contract No. DE-FC36-01ID13974; 2004'},{id:"B18",body:'American Foundrymen’s Society. Alternative utilization of foundry waste sand. Final Report (Phase I) prepared by American Foundrymen’s Society Inc. For Illinois Department of Commerce and Community Affairs, Des Plaines, Illinois; 1999'},{id:"B19",body:'Guney Y, Aydilek AH, Demirkan MM. Geoenvironmental behavior of foundry sand amended mixtures for highway subbases. Waste Management. 2006;26:932-945. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2005.06.007'},{id:"B20",body:'Kleven JR, Edil TB, Benson CH. Evaluation of excess foundry system sands for use as subbase material. In: Proceedings of the 79th Annual Meeting, Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC: CD-Rom; 2000. 27 p'},{id:"B21",body:'Yazoghli-Marzouk O, Vulcano-greullet N, Cantegrit L, Friteyre L, Jullien A. Recycling foundry sand in road construction–field assessment. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;61:69-78. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.02.055'},{id:"B22",body:'Fox PJ, Mast DG. Geotechn1cal performance of highway embankment constructed using waste foundry sand (Final Report). School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., Project No. C-36-36Z, FHWA/IN/JTRP-98/1; 1998'},{id:"B23",body:'Partridge BK, Fox PJ, Alleman JE, Mast DG. Field demonstration of highway embankment construction using waste foundry sand. Transportation research record 1670. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC; 1999;1670(1):98-105. DOI: 10.3141/1670-13'},{id:"B24",body:'Abichou T, Benson C, Edil T. Foundry green sand as hydraulic barriers: Field study. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 2002;128(3):206-215'},{id:"B25",body:'Abdulsattar ZA, Mohammed EA. Effect of waste foundry sand on indirect tensile strength of asphalt mixture. Journal of Engineering and Sustainable Development. 2018;22(4):116-123. DOI: 10.31272/jeasd.2018.4.9'},{id:"B26",body:'Coutinho B, Furlan AP, Fabbri GTP. Evaluation of the reuse of foundry sand as aggregate in dense asphalt mixtures. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Pavement Recycling (ISPR ‘05), ISPR; 14-16 March 2005; São Paulo/SP, Brazil; 2005'},{id:"B27",body:'Winkler ES, Bol’shakov AA. Characterization of foundry sand waste. Center for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Chelsea Center for Recycling and Economic Development, Technical Research Program; 2000'},{id:"B28",body:'Shah V, Aijaz A, Naidu K, Francis S, Kayam PK. Waste aggregate in concrete pavement—A review. International Journal of Latest Engineering Research and Applications (IJLERA). 2016;1(9):44-50'},{id:"B29",body:'Abichou T, Benson CH, Edil TB. Beneficial reuse of foundry by-products. In: Environmental Geotechnical Report 99-1. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison; 1999'},{id:"B30",body:'Chaudhari AG, Patekar PS, Khan JK, Rokade VJ, Siddiqui AS. Review study: On replacement of fine aggregate by foundry sand in a pavement. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science and Engineering. 2017;3(3):402-405'},{id:"B31",body:'FHWA. User Guidelines for Waste and Byproduct Materials in Pavement Construction, Publication Number: FHWA-RD-97-148. Available from: https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/97148/intro.cfm'},{id:"B32",body:'Suji D, Poovendran S, Prabhakar P. Experimental study on partial replacement of waste foundry sand in flexible pavements. International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering Research. 2016;4(1):188-197'},{id:"B33",body:'Campelo NS, Campos AMLS, Aragão AF. Comparative analysis of asphalt concrete mixtures employing pebbles and synthetic coarse aggregate of calcined clay in the Amazon region. International Journal of Pavement Engineering. 2017;20(5):507-518. DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2017.1309199'},{id:"B34",body:'Liu Y, Han S, Zhang Z, Xu O. Design and evaluation of gap-graded asphalt rubber mixtures. Materials and Design. Elsevier Ltd; 2012;35:873-877. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2011.08.047'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nilton de Souza Campelo",address:"ncampelo@ufam.edu.br",affiliation:'
Master Science Program in Civil Engineering, Federal University of Amazonas, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Karine Jussara Sá da Costa",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Roraima, Brazil
Master Science Program in Civil Engineering, Federal University of Amazonas, Brazil
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+4,800 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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