The difference between the terms “scavenging” and “harvesting” [3].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1011",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Environmental change is increasingly considered a critical topic for researchers across multiple disciplines, as well as policy makers throughout the world. Mounting evidence shows that environments in every part of the globe are undergoing tremendous human-induced change. Population growth, urbanization and the expansion of the global economy are putting increasing pressure on ecosystems around the planet. To understand the causes and consequences of environmental change, the contributors to this book employ spatial and non-spatial data, diverse theoretical perspectives and cutting edge research tools such as GIS, remote sensing and other relevant technologies.\nInternational Perspectives on Global Environmental Change brings together research from around the world to explore the complexities of contemporary, and historical environmental change. As an InTech open source publication current and cutting edge research methodologies and research results are quickly published for the academic policy-making communities.\nDimensions of environmental change explored in this volume include:\n\nClimate change\nHistorical environmental change\nBiological responses to environmental change\nLand use and land cover change\nPolicy and management for environmental change",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-815-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4366-6",doi:"10.5772/1518",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",numberOfPages:490,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"aaa208c16030078cdca711a1867ca7ff",bookSignature:"Stephen S. Young and Steven E. 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Energy harvesting represents the energy derived from ambient sources that is extracted and directly converted into electrical energy. This way to provide energy is further used when another energy source is not available (off-grid use) to supply small- and medium-sized electronic devices, as well as electrical systems, with power from nW to hundreds of mW [1, 2]. Generally, energy harvesting refers to an environment with regular and well-assessed ambient energy sources. Energy harvesting is applied when there is a match between the available energy and the energy required.
\nAnother term,
\n | Scavenging | \nHarvesting | \n
---|---|---|
Thermal | \nForest fires | \nFurnace covers | \n
Photonic | \nInterior lighting | \nDiurnal solar cycles | \n
Mechanical | \nFoot traffic | \nMotors, ductwork | \n
The difference between the terms “scavenging” and “harvesting” [3].
The ambient energy sources used for energy harvesting are temperature gradient, electromagnetic radiation, light, motion and chemical energy (Figure 1).
\nEnergy harvesting sources.
An energy harvester consists of:
an energy source (which is natural or artificial);
one or more transducers that convert environmental energy into electrical energy;
an energy storage device (e.g., a rechargeable battery or a capacitor that stores the harvested energy);
process control electronics [4].
The most used energy harvesters are: thermal harvester based on the thermoelectric effect; light harvester based on the photoelectric effect; electromagnetic harvester based on induction; chemical harvester based on different reactions on the electrodes surfaces; piezoelectric harvester based on mechanical vibrations or human motion (which converts pressure or stress into electricity); radio-frequency (RF) harvester (that captures the ambient radio-frequency radiation).
\nThermoelectric energy harvesting mainly depends on the operation of the thermoelectric generator (TEG). A TEG converts heat directly into electrical energy according to the Seebeck effect. In this case, the motion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) leads to a temperature difference across this device. Its operation is described in Section 2.3. Furthermore, the thermoelectric energy harvesting system can generate power from hundreds of μW to mW for different sensors and transmitters.
\nIn the last decades, the specialists’ attention has been focused on the development of green energy technology to decrease fossil fuel utilisation and greenhouse gas emissions. A thermoelectric harvester produces green energy for energy harvesting with a multitude of advantages: maintenance-free, because of the use of highly reliable and compact solid-state device; silent and quiet; highly efficient in environmental terms because the heat is harvested from waste heat sources and converted into electricity; operation with high maximum temperatures (up to 250°C); useful scalable applications configured to harvest wide amounts of energy when necessary; possibility to harvest power from both hot surface or cold surface; green energy behaviour, being eco-friendly [5]. A TEG device produces energy without using fossil fuel, leading to a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
\nUnlike thermodynamic PV systems or conventional heat engines (Rankine, Stirling), the energy conversion efficiency of the TEG is limited to about 5–15% [6]. The temperature difference across the TEG system and the dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit (\n
The recovery of the electrical energy from waste heat using diverse sources is depicted in Figure 2.
\nElectrical energy recovered from waste heat.
The thermoelectric effects are reversible phenomena leading to direct conversion between thermal and electrical energy [9]. Direct energy conversion relies on the physical transport properties of the thermoelectric materials (thermal conductivity, electric conductivity and Seebeck coefficient) and their energy conversion efficiency in terms of the figure-of-merit. These materials are suitable to convert thermal energy into electrical energy and vice-versa. The main phenomena that occur in a thermoelectric device are the thermoelectric effects (Seebeck, Peltier, Thomson), and the Joule effect.
When the electrical energy is converted into thermal energy, the phenomenon is known as the
When the thermal energy is converted into electrical energy, the phenomenon is known as the
The
Schematic of the Seebeck effect in an open circuit.
The Seebeck voltage at the circuit junctions can be written as:
\nwhere \n
The Seebeck coefficient of a thermoelectric material or
The Seebeck coefficient\n
The
where \n
Therefore, the sign convention of the Thomson coefficient is considered as [17]:
The following relationships hold between the Seebeck coefficient and the Peltier coefficient, as well as between the Seebeck coefficient and the Thomson coefficient. These are called Thomson relations [14]:
\nThermoelectric effects that take place in TEG devices are subject to the thermodynamic laws. According to thermodynamics, the heat transfer across a finite temperature difference is an irreversible process and the entropy change of such process is positive. The heat conduction and Joule heating are considered as irreversible processes.
\nThe heat is irreversibly produced according to the Joule effect when an electrical current flows through a conductor or semiconductor. The Joule effect takes place at the TEG interconnects due to their electrical contact resistance or in a thermocouple. Other irreversibilities are found in the heat transfer between the TEG and the local environment [9]. If the irreversible processes are removed, the entropy becomes null. In this case, the ideal conditions given by the Carnot efficiency or
The TEG device is composed of one or more thermoelectric couples. The simplest TEG consists of a thermocouple, comprising a pair of P-type and N-type thermoelements or legs connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. The differentiation between N- and P-doped materials is important. The P-type leg has a positive Seebeck coefficient and an excess of holes h+. The N-type leg has a negative Seebeck coefficient and an excess of free electrons e− [22]. The two legs are linked together on one side by an electrical conductor forming a junction or interconnect, usually being a copper strip. Let us denote the voltage at the outside terminal connected to the N-type leg on the cold side of TEG as
Schematic of a TEG device with a single thermoelectric couple and two legs.
A number of thermoelectric couples
Schematic of a TEG device with
In this case, the equivalent internal resistance of the thermoelectric couples in series is:
\nand the equivalent thermal conductance of the thermoelectric couples in parallel is:
\nwhere \n
These relations are further simplified considering that N-type and P-type legs are the same as form (\n
and the equivalent thermal conductance is:
\nIf the electrical contact resistance \n
The voltage at the TEG terminals is:
\nwhere \n
The input electrical current in the circuit is:
\nwhere the load resistance \n
The electric output power delivered by TEG to the load is:
\nOn the other side, the electric output power absorbed by the load (considering the conventional sign, with the current flowing as indicated in Figure 5) is:
\nThe electric output power absorbed by the load resistance \n
The maximum electric output power of a TEG is obtained when the electrical output power is maximised with respect to the electric current:
\nThe maximum electrical output power delivered by TEG is obtained if the load resistance is equal to the equivalent internal resistance of the thermoelectric couples in series \n
The heat flow rate absorbed at the hot junction of the TEG depends on the Peltier heat, the heat conduction and the Joule heat. The heat flow rate absorbed at the hot junction depends on the thermoelectric material properties and leg geometries:
\nA TEG could be considered as a thermal battery, a physical structure used to store and release thermal energy. The electromotive force of this thermal battery is the Seebeck voltage (Figure 6).
\nEquivalent circuit of a TEG device.
A thermoelectric energy harvesting system consists of the following parts (Figure 7):
Block diagram of a thermoelectric energy harvesting system.
The heat sink is required at the TEG when a high heat flow rate is applied on the TEG hot side, and the cold side is kept at low temperature, leading to high conversion efficiency; in this case, the TEG efficiency is strongly influenced by the TEG design.
DC-DC
The efficiency of the thermoelectric energy harvesting system is defined as the ratio of the electrical energy output (used or stored) to the total energy input. This efficiency also contains the electrical efficiency of TEGs, the heat exchangers efficiency, as well as the efficiency of the DC-DC converter. The total energy input especially depends on the energy obtained from the hot source. Also, the total energy input depends to a lesser extent on the mechanical energy needed to operate the thermoelectric energy harvesting system (e.g., pressure losses in the heat exchangers or cooling of the cold heat sink) [29].
\nResearchers are focused on the improvement of the thermoelectric conversion efficiency of TEGs. For this reason, two objectives must be fulfilled. The first objective is to improve the dimensionless figure-of-merit
The electrical efficiency of a TEG (or thermoelectric conversion efficiency) is the ratio between the electric output power
Eq. (19) is written in more details as
\nwhere
The efficiency corresponding to \n
where \n
The thermoelectric conversion efficiency is maximised with respect to \n
The TEG device operates as all thermal engines with efficiency less than the efficiency of ideal Carnot cycle \n
In this case, the thermoelectric conversion efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency and is written, by introducing the reduced efficiency \n
and the corresponding electric output power is:
\nFor a cold side temperature of
The TEG efficiency\n
The thermoelectric waste heat recovery is influenced to a bigger extent by the thermoelectric conversion efficiency\n
The maximum efficiency \n
The dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit \n
The upper side term\n
The higher is
A good thermoelectric material must fulfil the following requirements:
Seebeck coefficient as high as possible to maximise energy conversion; the generated open-circuit-voltage is proportional to the Seebeck coefficient and to the temperature difference across the TEG (
Electrical conductivity \n
Thermal conductivity \n
The effective figure-of-merit of TEG, \n
where \n
Although the low efficiency is a drawback to the progress of TEGs, researchers’ and manufacturers’ attention is focused on the improvement of the following characteristics:
the dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit \n
the operating range of thermoelectric materials to work with the Δ
the use of low-price materials to reduce the negative impact of low efficiency [29].
The most popular thermoelectric material is Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3). Its utilisation in TEGs is limited (only for industrial modules with an average value of
To obtain high efficiency, segmented TEGs use high-temperature differences to raise the Carnot efficiency \n
The compatibility factor is used for choosing the proper material [48]. El-Genk and Sabre [46] obtained a TEG energy conversion efficiency of about 12% by using a segmented thermoelectric couple. Snyder [47] observed that the segmentation of the thermoelements with SnTe or PbTe produced low extra power, while the filled Skutterudite obtained an increment in efficiency from 10.5 to 13.6%. Further studies [47, 48] reported that the segmentation was efficient only for \n
In TEG systems, a crucial factor is the optimisation of the systems design, together with the heat source and heat sink attached to the TEG device. Industrial utilisation of TEGs needs other components (like heat exchangers and DC-DC converter) to form a powerful TEG [29].
\nThe TEG performance is influenced not only by the low conversion efficiency, but also by the heat transfer conditions on the cold and hot sides of TEG and its geometry. The Δ
The TEG device optimisation is correlated with the impact of the geometry device [56]. It has been demonstrated that an important rise in the electric output power from TEG is obtained by changing the leg geometry. The leg geometry is optimised by determining the leg height and the number of thermocouples, leading to maximisation of electric output power or efficiency at given operating conditions. Therefore, there is interdependence between the optimal leg geometry and the electrical load resistance
There is an optimal solution also for the leg length. If the leg is long, the electric output power is limited due to the increase in the internal resistance of the leg that limits the electric current. Conversely, a short leg will behave as a good thermal conductor that reduces the temperatures between its ends; hence, even though the internal electrical resistance will be low, the electric output power will not be significant and the electric conversion efficiency will be low [9].
\nLavric et al. [57] demonstrated that the electric output power is influenced by the effects above mentioned (a reduction of the leg length leads to a reduction of the electrical resistance; an increase of the leg length leads to the higher temperature difference across the TEG). If the geometric parameters of the TEG (leg length, semiconductor pair number and the base area ratio of semiconductor columns to TEG) are optimised, the electric output power and the thermoelectric conversion efficiency are considerably improved. Such an improvement is also reported in [58]. The first step was to consider the electric output power as the objective function and the inputs were the geometric parameters. The electrical output power values were about 269, 314, 338, and 893% higher than the values of the initial design. The second step was to consider the TEG conversion efficiency \n
Two dimensionless parameters influence the maximisation of the electric output power and the conversion efficiency of TEG [35]:
slenderness ratio, which is a geometric parameter:
external load parameter:
The thermal efficiency of the TEG can be improved while decreasing the slenderness ratio for large external load parameters. Yilbas and Sahin [35] obtained high conversion efficiency for the slenderness ratio \n
Zhang et al. [55] propose a design method of thermoelectric elements segmentation of TEG, considering their length as the first design parameter. The optimal length ratio, referring to the highest values of the maximum electric output power, and the thermoelectric conversion efficiency are influenced by thermoelectric materials, leg geometry and heat transfer characteristics. Zhang et al. [59] proposed two new parameters, namely, the power factor associated with the electric output power, and the efficiency factor associated with the thermoelectric conversion efficiency. These new parameters are useful for obtaining the optimum temperature range of each segment:
considering that the thermoelectric materials of the TEG legs have the same physical transport properties (
The fins attached to the heat transfer surfaces are very important for enhancing the heat transfer at the hot and cold sides. One interface is between the heat sink and the TEG cold side, and the other interface is between the heat source and the TEG hot side.
\nAn increment of the fin height and fin number results when the electric output power of the TEG rises [60]. An optimal connection between the height and the number of fins to provide the maximum net electric output power is obtained in Jang et al. [60]. The heat transfer increases when the fin number is higher and the fin height rises, due to the extension of the heat transfer area. However, when the height of the fin increases over a given value, the change in the output electrical power becomes less significant. Borcuch et al. [61] investigated the effect of hot side heat exchanger design on the operating parameters of a TEG. Furthermore, the heat sink connected to the TEG device must be thermally matched with the TEG to maximise the electric output power and voltage. In this case, the thermal interface losses are practically negligible, that means \n
To maximise the output voltages of TEG, a big number of thermocouples are necessary, and their total thermal resistance must be equal to the thermal resistance of the heat sink. The reduced thermal resistance of the TEG decreases very much the temperature difference [62].
\nThe thermal resistance of the heat sink is:
\nwhere \n
The thermal resistance and thermal conductance of TEG are linked with each other by an inverse ratio as:
\nThe thermal energy through the TEG is written as:
\nconsidering that \n
The following cases may be considered:
If \n
If \n
When \n
Also, when the heat sinks are attached to both sides of the TEG, the total thermal resistance (thermal interfaces resistances and thermal resistances of the heat sinks) is equal to the \n
Astrain et al. [64] demonstrated the significance of decreasing the thermal resistance between the heat source and the hot side of the TEG, as well as the cold side of TEG and the environment. The numerical model assesses the TEG performance, taking into account the heat exchangers attached on both sides of the TEG, the heat source, as well as the heat sink. The results obtained show a good accuracy of the model. The results demonstrated that increasing by 10% the thermal resistances of both heat exchangers, the electric output power is improved by 8%. Martínez et al. [65] optimised the heat exchangers fixed on both sides of a TEG to maximise the electric output power. They have concluded that the thermal resistances of the heat exchangers are very important for TEG design. Zhou et al. [66] studied the heat transfer features of a TEG device. The heat transfer intensification on the cold side of the TEG leads to a significant reduction of the temperature and thermal resistance on this side, and implicitly a rise of the electric output power of the TEG device. Furthermore, Zhou et al. [66] highlighted that the refrigerant which flows by heat exchangers produce higher net powers than conventional heat sink with fins. An in-depth review of the heat sink for TEG and parameters affecting TEG performance is presented in [26].
\nThe refrigeration system of the TEG has been assessed by Aranguren et al. [30]. This system consists of a multi-channel heat exchanger attached to the cold side of the TEG, another heat exchanger used to decrease the refrigerant temperature, the pump to circulate the refrigerant, and the connecting pipes. A numerical model has been implemented to compute the total thermal resistance and the power consumption in the system components. In this model, all system elements have been included to obtain an accurate analysis. The combination of computational and experimental results shows that the system configuration leading to the maximum net power is different with respect to the configuration resulting in the lowest total thermal resistance.
\nThe favourable characteristics of the thermoelectric devices promote the development of standalone TEGs for energy harvesting in a wide range of applications (Figure 8) as military, aerospace (e.g., powering spacecraft), biological systems (e.g., to power implanted pacemakers) and other applications (e.g., power for wristwatches or mobile communications) [67]. The key element to improve the energy conversion efficiency of TEG is the effect of waste heat recovery. Waste heat represents the heat produced by machines (e.g., exhaust pipes from automobiles), industrial processes (e.g., cooling towers, burnt solid waste and radioactive wastes), electrical equipment (e.g., kerosene lamps) and the human body. For various TEG applications (e.g., waste thermal power recovery using TEGs and powering of wireless sensors by TEGs) even if Δ
Energy conversion applications.
The TEG devices are especially suitable for waste heat harvesting for low-power generation to supply electric energy for microelectronic applications. Wearable TEGs harvest heat generated by the body to generate electricity. For this reason, it is possible to use waste human body heat to power a TEG watch device. In this case, the wristwatch can capture the thermoelectric energy. Now, body-attached TEGs are commercially available products including watches operated by body temperature and thin film devices. Some manufacturers produce and commercialise wristwatches with an efficiency about 0.1% at 300 mV open circuit voltage from 1.5 K temperature drop and 22 μW of electric output power under of TEG normal operation. A thermo-clock wristwatch produces a voltage of 640 mV and gives a power of 13.8 μW for each °C of temperature difference. A wristwatch with 1040 thermoelements generates in the same conditions at about 200 mV [25]. The wearable TEG performance is affected by the utilisation of the free air convection cooling on the cold side of TEG, the low operating temperature difference between the body and environment, as well as the demand for systems that are thin and lightweight, being practical for long-term usage [68].
\nFurthermore, various microelectronic devices, like wireless sensor networks, mobile devices (e.g., mp3 player, smartphones and iPod), and biomedical devices are developed. The thermoelectric energy harvesters are microelectronic devices made of inorganic thermoelectric materials, at different dimensions, with a lifetime of about 5 years [69] and electric output powers are cardiac pacemakers (\n
For these microelectronic devices, standard batteries are used. These batteries are made of various inorganic materials (like nickel, zinc, lithium, lead, mercury, sulphuric acid and cadmium) that are not friendly for the human body. In this case, the body-attached TEGs could be an alternative solution because the materials used are non-toxic [36].
\nA TEG to be applied in a network of body sensors has been presented in [78]. In this case, the device has been fixed in a body zone, where the maximum body heat has been obtained and also maximum energy. This equipment is capable of storing about 100 μW on the battery, leading to an output voltage of 2.4 V. Another TEG has been designed to be used on the wrist [79]. The output voltage of the device was 150 mV under normal conditions and an electric output power of 0.3 nW.
\nThermal energy sensors (like heat-flux sensors, infrared sensors, power ultrasound effect sensors, fluid-flow sensors and water condensation detectors) are used to convert heat flow rates into electrical signals by a TEG system [36].
\nThe heat-flux sensors are used to evaluate the thermoelectric properties of micro-TEGs. In this case, the generated power and the thermoelectric conversion efficiency are measured with high accuracy [80]. The electrical signal generated by the heat-flux sensor is proportional to the heat flow rate applied to the sensor surface. The convective heat flow rate is measured from the temperature difference between two sides of a thermal resistive element plate placed across the flow of heat. The heat radiated from the mass is absorbed by the infrared sensor (IR) and the temperature increase leads to the generation of the Seebeck voltage. The thermoelectric IR sensor operates in a range from 7 to 14 μm [69].
\nAbout 70% of energy in the world is wasted as heat and is released into the environment with a significant influence on global warming [81]. The waste heat energy released into the environment is one of the most significant sources of clean, fuel-free and cheap energy available. The unfavourable effects of global warming can be diminished using the TEG system by harvesting waste heat from residential, industrial and commercial fields [36].
\nTEG is substantially used to recover waste heat in different applications ranging from μW to MW. Different waste heat sources and temperature ranges for thermoelectric energy harvesting are shown in Table 2 [69].
\nTemperature ranges, °C | \nTemperature, °C | \nWaste heat sources | \n
---|---|---|
High temperature (>650°C) | \n650–760 760–815 760–110 620–730 | \nAluminium refining furnaces Copper reverberatory furnace Copper refining furnace Cement kiln Hydrogen plants | \n
Medium temperature (230–650°C) | \n315–600 425–650 425–650 | \nReciprocating engine exhausts Catalytic crackers Annealing furnace cooling systems | \n
Low temperature (230–650°C) | \n32–55 27–50 27–88 | \nCooling water Air compressors Forming Dies and pumps | \n
Different waste heat sources and temperature ranges for thermoelectric harvesting technology.
The automotive industry is considered as the most attractive sector in which TEGs are used to recover the lost heat. Various leading automobile manufacturers develop TEGs (\n
A TEG with \n
The main components of the automotive TEG that considers waste heat like their energy source are one heat exchanger which takes heat from engine coolant and the exhaust gases and release it to the hot side of the TEG; the TEG system; one heat exchanger which takes the heat from the TEG and releases it to the coolant or to the air; the electrical power conditioning and the interface unit to supply the electric output power of the TEG system to the automobile electric system (Figure 9). Supplementary at these components, there are secondary components (e.g., the electronic unit, the electric pump, sensors system, valves, fans and so on) depending on the vehicle design and application type [85].
\nThe main components of an automotive TEG system.
Thacher et al. [86] carried out the feasibility of the TEG system installed in the exhaust pipe in a light truck by connecting a series of 16 TEG modules. The experimental results showed good performance of the system at high speeds. Hsiao et al. [87] carried out an analytical and experimental assessment of the waste heat recovery system from an automobile engine. The results showed better performance by attaching TEGs to the exhaust pipe than to the radiators. Hsu et al. [88] introduced a heat exchanger with 8 TEGs and 8 air-cooled heat sink assemblies, obtaining a maximum power of 44 W. An application to recover waste heat has been developed by Hsu et al. [89], for a system consisting of 24 TEGs used to convert heat from the exhaust pipe of a vehicle to electrical energy. The results show a temperature increase at the hot side
The conversion efficiency for the TEG system could be in the range of 5–10% [83]. The researchers’ attention is focused on the development of new thermoelectric materials that offer improved energy conversion efficiency and a working temperature range more significant than for internal combustion engines. It is planned by 2020, about 90% of cars in the USA to have mounted TEGs for their cooling equipment, thus replacing the air conditioning systems. In this case, an amount of 5% of daily average gasoline consumption would be saved and a significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions would be obtained [25].
\nTo recover waste heat from the exhaust gas of engines, the research efforts of manufacturers focused on different solutions to compete in the production of ever-cleaner cars. Even if the cost of the bismuth telluride is relatively high, the technical feasibility of TEGs for the automobile industry is widely demonstrated, making it very attractive. The goal of the manufacturers is to develop TEG systems with automated production and low-cost thermoelectric materials [29].
\nA considerable amount of heat is released into the atmosphere from space vehicles (turbine engines from helicopters and aircraft jet engines) [29]. To obtain a significant reduction of the gas pollutant into the environment, it is necessary a remarkable reduction of electricity consumption and utilisation of the available energy in these types of vehicles. Implicitly, their operating costs are reduced [25].
\nTo power these space vehicles, TEG systems are used (e.g., on fixed-wing aircraft). The backup TEG is a type of static thermoelectric energy harvesting system with a significant temperature difference across the TEG around 100°C [92].
\nTEG for energy harvesting uses the available temperature gradient and collects sufficient energy to power up an energy wireless sensor node (WSN) to be autonomous. This WSN is used for health monitoring systems (HMS) in an aircraft structure. The main components of a WSN are the energy source and the wireless sensor unit. An in-depth review of WSN mechanisms and applications is presented in [10].
\nA TEG energy harvesting captures enough energy for a wireless sensor. One side of the TEG is fixed directly to the fuselage and the other side is attached to a phase-change material (PCM) heat storage unit to obtain a temperature difference during take-off and landing (Figure 10). PCM is considered an essential element for the heat storage unit because it can maximise the Δ
Schematic of the thermoelectric harvesting system in an aircraft.
An application of Bi2Te3 modules on turbine nozzles has been addressed in [97]. Even though the electric power that can be harvested may be significant, the weight of the cold exchanger is still excessive for the specific application.
\nFuture applications in aircraft may be envisioned in locations in which there are hot and cold heat flows, especially with the use of light thermoelectric materials. However, one of the main issues remains the weight of the heat exchangers [29].
\nThe radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are a solid and highly reliable source of electrical energy to power space vehicles being capable of operating in vacuum and to resist at high vibrations [98, 99]. RTGs are used to power space vehicles for distant NASA space expeditions (e.g., several years or several decades) where sunlight is not enough to supply solar panels [29]. The natural radioactive decay of plutonium-238 releases huge amounts of heat, which is suitable for utilisation in RTGs to convert it into electricity. The thermoelectric materials used the thermocouples of the RTGs are adequate for high temperature considering that the heat source temperature is about 1000°C [100]. These semiconductor materials can be silicon germanium (Si Ge), lead tin telluride (PbSnTe), tellurides of antimony, germanium, and silver (TAGS) and lead telluride (PbTe).
\nUp to now, just a few surveys have been performed in the marine industry due to the lack of clear and stringent international rules at the global level. The marine transport has a significant influence on climate change because is a large amount of the greenhouse gas emissions [29]. The naval transport generates a wide amount of waste heat, used to provide thermal energy onboard and seldom electrical energy. The heat sources on the marine vessels are the main engine, lubrication oil cooler, an electrical generating unit, generator and incinerators. The utilisation of waste heat onboard is for heating heavy fuel oil and accommodation places, and for freshwater production. The main engine represents the principal source of waste heat. Board incinerators are used for burning the onboard waste instead to be thrown overboard to pollute the sea water. The incinerators are the most favourable TEG systems due to the availability of their high-temperature differences [101, 102].
\nThe specialists’ attention is focused on the future design and optimisation of the high-power density TEGs for the marine environment, as well as on the development of hybrid thermoelectric ships considered as green platforms for assessing the efficiency of TEGs [103].
\nThe industry is the field where most amounts of heat are emitted and released into the atmosphere in the form of flue gases and radiant heat energy with a negative impact to the environmental pollution (emissions of CO2). For this reason, thermoelectric harvesters are good candidates to recover waste heat from industries and convert it into useful power (e.g., to supply small sensing electronic device in a plant).
\nUtilisation of TEGs in the industrial field is beneficial from two points of view:
in the industrial applications where recoverability of the waste heat by the conventional system (radiated heat energy) is very difficult to be done;
in the industrial applications where the use of thermoelectric materials reduces the need for maintenance of the systems and the price of the electric power is low, even if the efficiency is low [29].
The results of a test carried out on a TEG system attached at a carburising furnace (made of 16 Bi2Te3 modules and a heat exchanger) are indicated in [104]. The system harvested about 20% of the heat (
For this reason, the dissipation systems have been used on both sides of TEG. This prototype has obtained a 21.56 W of net power using about 100 W/m2 from the exhaust gases of the combustion chamber. To recover the radiant heat from melted metal from the steelmaking industry, the TEG systems are also considered good candidates [29].
\nFurthermore, TEGs are useful for recovery of waste heat from the cement rotary kiln to generate electricity, considering that the rotary kiln is the main equipment used for large-scale industrial cement production [106]. The performance of this hybrid Bi2Te3 and PbTe thermoelectric heat recovery system is obtained by developing a mathematical model. In this case, about 211 kW electrical output power and 3283 kW heat loss are saved by using a thermoelectric waste heat energy recovery system. The contribution of TEG is about 2%.
\nThe electric output power evaluation of a TEG system attached to an industrial thermal oil heater is presented in Barma et al. [107]. The impact of different design and flow parameters has been assessed to maximise the electrical output power. The estimated annual electrical power generation from the proposed system was about 181,209 kWh. The thermal efficiency of the TEG based on recently developed thermoelectric materials (N-type hot forged Bi2Te3 and P-type (Bi,Sb)2Te3 used for the temperature range of 300–573 K) was enhanced up to 8.18%.
\nIn residential applications, TEGs can be feasible where the heat is transferred from high temperatures to a reduced temperature heat source, and then is released into the environment. In addition, TEG can be also feasible when thermal energy is accessible in high amounts without additional costs. Types of residential applications where TEG systems could be mounted are with TEGs attached to domestic boilers, TEGs attached to stoves, as well as TEGs attached to solar systems [27].
\nThe heating boilers for residential applications provide central heating and hot water. These heating boilers are highly used in the places where the winter season with temperatures under 0°C has a long duration and the heating is necessary for all this period. The fuels used by these heating boilers can be biomass (e.g., firewood, wood pellets, wood chips) or renewable resources that provide a lower carbon footprint compared to fossil fuels [108, 109]. In spite of higher pollution, some residential applications use fossil fuel-fired boilers (boilers supplied with natural gas) due to their low maintenance [27]. Furthermore, the fuel combustion is high, providing combustion temperatures bigger than 1000°C.
\nInstead, the heating boilers contain enhanced heat transfer surfaces due to the fins, and inside them combustion takes place at over 500°C. The heat obtained is used for water heating at temperatures fewer than 80°C. By considering that some thermoelectric materials are available for high temperatures, TEGs are very suitable for this type of equipment. In this case, high-temperature differences are obtained if the TEG cold side is mounted to the water heating side and the TEG hot side is mounted to the combustion chamber of the heat exchanger. The TEG system attached to the heating boiler must provide an electric output power \n
At the global level, over than 14% of the population is still living without electricity access according to the Energy Access Outlook 2017 [110]. To deliver a small amount of electricity by using power plants to this population could be very costly. Grid connection of villages in remote areas supposes to take into account the cost of the connection of the new power lines to the grid and the distribution cost on long distances [29]. Also, traditional biomass stoves (‘threestone fires’, ‘built-in stoves’ or ‘mud-stoves’) have a reduced thermal efficiency due to incomplete fuel burning, and a lot of the heat generated is wasted through the exhausts. Furthermore, the indoor air quality is very poor related to the utilisation of biomass fuels with a negative impact on the users’ health (e.g., lung diseases, respiratory tract infections, cardiac problems, stroke, eye diseases, tuberculosis and cancer) [111].
\nConsidering that most of the stoves are used in the rural areas in remote locations away from the grid, where the income of the population is very low, the solutions with such hybrid systems (TEGs attached to stoves) must be as inexpensive as possible. These hybrid systems must be very reliable and durable, taking into account this vital problem [111]. In this case, a TEG device attached to the stove equipment used for heating and food preparation could be an attractive option. The biomass stoves-powered TEG uses heat exchangers on both sides of TEG, as well as a power management system. The internal temperatures of a stove are bigger than 600°C, while most commercial TEGs can operate continuously at temperatures higher than 250°C, so that an appropriate hot side temperature could be obtained. To obtain a maximum electric output power, the cold side temperature must be very low. In this case, the cold sink dissipates a big amount of heat maintaining its low temperature [112].
\nAccording to the literature survey, various extensive reviews about stove-attached TEG systems have been presented [27, 29, 111, 112, 113, 114]. A good option is the utilisation of the stoves using water as the cooling medium of the TEG to produce the maximum electric output power. The electrical output power decreases if the number of the TEGs is increased on the same heat sink. Such a hybrid system is suitable for complete combustion. The overall efficiency could be substantially improved [111].
\nSolar TEG (STEG) systems, PV systems and concentrating solar power plants can generate electricity by using the solar heat. A STEG is composed of a TEG system sandwiched between a solar absorber and a heat sink as shown in Figure 11. The solar flux is absorbed by the solar absorber and concentrated into one point. Then, the heat is transferred through TEG by using a pipeline, and is partially converted into electrical power by the TEG. A heat sink rejects the excess heat at the cold junction of the TEG to keep a proper Δ
Components of STEG system.
Due to the development of the thermoelectric materials, a solar TEG with an incident flux of 100 kW/m2 and a hot side temperature of 1000°C could obtain 15.9% conversion efficiency. The solar TEG is very attractive for standalone power conversion. The efficiency of a solar TEG depends on both the efficiency with which sunlight is absorbed and converted into heat, and the TEG efficiency\n
Most TEG applications have been designed for autonomous operation within a local system. Of course, the TEG output may be connected to different types of loads. In general, a TEG can be seen as a renewable energy power generation source that supplies an autonomous system or a grid-connected system. To be suitable for grid connection, the TEG needs an appropriate power conditioning system. This power conditioning system has to be a power electronic system, with specific regulation capabilities, different with respect to the ones used for solar photovoltaic and wind power systems [114], because the TEG operating conditions are different with respect to the other renewable energy sources. Molina et al. [118] proposed a control strategy to perform energy conversion from DC to AC output voltage, which maintains the operation of the thermoelectric device at the MPP. In the same proposal, active and reactive power controls are addressed by using a dedicated power conditioning system.
\nThis chapter has addressed the structures and applications of TEGs in various contexts. It has emerged that the TEG is a viable solution for energy harvesting, able to supply electrical loads in relatively low-power applications. The TEG efficiency is also typically low. Thereby, the advantages of using TEG have to be found in the characteristics of specific applications in which there is a significantly high-temperature difference across the TEG system, and other solutions with higher efficiency cannot be applied because of various limitations. These limitations may be the relatively high temperatures for the materials adopted, the strict requirements on the system to be used (regarding the type of operation, emissions of pollutants, the position of the device during operation or noise). In these cases, TEGs may be fully competitive with the other solutions.
\nIn particular, the use of TEGs is entirely consistent with the provision of green energy through energy harvesting from even small temperature differences. Some low-power applications have been identified on electronic circuits, sensors, waste heat recovery, residential energy harvesting and automotive systems. In other applications to enhance the efficiency of the systems for energy production with a higher power, the efficiency increase is still somewhat limited to consider that an investment in TEG integration may be profitable. Nevertheless, there is a growing interest in the potential of thermoelectric applications. For the future, faster development of TEG solutions can be expected in a broader range of green energy applications. This development depends on improvements in the TEG technology, better information on the TEG characteristics, and the testing of new solutions aimed at promoting better integration in the energy production systems.
\nAcronyms | |
COP | coefficient of performance |
DC | direct current |
ECG | electrocardiography |
EEG | electroencephalography |
EMG | electromyography |
HMS | health monitoring systems |
IR | infrared sensor |
MPP | maximum power point |
MPPT | maximum power point tracking |
PANI | polyaniline |
PA | polyamide |
PCM | phase-change material |
PC | phase-change |
PEDOT | poly |
RF | radio-frequency |
RTG | radioisotope thermoelectric generator |
STEG | solar thermoelectric generator |
TEG | thermoelectric generator |
WSN | wireless sensor node |
Symbols | |
\n\n\nE\n\n\n | electric field (\n\nV\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nI\n\n\n | electrical current (\n\nA\n)\n\n |
\n\n\nJ\n\n\n | current density (\n\nA\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\n\nJ\n¯\n\n\n\n | relative current density (\n\nA\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n) |
k | thermal conductivity (\n\nW\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n·\n\nK\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nK\n\n\n | thermal conductance (\n\nW\n·\n\nK\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nL\n\n\n | length (m) |
\n\n\nm\n\n\n | resistance ratio |
\n\n\nn\n\n\n | number of thermoelectric couples |
\n\n\nP\n\n\n | electric power (\n\nW\n\n) |
\n\n\n\nQ\ṅ\n\n\n\n | heat flow rate (\n\nW\n\n) |
\n\n\nR\n\n\n | resistance (\n\nΩ\n\n) |
\n\n\nS\n\n\n | cross-section (\n\n\nm\n2\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nt\n\n\n | temperature (\n\n\n\n°\n\nC\n\n) |
\n\n\nT\n\n\n | absolute temperature (\n\nK\n\n) |
\n\n\n∆\nT\n\n\n | temperature difference (\n\nK\n\n) |
\n\n\n∇\nT\n\n\n | temperature gradient (\n\nK\n\n) |
\n\n\nu\n\n\n | compatibility factor |
\n\n\nV\n\n\n | voltage (\n\nV\n\n) |
\n\n\nx\n\n\n | slenderness ratio |
\n\n\ny\n\n\n | external load parameter |
\n\n\nZ\n\n\n | thermoelectric figure-of-merit (\n\nW\n·\n\nK\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nZT\n\n\n | dimensionless figure-of-merit |
Greek symbols | |
\n\n\nα\n\n\n | Seebeck coefficient (\n\nV\n·\n\nK\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nε\n\n\n | fraction of waste heat passed through the thermoelectric couples |
\n\n\nη\n\n\n | (efficiency) |
\n\n\nμ\n\n\n | Thomson coefficient (\n\nV\n·\n\nK\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
\n\n\nπ\n\n\n | Peltier coefficient (\n\nV\n\n) |
\n\n\nρ\n\n\n | electrical resistivity (\n\nΩ\n·\nm\n\n) |
\n\n\nσ\n\n\n | electrical conductivity (\n\nS\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n) |
Subscripts | |
a | contact |
\n\n\namb\n\n\n | (ambient) |
c | cold side |
C | Carnot |
\n\n\nh\n\n\n | hot side |
\n\n\nhs\n\n\n | heat sink |
L | load |
N | N-type semiconductor |
P | P-type semiconductor |
max | maximum |
r | reduced |
t | thermal |
tot | total |
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