Examples of average-consensus protocols forming the weights \n
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-165-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-164-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-166-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"681a60ff84a29b9f72de9b662bab9c38",bookSignature:"Prof. Shailendra K. Saxena",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12104.jpg",keywords:"Viral Outbreak, Viral Epidemic, Viral Pandemic, Disease Outbreak Detection, COVID-19, Nipah, Ebola, MERS, Pathogenesis, Host-Pathogen Interaction, Immunity, Antiviral",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"16 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Dr. Shailendra K. has received many awards and honors in India and abroad, including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various prestigious international societies/academies, including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of MedProf. He is the vice dean and Professor at King George\\'s Medical University, Lucknow.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"14",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"441704",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Javor",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441704/images/20009_n.jpg",email:"ana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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While in the traditional centralized Kalman filter setup all sensor nodes have to send their measurements to a computing (fusion) center to obtain the state estimate, in the distributed filtering schemes the nodes only share limited information with their neighboring nodes (i.e. a subset of all other nodes) and yet obtain state estimates that are comparable to that of the centralized filter in a minimum-mean-squared-error sense. This particular feature of the distributed filters would potentially make the data communication between the nodes cost-effective and develop the nodes’ capacity to perform
Next to sensor networks, distributed filtering can therefore benefit several other applications such as formation flying of aerial vehicles [9], cooperative robotics [10] and disciplines that concern the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). The latter is the topic of this present contribution. The GNSS have been proven to be an efficient tool for determination of time varying parameters that are of importance for Earth science disciplines like positioning, deformation, timing and atmosphere [11, 12]. Parameter estimation in GNSS often relies on the data processing of a
The structure of this contribution is as follows. We first briefly review the principles of the standard Kalman filter and its information form in Section 2. The additivity property of the information filter that makes this filter particularly useful for distributed processing is also highlighted. In Section 3 we discuss average consensus rules on which the sensor nodes agree to fuse each other information. Different consensus protocols are discussed and a ‘probabilistic’ measure for the evaluation of their convergence rates is proposed. Section 4 is devoted to the CKF algorithmic steps. Its two time-scale nature is remarked and a three-step recursion for evaluating the consensus-based error variance matrix is developed. In Section 5 we apply the CKF theory to a small-scale network of GNSS receivers collecting ionospheric observables over time. Conducting a precision analysis, we compare the precision of the network-based ionospheric solutions with those of their single-receiver and consensus-based counterparts. It is shown how the CKF of each receiver responses to an increase in the number of iterative communications between the neighboring nodes. Concluding remarks and future outlook are provided in Section 6.
\nConsider a time series of observable random vectors \n
To predict the state-vectors in an optimal sense, one often uses the minimum mean squared error (MMSE) principle as the optimality criterion, see e.g., [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. In case no restrictions are placed on the class of predictors, the MMSE predictor \n
\nEq. (1) implies that (1) the BLP is unbiased, i.e. \n
The Kalman filter is a
\n
with
\nand
\nfor the time instances \n
\n
with
\nfor \n
\n
That the initial error variance matrix \n
\n
that are both uncorrelated with the previous data \n
The error variance matrix \n
\n
that are both uncorrelated with \n
since \n
The error variance matrix \n
since \n
In the derivation of the Kalman filter one assumes the mean of the random initial state-vector \n
Thus
\nThe above error variance matrix \n
showing that \n
The MMSE of the BLUP recursion is never smaller than that of the Kalman filter, as the Kalman filter makes use of additional information, namely, the known mean \n
The three-step recursion presented in Eqs. (7), (9) and (12) concerns the time-evolution of the predictor \n
Given the definition above, the information filter recursion concerning the time-evolution of \n
where \n
The algorithmic steps of the information filter are presented in \nFigure 1\n. In the absence of data, the filter is initialized by the zero information \n
Algorithmic steps of the information filter recursion concerning the time-evolution of the information vector
\n
Matrix \n
shows an example of the representation (19). With Eq. (19), a generalization of the time update (\nFigure 1\n) can be shown to be given by
\nThus instead of \n
As stated previously, the information filter delivers outcomes equivalent to those of the Kalman filter recursion. Thus any particular preference for the information filter must be attributed to the
As shown in \nFigure 1\n, the information measurement update is
Accordingly, the observable vector \n
Thus the measurement noise vectors \n
where
\nAccording to Eq. (24), the measurement information of each node, say \n
Now consider the situation where each node runs its own
The local states \n
that are equal to the central states \n
To compute the average quantities \n
In the previous section, we briefly discussed the potential applicability of the information filter as a tool for handling the measurement model Eq. (22) in a distributed manner. With the representation Eq. (28) however, one may be inclined to conclude that such applicability is limited to the case where the nodes \n
Instead of having direct connections, the idea is now to relax such a stringent requirement by assuming that the nodes are linked to each other
The way the nodes interact with each other to transfer information is referred to as the interaction topology between the nodes. The interaction topology is often described by a directed graph whose vertices and edges, respectively, represent the nodes and communication links [4]. The interaction topology may also undergo a
is therefore assumed to be connected. We define the
Communications graphs of 20 sensor nodes. The edges represent two-way communication links between the nodes. (a) Network with 49 links. (b) Network with different numbers of links over four sessions: 7 links in session 1 (R), 6 links in session 2 (Y), 8 links in session 3 (G) and 7 links in session 4 (B).
Given the right-hand-vector \n
as an
with \n
The question that now comes to the fore is how to choose the weights \n
or
\nThe \n
(\n
where the \n
Examples of such consensus protocols are given in \nTable 1\n. As shown, the weights form a symmetric weight matrix \n
Protocols | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|
Protocol 1 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Protocol 2 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Protocol 3 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Protocol 4 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
otherwise \n | \n
Examples of average-consensus protocols forming the weights \n
The degree (number of neighbors) of node \n
To provide insight into the applicability of the protocols given in \nTable 1\n, we apply them to the networks of \nFigure 2\n. Twenty values (scalars), say \n
Performances of protocols 1, 2 and 3 (network (a) of
\n\nFigure 3\n shows that the states \n
Now let the initial states \n
Thus the closer the squared matrix \n
with the eigenvalues \n
The above equation shows that the entries of the variance matrix (36) are largely driven by the second largest eigenvalue of \n
to evaluate the convergence rates of the protocols, where \n
which is the probability that the absolute differences \n
Probability
\n\nFigure 4\n demonstrates that the convergence performance of Protocol 4 is clearly better than that of Protocol 2, as it delivers higher probabilities (for the networks of \nFigure 2\n). Such a conclusion however, cannot be made on the basis of the results of \nFigure 3\n. This shows that results obtained on the basis of specific ‘realizations’ of \n
In Section 2.5 we discussed how the additivity property of the measurement update Eq. (26) offers possibilities for developing multiple distributed local filters \n
The two time-scale nature of a consensus-based Kalman filter (CKF): The data sampling time-scale
Under the assumption \n
Algorithmic steps of the CKF in information form concerning the time-evolution of the local information vector
With the consensus-based information filter, presented in \nFigure 6\n, it is therefore feasible to develop multiple distributed filters, all running in parallel over time. By taking recourse to an average-consensus protocol, not all the nodes are needed to be directly linked, thereby allowing non-neighboring nodes to also benefit from information states of each other. The price one has to pay for such an attractive feature of the CKF is that the local predictors
\nwill have a
Note that the terms \n
since \n
that is not necessarily equal to \n
In \nFigure 7\n we present the three-step recursion of the error variance matrix \n
The three-step recursion of the error variance matrix
To better appreciate the recursion given in \nFigure 7\n, let us consider a special case where a
The central error variance matrix \n
in which the scalar \n
Substitution into the stated recursion provides us with the time-evolution of the error variance matrix \n
This shows that the consensus-based error variance matrix \n
as \n
The purpose of this section is to demonstrate how the CKF theory, discussed in Section 4, can play a pivotal role in applications for which the GNSS measurements of a
As previously discussed, consensus-based algorithms and in particular the CKF can be employed to process network data in a distributed filtering scheme, i.e. no computing center is required. In order to illustrate such applicability, we simulate a network of 13 GNSS receivers located in Perth, Western Australia (\nFigure 8\n). As shown in the figure, each node (white circle) represents a receiver having data links (red lines) to its neighbors with inter-station distances up to 4 km. We therefore assume that the receivers receive each other data within the ranges not longer than 4 km. For instance, receiver 1 is directly connected to receivers 2 and 6, but not to receiver 3 (the inter-station distance between receivers 1 and 3 is about 8 km).
\nA network of 13 GNSS receivers simulated over Perth, Western Australia. Each node (white circle) represents a receiver tracking GNSS satellites. The receivers have data links to their neighbors with inter-station distances up to 4 km. The data links are shown by red lines.
Although the GNSS observables contain information on various positioning and non-positioning parameters, here we restrict ourselves to
Let the scalar \n
where the term within \n
with \n
forming the variance matrices \n
Longitude (
Suppose that \n
Thus the state-vector \n
Thus the DCBs \n
The network receivers \n
As the satellites revolve around the Earth, not all of which are simultaneously visible to the ‘small-scale’ network of \nFigure 8\n. Their visibility over time is shown in \nFigure 10\n (left panel) in which the satellites with elevation angles smaller than 10 degrees are excluded. There are 31 GPS satellites (i.e. \n
\n
In the following we present precision analyses on the
Before discussing the precision performance of the CKF solutions, we first compare the network-based (central) TEC solutions with the solutions that are obtained by the data of one single-receiver only (referred to as the local solutions). At the filter initialization, the standard-deviations of the local TEC solutions are \n
\n
With the results of \nFigure 11\n, we observed that the central TEC solutions considerably outperform their local counterparts in the sense of delivering more precise outcomes, i.e. the local-to-central standard-deviation ratios are considerably larger than 1. We now employ the CKF for each node (receiver) \n
Time-series of the CKF-to-central standard-deviation ratios corresponding to the TEC parameters
Next to the solutions of the TEC parameters \n
Boxplots of the required time (minutes) to have between-satellite DCBs solutions with standard-deviation smaller than 0.5 nanoseconds. The performance of the CKF of each node (receiver) is compared to that of the central filter (Cen.). In each boxplot, the horizontal lines from bottom to top show the minimum (black), 25th percentile (blue), median (green), 75th percentile (blue) and maximum (black) of the stated required time. The data sending rate is set to
In this contribution we reviewed Kalman filtering in its information form and showed how the additive measurement update (28) can be realized by employing average-consensus rules, even when
We developed a three-step recursion of the CKF error variance matrix (\nFigure 7\n). This recursion conveys useful information about the precision performance of the local filters \n
The second author is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Federation Fellowship (project number FF0883188). This support is gratefully acknowledged.
\nThe heart has an intrinsic conduction system that consists of specialized cells. It can spontaneously depolarize to initiate heartbeats from its rhythmic pacing discharge and coordinate heart electrical activity [1, 2]. The sinoatrial (SA) node is the first pacemaker that starts the electrical impulse resulting in the depolarization and contraction of the atrium. This electrical impulse is distributed throughout the heart through the internodal pathway, atrioventricular (AV) node, AV bundle, branches of the bundle of HIS, and through Purkinje fibers. Without the extrinsic (hormonal and neural) influences, the SA node creates about 100 beats per minute; however, to meet the body’s oxygen requirement under variable conditions, cardiac output (and thus heartbeat) must vary. This is where the autonomic nervous system (ANS) of the heart plays a role [2].
The heart receives extensive innervation by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of the ANS. The cardiac efferent preganglionic sympathetic neurons originate from the lateral horns of the spinal cord’s upper thoracic segment (T1-T4) and leave the spinal cord through the ventral (anterior) roots of the corresponding spinal cord nerves. As they reach the superior cervical, medial cervical, cervicothoracic/stellate, and thoracic ganglia of the paravertebral sympathetic nerve chain (SNC), they synapse onto the postganglionic nerves, namely the cardiac cervical nerves and cardiac thoracic nerves, which travel to the heart along with the epicardial vascular structure [1, 2, 3, 4].
The cardiac efferent preganglionic parasympathetic neurons originate in the medulla oblongata’s dorsal motor nucleus and nucleus ambiguus. They travel bilaterally within two vagal nerves and synapse onto the postganglionic nerve fibers in the vagal nerve ganglia located in the cardiac plexus, at the base of the heart [3, 4]. Cardiac plexus consists of a complex network of various nerves including the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and cardiac nerves as well as some tiny parasympathetic ganglia to control cardiac activity. The cardiac plexus is divided into two parts: (1) the superficial part located in the aortic arch concavity and (2) the deep part located between the trachea and the aortic arch. Both parts are connected to provide cardiac autonomic innervation [3].
Most of the cardiac afferent fibers travel in sympathetic cardiac nerves. The first-order sympathetic-sensitive afferent fibers have their cell bodies in the first 4–5 thoracic ganglia. They synapse with the second-order fibers in the spinal cord, where they cross the median line and ascend along the anterior spinothalamic tract (ventral spinothalamic fasciculus) to the posteroventral nucleus in the thalamus. Parasympathetic afferent fibers in the heart primarily function as a mediator for some cardiac reflexes, responding to activation of stretch receptors in the atria (Bainbridge reflex) and left ventricle (Jarisch-Bezold reflex) [3].
The ANS influences most heart functions by affecting the SA node, AV node, myocardium, and small and large vessel walls [2]. The ANS regulates heart rate (chronotropic effect), myocardial cells contractility (inotropic effect), signal conductivity (dromotropic effect), excitability (bathmotropic effect), as well as coronary vascular tone and myocardial blood flow. As the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have opposite effects on heart functions, the final effect on the heart is the net balance between the two systems. However, their influence differs by their distribution in the heart [2, 3].
The sympathetic system carries an excitatory effect on heart functions and is activated in emergency, stressful situations, or any other situations that require increase of cardiac output; therefore, it is also known as “fight or flight response” [2]. It controls heart function mainly in three effects: (1) It speeds up the depolarization of the sinus node increasing heart rate (positive chronotropic), (2) increases conduction velocity in the AV junction, atria, and ventricles (positive dromotropic effect), (3) increases myocardial contractility both in the atria and ventricle (positive inotropic effect) [2, 3]. Most of these effects are mainly mediated by the β1 adrenergic receptors as they predominate in healthy human hearts, whereas β2 receptors are primarily concentrated in the atria and ventricles thus their functions are linked to the inotropic effect. Both β1 and β2 receptors are distributed in all regions of the heart, nevertheless [3]. In addition, sympathetic activation also promotes constriction of the coronary arteries leading to an increase of cardiac output, which is mediated by α1 and α2 receptors, and dilatation mediated by β2 receptors in the coronary arteries [2, 3].
Conversely, the parasympathetic (vagal) system has inhibitory effects on heart functions. It is activated under restful conditions and is therefore known as rest and digest response [2]. It slows down sinus node activity resulting in a decrease of heart rate, slows down electrical conduction through the AV nodes and conduction system, causing delayed conduction and AV block, decreases atria contractility, and promotes dilatation of the coronary arteries, which result in decreased cardiac output. On atrial cells, parasympathetic activation decreases contractility yet shortens the action potential duration causing an increase in conduction speed, thus leading to reentrant tachyarrhythmias. As parasympathetic fibers are predominantly distributed to the atria while poorly distributed to the ventricles, parasympathetic activation does not significantly affect intraventricular conduction and ventricles’ contractility. The parasympathetic system influences the heart through the M2 receptor and the coronary arteries through M3 receptors [3].
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (Ach) and are called cholinergic; however, their postganglionic release different neurotransmitters. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine (which resembles epinephrine/adrenalin, thus referred to as adrenergic) while most parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release acetylcholine.3
ANS abnormalities in terms of anatomy and physiology can cause various heart abnormalities. ANS abnormalities are associated with electrical abnormalities which cause heart problems. This can cause a variety of manifestations. In this section, we will discuss more the electrical abnormalities associated with ANS abnormalities in the heart.
Ventricular arrhythmia remains a common cause of sudden cardiac death in myocardial infarction (MI) patients. Following a myocardial ischemic injury, sympathetic axon fibers within the scar become dysfunctional, degenerate, and die. However, contrary to the central neurons, peripheral neurons commonly regenerate back to their target, a phenomenon called nerve sprouting [4, 5]. This efferent sympathetic regeneration is triggered by nerve growth factor (NGF), which levels are found to be increased after MI, and causes hyperinnervation in the infracted are of the heart thereby promoting ventricular arrhythmia. Studies using 123I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) have shown evidence of sympathetic reinnervation in the infracted hearts after MI. A study conducted by Cao et al. [6] demonstrated that the high density of nerve fibers was significantly higher in the peripheral to the area of necrotic tissue of failed hearts. Chen and colleagues also support this phenomenon’s discovery that infusion of NGF to the stellate ganglion causes an increase of nerve density and QT interval prolongation, therefore increases and prolongs ventricular arrhythmias [4, 6, 7, 8]. Furthermore, there have been findings that demonstrate a notable decrease in parasympathetic tone in patients with comorbidities (such as coronary artery disease, MI, and diabetes) during sleep despite the unopposed sympathetic activity, creating a higher risk of ventricular arrhythmia. Another electrical phenomenon following MI that leads to ventricular arrhythmia is an occurrence of heterogeneous distribution of hyperinnervation of sympathetic nerves, particularly in the border zone (despite the remaining viable myocardial cells), which can lead to impulses and therefore initiate tachyarrhythmia. On another note, interventions that reduce sympathetic nerve activity have been shown to reduce the risk of arrhythmias in MI patients, both in humans and animals [6]. Some therapies that are suggested to reduce the risk of ventricular arrhythmia include cervical sympathectomy and spinal cord stimulation (inhibiting cardiac sympathetic tone while enhancing parasympathetic tone). Future therapies may focus on preventing nerve sprouting by inhibiting nerve growth or attaining regional cardiac denervation by ganglia ablation [4].
The influence of ANS on the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation (AF) had been discovered since 1978 [3]. In the beginning, AF was thought to be a sympathetic-mediated phenomenon; however, studies have shown that sympathetic and parasympathetic systems may contribute to the pathogenesis. Sympathetic-mediated arrhythmia may occur because of β-adrenergic signal pathway activation, which increases Ca2+ transient. On the other hand, parasympathetic activation through Ach stimulation on muscarinic receptors (mainly M2 in the heart) causes a shortened duration of action potential (thus increasing conduction speed) in atria, causing arrhythmias [4, 9]. Studies by Scherf et al. suggested that local application of either aconitine or Ach in the heart may lead to rapid focal firing or AF, which could be terminated by removing the focal source of firing [10, 11]. Whether an AF episode is predominately sympathetic-mediated or parasympathetic-mediated may depend on comorbidities; lone and nocturnal AF (where parasympathetic is profoundly dominant) in patients with normal hearts is usually parasympathetic-mediated whereas AF in patients with organic heart disease or disorders such as phaeochromocytoma or hyperthyroidism is usually sympathetic-mediated. In addition, parasympathetic-mediated AF episodes usually occur weekly, predominantly at night, last for a few hours, and are preceded by progressive bradycardia. In contrast, sympathetic-mediated AF episodes usually occur during the daytime, during exercise, or under stress. The current primary endpoint target of the ablation procedure is the pulmonary vein isolation (PVI), thereby predisposing to reentrant phenomena and high density of nerves. However, studies have demonstrated that direct stimulation to the ganglionated plexus could result in AF, whereas ablation of the corresponding plexus may reverse the alteration of conduction speed [3, 8]. Multiple clinical studies were conducted to compare whether combining ganglionated plexus (GP) ablation with PVI or PVI alone is more effective in suppressing AF, one of which is done by Katritsis et al. l who found that combination of GP ablation and PVI showed higher success compared to PVI alone [9].
Long QT syndrome (LQTS) is characterized by prolonged ventricular repolarization (prolonged QT interval), leading to polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and, therefore, risk of sudden death. It is a heterogeneous syndrome resulting from several cardiac ion channels. Arrhythmias in LQTS patients are often emotional or physical stress-related, and sympathetic activation has been suggested as an important triggering factor. However, the response to this trigger may vary depending on LQTS syndrome. For instance, LQTS type 1 has more prominent and prolonged effects from sympathetic activation than LQTS type 2 [4]. A study has been conducted by Shamsuzzaman [12] to record sympathetic activity using muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) and skin sympathetic nerve activity (SNA). The result of the study demonstrated that in LQTS patients, the baseline of MSNA is very low and further accompanied by slower heart rates and reduced LF. In contrast, the baseline of skin SNA is normal, indicating that LQTS patients have region-specific decreased cardiac sympathetic drive. In such a setting, surges of sympathetic stimulation caused by emotional or physical stress may lead to cardiovascular events [12].
Brugada syndrome is an inherited channel disorder characterized by sodium channel abnormality (and thus ECG abnormalities) that predisposes to ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death despite structurally typical hearts [4, 13, 14]. Another exciting characteristic of Brugada syndrome is that ventricular fibrillation and sudden death mainly occur at rest or during sleep, which is the period of parasympathetic dominance. Furthermore, clinical characteristics and typical ECG changes can be variable over time and are influenced by external factors, such as exercise and pharmacological intervention. Exercise can diminish ECG signs of Brugada syndrome, while on the contrary, drugs that interact with the ANS innervation can unmask or intensify the signs. For this occurrence, studies have suggested that the ANS is involved in the natural history of the syndrome. Prior studies have shown a sympathetic-parasympathetic tone imbalance in patients with Brugada syndrome. A study by Wichter et al. demonstrated a reduced I-MIBG reuptake, either because of a reduced number or function of efferent sympathetic neurons and a reduced transporter capacity for NE reuptake, which indicated a presynaptic adrenergic dysfunction [14]. According to the authors of this study, this reduced sympathetic tone may impact protein phosphorylation and spatial calcium heterogeneity, thus leading to arrhythmias, especially in the downregulation of adrenergic activity or in parasympathetic dominance [14].
Besides electrical abnormalities, ANS also correlates with ischemic heart disease. Following a transmural myocardial infarction (MI), sympathetic fibers within the scar become denervated and die. However, denervation also occurs in the non-infarcted sites distal to the infarction early after occlusion, resulting in a neurotransmission disruption, nerve sprouting, and denervation supersensitivity even in the viable myocardium cells. Not all sites are denervated equally, this disruption leads to a heterogeneous change of effective refractory period (ERP). Together with decreased protection from vagal denervation, this leads to ventricular arrhythmias [4].
As with heart failure, myocardial dysfunction caused by cardiac insult activates neurohormonal mechanisms, including activation of the sympathetic system and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) axis. Increased activation of the sympathetic system causes an increase in NE delivery to myocardial cells. High local catecholamine level leads to ventricular hypertrophy and increase susceptibility to arrhythmia, which worsens the heart’s function and, in turn, further increases sympathetic tone [15]. This activation is initially essential to compensate for the weakened myocardial function; however, in the long term, this activation leads to further deterioration of cardiac function, worsening heart failure, and cardiac decompensation. Besides sympathetic activation, there has been evidence of reduced parasympathetic function, which further worsens heart failure. Heart failure can also cause denervation, creating nerve sprouting and electrical remodeling, leading to ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death [4, 16].
Following electrical and ischemic instability, ANS also have a direct effect on action potential duration restitution. The destabilization of activation wavefronts is associated with the alteration in action potential duration (APD) resulting from the alteration of the previous diastolic interval, called restitution. Steepened APD restitution curve slope has been associated with complex, unstable dynamics, while a decrease of the steepness of the curve by drugs may suppress ventricular arrhythmia [17, 18, 19]. A study in porcine models by Taggart et al. has shown that sympathetic stimulation with adrenaline (α – and β-adrenergic agonist) steepens the APD restitution curve [20]. The same effect was confirmed in humans with normal ventricles by a more recent study using isoprenaline (β-adrenergic agonist) and adrenaline, demonstrating that both adrenaline and isoprenaline steepen the APD restitution curve at the minimum range of 40 ms. This evidence suggests a mechanism in which the sympathetic nervous system is contributed to inducing arrhythmia and ventricular fibrillation [16]. Additionally, a study conducted in an isolated rabbit heart model demonstrated that parasympathetic activation exerts a contradictory effect, reducing the steepness of the slope, thereby suppressing ventricular fibrillation [21].
By understanding the mechanism of influence of the anatomy and physiology of the ANS heart and its influence on various heart abnormalities, we can determine the appropriate therapeutic approaches. Therapeutic approaches in neurocardiology fall into two focuses: (1) applying novel treatment and (2) interaction of non-drug and multiple drugs treatments. Patients with cardiomyopathy are suggested to have increased sympathetic innervation and decreased parasympathetic innervation; therefore, interventions aiming to reduce sympathetic tone and thereby increasing parasympathetic tone are beneficial to reduce the susceptibility of ventricular arrhythmia sudden cardiac death. Some options of approaches include the following options [4].
Multiple studies have shown that in patients with heart failure, pharmacologically inhibition of sympathetic activity may reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death. Current pharmacological therapies include β-blockers (β-receptor antagonist) and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I), which are the mainstay approaches for early hypertension and other cardiovascular disease associated with dysautonomia [22]. Surgical techniques, for instance, sympathectomy, reduce the risk of comorbidities in patients with hypertension and reduce the incidence of ventricular arrhythmia [22].
Pharmacological therapies such as β-blockers, ACE-I, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB), aldosterone antagonists, and statins are proven to decrease the risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. In addition, these drugs also provide modulations of the ANS by decreasing sympathetic activity and increasing parasympathetic activity. Through baroreflex, Angiotensin II decreases vagal bradycardia. This effect can be reversed with ACEI and ARB by increasing parasympathetic output to the heart. In an experimental study using rat models with ischemic cardiomyopathy, aldosterone antagonist and ACEI showed a decrease of myocardial NE content, demonstrating an antisympathetic effect. Statin therapies show several mechanisms in normalizing sympathetic activity and cardiovascular reflex regulation, such as increased baroreceptor sensitivity for heart rate control, reducing angiotensin II-induced sympathetic responses, decreasing baseline of renal sympathetic activity, and downregulating mRNA and protein expression of Angiotensin II type I receptors as well as NADP oxidase subunits of the heart [4].
Biventricular pacing has been suggested to improve hemodynamic status in patients with intraventricular conduction delay and reduced ejection fraction and decreased sympathetic tone in patients with hypertension, thus shifting the autonomic balance of the heart to a less sympathetic more parasympathetic profile [4]. Proper cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT), in the short term, results in left ventricular systolic function improvement and mitral regurgitation reduction, providing a more optimal ventricular filling. Over a more extended period, CRT promotes left ventricular reverse remodeling, leading to significant functional capacity, survival, and quality of life improvements [23].
Several measurements that can be used to index parasympathetic function/activity include resting heart rate, heart rate recovery (heart rate decrease following termination of exercise), heart rate variability, and baroreflex sensitivity (the responsiveness of the cardiovascular system to blood pressure changes). Several studies have shown that reduced parasympathetic function is associated with mortality and leads to risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Those risk factors include biological factors such as hypertension, diabetes, abnormal cholesterol; lifestyle factors such as tobacco use, physical inactivity, and overweight; and non-modifiable factors such as age and family history [4].
Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) is a non-pharmacological intervention to normalize autonomic imbalance, directly stimulating the vagus nerve to improve parasympathetic tone and reflex. VNS has been shown to improve left ventricular hemodynamics and increase heart rate variability. VNS also results in better vagal reflex and nitric oxide expression, improvement of the renin-angiotensin system, inflammatory cytokines modulation, reduced heart rate, risk of ventricular arrhythmias, and mortality [24]. A recent multinational, randomized clinical trial called INOVATE-HF (Increase of vagal tone in CHF) demonstrated that VNS significantly resulted in favorable effects on quality of life, NYHA functional class, and 6-min walking distance. However, the ventricular end-systolic volume index was not significantly different [25].
Renal efferent signals regulate renin secretion, water and sodium retention, and intrarenal vascular distribution. Efferent signals (as a response to sensory signals from renal) activate sympathetic fibers, inhibit parasympathetic fibers, and cause a release of catecholamines, which in pathology conditions such as myocardial infarction or heart failure, can increase the risk of arrhythmia [26]. Catheter-based renal denervation (RDN) is a neuromodulation treatment that includes catheter-based ablation to the renal artery wall, thus reducing the afferent and efferent sympathetic activity in the kidney and globally [26, 27, 28]. It has been used to treat drug-resistant hypertension. However, the role of RDN has also been studied as adjunctive therapy in patients with ventricular tachycardia and heart failure. By reducing circulating catecholamines, RDN reduces the electrical heterogeneity in the scarred myocardium and border zone regions and thus decreases susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death [26]. RDN has also been suggested to reduce blood pressure, reduce NT-proBNP, and improve NYHA class symptoms in patients with heart failure. Therefore, RDN is suggested to be favorably impactful for hypertension, MI, and heart failure [28].
The heart receives extensive innervation by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of the ANS. The sympathetic system carries an excitatory effect on heart functions, while the parasympathetic system has inhibitory effects on heart functions. ANS abnormalities associated with electrical abnormalities can cause a variety of heart manifestations, including ventricular arrhythmias, atrial fibrillation, Long QT Syndrome, and Brugada Syndrome. Besides electrical abnormalities, ANS also correlates with ischemic heart disease. Following electrical and ischemic instability, ANS also have a direct effect on action potential duration restitution. By understanding the mechanism of influence of the anatomy and physiology of the ANS heart and its influence on various heart abnormalities, we can determine the appropriate therapeutic approaches. Therapeutic approaches in neurocardiology fall into two focuses: applying novel treatment and interaction of non-drug and multiple drugs treatments, such as selective sympathetic blockade, cardiac autonomics modulation therapies, resynchronization therapy parasympathetic function mortality and cardiovascular risk, vagal stimulation, and renal denervation.
No one to acknowledge.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
neurotransmitters in ANS the autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic components electrical heart abnormalities which are generally characterized by arrhythmias on electrocardiogram findings heart abnormalities based on block of the cardiac conduction system in the AV node heart node located at the atrioventricular junction compensating reaction occurring in an increase in heart rate after an increase in cardiac preload compensating reaction occurring in an increase in heart rate after an increase in cardiac preload excessive innervation bradycardia, hypotension, and apnea heart abnormalities in the form of damage to heart cells due to lack of blood supply to the cells concerned the branch of neurology that studies the nervous system of the heart The New York Heart Association’s (NYHA) functional classification system assists in classifying individuals with congestive heart failure based on their symptoms. a treatment used to treat atrial fibrillation, an irregular heart rhythm. a cluster of cells in the right atrium. These cells can deliver electrical impulses to the heart muscle cells, causing them to contract regularly and autonomously. ganglionated chain from the skull base to the coccyx refers to any procedure that stimulates the vagus nerve, whether physical or electronic.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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